Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

Department of Educational Planning & Management

Assessment of Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy

from Quality Perspective:
The case of emerging regions students in Addis Ababa
University

Kumlachew Teferi Kassa

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

December, 2016

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 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational Planning & Management

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Kumlachew Teferi, entitled:

Assessment of Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy from Quality perspective:
The case of Emerging regions students in Addis Ababa University
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in

Educational Leadership and Management complies with the regulations of the university and

meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.

Signed by the Examining Committee:

Examiner

External Examiner_________________Signature __________Date________

Internal Examiner__________________Signature _________Date___________

Advisor: Kenenissa Dabi Signature___________Date_________

__________________________________________________

Graduate Program Coordinator

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 Abstract

This study focuses on assessment of Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy/criteria and
its impact on Quality. The aim of this study was to assess the challenges of Higher Education
Admission policy and the impact that can be seen on quality of higher education admission or to
the Universities. The data was collected from a total of 45 participants which are drown from the
Ministry of Education (MoE) responsible unit, Ethiopian National Examination Agency (NEAEA)
experts and higher officials, AAU- School of Law teachers and focused group higher education
teachers, and students who joined at AAU-School of Law in 2006 E.C. in regular program from
emerging regions. Qualitative data was collected from those participants using open-end
questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) and document analysis, and analyzed
using categories as a case study of the subject. This study showed that the higher education
admission policy lacked quality as a criterion. The study identified that the current HE
admission policy is not fair and consistent because it gives too much attention on quantity than
quality. Moreover, the first base to place students to the HE is intake capacity of universities as a
whole. If the universities have vacant rooms, incompetent students who got below average will
be assigned. Moreover quality input is missed in the HE admission policy by the concern of
accomplishing affirmative action. The research stakeholders did not give attention to the
implementation of affirmative action to start from the very elementary and after students joined
university to provide special supports. On the basis of the findings of the study, the current
overall Ethiopian higher education admission policy from quality perspective and supports
rendered to students admitted to university on the basis of affirmative action is poor.

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 Acknowledgements

The time comes after a long journey of working this thesis and I am very much delighted to
acknowledge all the participants directly or indirectly for assisting the work as a whole. All
mighty God is the first since I believe that He gave me all health and potential to alive and work
it. My beloved wife, Maheder Shiferaw is the one who should be appreciated for her patience,
assisting on typing and encouraging me to bring my study to completion.

Kenenissa Dabi, adviser of this research deserves to be acknowledged for sharing his valuable
knowledge, patience and advice during all the work. to MoE staffs at different position, NEAEA
experts and officials as a whole, AAU – Law school furthermore, I would like to express my
gratitude teachers and Dean‘s office secretaries, and emerging region students,

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................................. ii
TABLE OF CONTENT ..............................................................................................................................................IV

ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................................V
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...................................................................................................................... 10
1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ..................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 13

2.1 HIGHER EDUCATION ................................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 POLICY ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3 FACTORS OR ELEMENTS TO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION IN THE PROCESS OF DETERMINING POLICY ... 16
2.4 ADMISSION CRITEREA IN ETHIOPIA ........................................................................................................... 18
2.5 SPECIAL SUPPORTS FOR EMERGING REGIONS............................................................................................ 19
2.6 POLICIES FOR ADMISSION TO HIGHER EDUCATION .................................................................................... 20
2.7 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION POLICIES ............................................. 21
2.7.1 INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS ADMISSION POLICY REVIEW ................................................................. 21
2.7.2 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AUTHORITY ................................................................................................. 21
2.7.3 INTERNATIONAL POLICY GOALS ....................................................................................................... 22
2.7.4 HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS (HEAR) GLOBALLY ACCEPTED .............................. 23
2.7.5 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION STANDARDS INDEX ................... 24
2.7.6 DEVELOPED COUNTRIES PENALTIES FOR NOT MEETING THE STANDARDS OF ADMISSION ................ 25
2.7.7 WORLDWIDE ENROLLMENT LIMITS ON ADMISSION STANDARDS ..................................................... 25
2.8 ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION AND ADMISSION HISTORY ....................................................................... 27
2.8.1 CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES OF ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION ........................................ 28
2.8.2 EQUITY ............................................................................................................................................ 28
2.8.3 ACCESS ............................................................................................................................................ 30
2.8.4 DEBATE ON ACCESS ......................................................................................................................... 33
2.8.5 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION...................................................................................................................... 34
2.8.6 RELEVANCE ..................................................................................................................................... 36
2.9 QUALITY EDUCATION................................................................................................................................ 40
2.10 QUALITY INPUTS FOR EDUCATION............................................................................................................. 41
2.11 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN RELATED TO QUALITY.................................................................................... 44

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 46
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 DATA SOURCES ......................................................................................................................................... 47
3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................................................... 48
3.4 DATA GATHERING TOOLS .......................................................................................................................... 49
3.4.1 QUESTIONNAIRES ............................................................................................................................ 50
3.4.2 INTERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................... 50
3.4.3 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................................... 51
3.4.4 FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) ............................................................................................... 51
3.5 PROCEDURES OF DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................................... 52
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................ 53
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................................... 55
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ............................................................................... 55

4.1 ANALYSIS ON ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION POLICIES AND ITS APPLICATION ....................... 59
4.4 REVIEW ON QUALITY OF INPUTS TO THE UNIVERSITIES AND EMERGING REGIONS STUDENTS PLACEMENT . 66
4.5 ASSESSMENT OF UNIVERSITIES ACADEMIC SUPPORT TO AFFIRMATIVE ACTION BENEFICIARY STUDENTS .... 77
4.6 POLICY CONSISTENCY ............................................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................... 85
5.1 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................ 85
5.2 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................ 91
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 92
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................. 94
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................................... 98

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 ACRONYMS

AAU Addis Ababa University

ABEC Alternative Basic Education Centers

ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education

EGSECE Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination

EHEECE Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination

ESCE Education Strategy Center Ethiopia

ESDP Education Sector Development Program

ESLCE Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination

ETP Education and Training Policy

FAL Functional Adult Literacy

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GEQIP General Education Quality Improvement Package

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

HE Higher Education

HEAR Higher Education Admission Requirements

HEIs Higher Education Institutions

HERQA Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MoE Ministry of Education

NEAEA National Education Assessment & Examination Agency

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QRAA Quality and Relevance Assurance Agency

REB Regional Education Bureau

UCAA University College of Addis Ababa

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

USA United States of America

WB World Bank

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains background of the study, statement of the problem, general and specific
objectives, significances, scope, limitations, and definition of terms and organization of the study
that focuses on the higher education admission policy and its impact on quality. All these parts
are treated one after the other. ―Policy‖ and ―Criteria‖ are used interchangeably in some part of
the study. While the terms ―Higher Education‖ and ―University‖ also substitutable in this study.

1.1 Background of The Study

Higher education has a key role to play in providing the leadership and necessary personnel for
all other sectors of education in the future teachers, researchers, scientists, computer specialists,
agronomists, doctors and the like (UNESCO 1996). Public interest in higher education is also
combined with concerns about the efficiency, quality and effectiveness (Ase Gornitzka, 2005, p.
36)

To produce such educated personnel in the higher education for the country, clear and consistent
admission criteria or policy should be developed by authorized body. Intake capacity of
universities, social and political factors, and other related policies are also to be considered in
this process. When policy makers are developing the higher education admission policy, it is
expected to give high emphasis for quality of inputs. The growth of higher education sector in
Ethiopia is a dramatic expansion especially from the 1991 onwards. From an annual intake of
nearly 5000 students to the public institution regular university programs during the beginning of
1990s, it reaches to 79500 at the beginning of 2008/9 academic year. Moreover these public
universities are growing from 5 to 33 from early 1990s to 2010. Conversely these increases of
students number which is inputs and the number of universities could not maintain the quality of
higher education. This paper therefore tries to see how quality is considered in the higher
education admission criteria.

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Quality is a basic question that rose by the society and the government every time. In actual fact
when the higher education expansion is very high, the quality of education may not be improved
as required so that it will be difficult for the development of the economy and the society. (Mulu
Nega, 2009)

The FDRE – ETP (1994) of the Federl Democratic Republic of Ethiopia says Education plays a
role in the promotion of respect for human rights and democratic values, creating the condition
for equality, mutual understanding and cooperation among people. Education does not operate in
isolation; rather it has to be integrated with research, practice and development to contribute
towards an all rounded development of society.

To share this right equally for the society, the higher education admission policy should give an
equal opportunity for all without favoring for some group and missing quality input in every
situation. Some challenges and unnecessary generalizations can be seen in this policy applying
process due to gender, region, ethnicity, political, economic and social disbursement and
backgrounds. The study will try to see this part and to what extent it affects some society and the
quality of inputs or freshman students who are admitting to higher education for undergraduate
program at AAU. Students came from the four emerging regions that are Afar, Somali,
Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella are the main focusing groups in this study. The researcher
focused to these group by assuming the teaching-learning process is more difficult from
language, culture and social point of view.

In the past years (from 1991-2013) the higher education admission policy has been changed
repeatedly and this is happened due to various reasons and that might be seen in a very limited
way of this study. Technology change and other major factors and policies like the expansion of
government Universities, the MDG and ESDPs can affect the admission policy. But without
these major factors, the policy should be consistent and the study also tries to see all these factors
and processes.

Before 1974, during the regime of Emperor Hailesilassie I, any student scored average of two
point out of five subjects (that includes English and Mathematics) in ESLCE had been placed to

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the university. After the fall of the Emperor, when students increased and scored over the intake
capacity of universities, MoE started increasing entrance policy/criteria from 2.00 to 2.2, 2.4, ….
to 3.6 and above.

The policy and minimum entrance grade for regular undergraduate program was frequently
changing during the Derg regime (1974 to 1991) due to various situations. For instance, in the
mid of 1980‘s many students were coming back from two years of National Military service and
for them, the government gave a chance to join in available universities who had 1.6 result and
above in ESLCE. In those years, other students who were not giving a national military service,
entrance criteria was increased from 2.2 to 2.8 for diploma program, and from 2.4 to 3.0 for
degree program. Students placement base is the intake capacity of the government universities
available in Ethiopia and this base works until now to reconcile the number of students against
the intake capacity. Currently, these government universities are grown from 3 (Addis Ababa,
Alamaya and Asamara Universities) to 33 especially after the years of 1991 to 2013.

1.2 Statement of the problem

To select the higher education admitting students, ESLCE was given for many years to
secondary school students who are completing grade twelve study. This exam was started in
1946 and was given together with London University General Certificate Examination. The main
purpose of this exam was to identify qualified students who could attend to higher education.
Moreover this exam was using as the certificate of completing secondary school (grade 12).
During that starting time, the university had the authority to select students who can admit to
AAU. It was not only by ESLCE result but also by the merit of students. But this authority works
only few years and transferred from the university to the MoE and it works until today.
From 1995 E.C., the secondary education exam started to be given in grade 10 level and a two
years of preparatory study to admit to the HE emerged. Finally the higher education admission
examination will be given after the two years study is completed. (Mulu Nega et al, 2009, pp. 14-
24) .
Multiple problems have been noticed in the higher education sector of Ethiopia. Such problems
may primarily be related to access, deterioration on quality, efficiency, relevance and other
factors which could be connected to social, political or economic grounds. Legal and policy

3
frameworks and the corresponding actions that should be taken by the government for the
progressive realization of equal opportunity of the society in education. It also implies the need
for a comprehensive knowledge on the part of the legislature, policy makers and the duty bearers
in general understanding of their role better to act accordingly.

The concern should primarily start from knowing the policy says and its practice, how it is
consistent and what other policies can affect it, how quality students are selected to be admitted
to the higher education. Hence, citizens, concerned personnel and policy makers should give due
consideration to know what major factors should be considered and what disadvantages or
challenges are observed on this policy. Who are the corresponding policy bearer, how this policy
is incorporated in the country‘s educational system and how such policies are being
implemented. Moreover what policy problems slowed down to the teachers and students,
institutions and the government from implementation and what measures have been taken to
achieve or at least to guarantee the future realization process and consistency should be studied
by other researchers and I would like to give an open window for interested researchers.

Without awareness and understanding of a policy, implementation is a very difficult and

unattainable process to achieve a specific goal. Higher education admission policy is also a
bridge to determine on the students admission and universities input. Secondary school national
entrance examination result of students determine their admission to higher education but how it
gives more value to quality in related to other setting of preconditions can be studied. This idea
might be the concern of some individuals but research should be taken place and this paper also
will try to asses this portion. Moreover, incompetent students admission to higher education
could be the problem for undergraduate teachers by having unequal capacity and understanding
in the class so that the policy will be assessed.

Policy paradigms should be consistent with the complexity of reality. It is also a plan or course
of action, as of a government or business intended to influence and determine decisions, actions ,
and other matters. It will be difficult to manage and have long run plans unless there is a policy
consistency. The policy need to be proactive before any cost and time spent. The researcher will
also study and recommend the proposal to be read by any interested community especially the

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Ministry of Education higher education admission policy officials as response to equity,
affirmative action, relevance and quality issues in HE, and the concerned bodies since it will
highlight the basic statement of higher education admission policy to improve the quality of
education and relevance. (Hayden, 2006)

Without awareness and understanding of a policy, implementation is a very difficult and

unattainable process to achieve a specific goal. Higher education admission policy is also a
bridge to determine on the students admission and universities input. Secondary school national
entrance examination result of students determine their admission to higher education but how it
gives more value to quality in related to other setting of preconditions can be studied. This idea
might be the concern of some individuals but research should be taken place and this paper also
will try to asses this portion. Moreover, incompetent students admission to higher education
could be the problem for undergraduate teachers by having unequal capacity and understanding
in the class so that the policy will be assessed.

Policy paradigms should be consistent with the complexity of reality. It is also a plan or course
of action, as of a government or business intended to influence and determine decisions, actions ,
and other matters. It will be difficult to manage and have long run plans unless there is a policy
consistency. The policy need to be proactive before any cost and time spent. The researcher
also studied and recommend the proposal to be read by any interested community especially the
Ministry of Education higher education admission policy officials as response to equity,
affirmative action, relevance and quality issues in HE, and the concerned bodies since it will
highlight the basic statement of higher education admission policy to improve the quality of
education and relevance. (Hayden, 2006)

The higher education admission policy is one of the significant factors that decided on the next
educational life of individuals who are taking the secondary school national exam and an input
for higher education institutes or universities. The government of the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia has the policy makers for this specific task under the supervision of the
Ministry of Education. This study will examine how this policy being developed, what factors
are influence the policy, what are the strengths and weakness of the policy and its impact on

5
quality.
1. Does it give an equal opportunity for the whole society or it favors only for limited society
group or emerging regions?
2. Is quality given equal emphasis in the admission of HE as equity in relation to affirmative
action, relevancy and access?
3 Who are the focus groups currently available and disadvantages for the society? How
affirmative action is considered in relation to quality? will be seen.

It will also find out what factors hindered or limited the implementation process and what
measures are being taken currently or planed for future to assure the consistency realization and
quality improvement of such policy in the coming years. Its quality impact is also another point
from the criteria of the input or the teaching-learning process at the higher education level in
addition to admission criteria.
Accordingly, this study will try to find out what higher education admission policy awareness
have the society and what kind of problems are visible in policy making and its impact on
quality and affirmative actions with support during implementation at AAU.

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 1.3 Objective of the Study

In this part the researcher tries to see the objectives in two parts, general and specific.
Both emphasize how the study is important for the universities admission process,
policy makers for society, MoE, HE teachers, students, investors, to Ethiopia as a
developing country and to any beneficiary.

1.3.1 General Objectives

The general objective of this study were to assess Ethiopian higher education admission
policy and its impact on quality of higher education institute and the teaching-learning
process.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The study will attempt to:

1- Identify Ethiopian higher education admission policy and its impact on quality

2- Review frameworks of awareness and implementation on the higher education admission

policy and that correlates with some other policies like the education and training policy
and its process and consistency.

3- Investigate whether the higher education admission policy lacks quality as a criterion or
not.

4- Identify what factors or other policies affect the higher education admission policy and
methods to be corrected and affirmative action impacts and special support given to those
benefited students.

5- Identify implications of the strengths and weaknesses of this policy, fairness or its
judgmental conditions to stakeholders, and quality related criteria to be considered.

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 6- Get important information and interrelate with some developed countries policy and
experience.

7- See the overall activities of this policy in the past, current status and what the plan for
the future is and to give positive suggestion that can help the society as a whole.

1 What are the Higher Education admission policies/criteria in Ethiopia?

2 What are the institution/academic supports rendered to those students who admitted to
university on the basis of affirmative action and of such admission policy/criteria?

3 What are the challenges faced in the implementation of such admission policy/ criteria?
Does it consider quality of inputs to the universities? Does the policy favor to the
emerging region students in admission?

1.4 Significance of the Study

The economic and social development of any nation depends on education. Without quality of
education, the development of a nation cannot be visible or attain as required (Ethioembassy in
UK, 2013).
The study will have various significances for the Ethiopian community and specially for the
government, higher education institutes, policy makers and implementers, secondary schools,
teachers, students and other concerned people.
It may help higher education policy makers & HEIs understand the strengths & weaknesses of
the higher education admission policy

It may help higher education academic staff identify the gups existing in the higher education
admission policy.

It may serve as a stepping store for other interested researchers to conduct more comprehensive
research in the area of admission policy.

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 1.5 Delimitation of The Study
The research targets Ethiopian higher education admission policy focusing on undergraduate
admission policy from affirmative action factors as freshman students who are coming to AAU.
The university is selected as a purposive sampling for this study since it has many years
experience in the country and pioneer for government university in Ethiopia. It was also
delimited to assess more in the government university specifically at Addis Ababa University on
the recent procedure in relation to undergraduate students admission criteria and its selection
process from quality perspective.

The word ―quality‖ has multiple definitions but this research delimit to asses it only higher
education admitting students result quality. These students are input of university and the
research focused only on the admission policy from quality perspective. If the writer tries to
study the throughput and output quality, the thesis will not be manageable from its broadness. It
will focus on the admission selection criteria how the university selects quality input or students
and what government policy affects this process from quality concern.

To focus on Equity, access, affirmative action, relevance and quality from Ethiopian education
history and who is benefited from HE are important parts but due to time and broadness, the
researcher delimited only on the issues that related to quality in HE admission. Diversity issue of
the country and its multiculturalism aspect are also seen only from policy and practice in
admission point of view in the HE. Other researchers can study all those parts from HE input
perspective.

It is planned to focus only on Addis Ababa University in one purposely selected department
admitted students. With these criteria, instructors and students who will be selected by using
purposive sample Technique, to use our judgment to choose people that are presented or are
available that best meet our objectives or will fill questioners our target groups. (Neville, 2007,
p. 31) Policy makers from ministry of education, Ethiopian National Examination Agency
(NEAEA) policy processing group and AAU fresh man teachers were interviewed in a
manageable way. The study of this research focused on describing limitations of the policy and

9
its criteria applications for Ethiopian higher education admission, and how it affects the
university input quality. Instructors, policy makers and implementers, students and some society
group will be also studied in a limited or manageable way how they are affected from the quality
perspective of admission policy. Therefore the study was delimited to the students admission
policy from quality perspective of undergraduates program to AAU.

1.6 Limitations of the study

It is common having problems of availability of sufficient document and information from

studying offices or organizations. Availability of interviewees in the office with frequent visit is
another problem since most government officers have long hour meeting and travels. Moreover
the researcher also is not a full time or regular student hence getting leave from the employer is
another limitation to accomplish the thesis per the scheduled time. Electric power interruption,
unavailability of networks for internet and cell phones, roads blockage in most areas of Addis
Ababa for railway and roads construction are other problems that are not taking as an easy
obstacles that makes delay to collect the required data and interviews. Willingness or st,
transparency and patience on reply of such a very sensitive policy and quality issues might be
another challenges that the writer expecting to face as a problem. In the process of interview and
group discussion, lack of willingness to be recorded the voice of interviewee and discussion
participants was part of the challenge for the researcher.

The study method is fully qualitative using case study and it is another wing not having sufficient
references or samples of thesis in the library. Lack of English writing might be the reason, but it
needs to have research why students are now using qualitative research method. Almost all
students are not daring to work their thesis in pure qualitative method. References and sample
thesis are almost none in the AAU postgraduate library that was done in qualitative method. It
was part of the limitation to get the required information and sample but the researcher is highly
motivated to work in pure qualitative method as a pioneer.

Due to unavailability of sufficient record and data system in AAU and MoE, the research fails to

10
provide successfully graduated students from admitted in affirmative action program. Other
interested researcher can study it.

1.7 Operational Definitions of Terms

Different words can have various meanings but the researcher tries to define some words from
operational definitions for this study by referring scholars and using his own understanding.

Quality: is the level of fitness for purpose of students‘ needs and priorities as a result of learning
which can be measured by establishing an acceptable criteria and standards of good performance
which is the result. For this study, quality is the high scored result of students who are admitting
to higher education and their performance.

Quality of admitting students: is the value/worth of students‘ attainment or achievement of the

predetermined learning outcomes or the knowledge and skills students acquire as a result of
learning in which quality indicators like secondary education national exam result are given due
emphasis.
Admission : for this research is acceptance to enroll in the higher education institution for
study .

Admission Policy: The criteria which students will be assigned at higher education based on the
previous ESLCE or the recent preparatory final exam result.
Affirmative action: in this context, it is the activity of academic support programs for
traditionally disadvantaged groups such as female students, disadvantaged regions students with
special needs for emerging region students (Afar, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambela, and Somali
Regions).
Policy: The criteria of admission to higher education is stated as admission policy by considering
the word policy may refer to a particular law or measure even a government circular (Edward,
2005, p. 208). The researcher therefore took the title from this perspective that the circulars of
MoE about admission criteria are based in policy.
One of the basic problems involved in setting out the origins of policy is that we do not know

11
precisely what a policy is. The term ‗policy‘ can refer to a constructed unity imposed on diverse
and disparate measures—we may look at the totality of measures on, say, education and talk of
the ‗education policy‘ of a particular country. A book on ‗education policy‘ is further unlikely to
exclude the institutions that shape and deliver it. Or the term ‗policy‘ may refer to a particular
law or measure—perhaps even a government circular or criteria some other ‗soft law‘
instrument. (Edward, 2005, p. 208)
For this study, policy is the higher education admission criteria of Ethiopia. The term policy and
criteria could be using interchangeably.

Policy developers/ makers: are individuals or authorized personnel who assigned by the state
government to develop policies. In this paper, The MoE and NEAEA are the policy makers for
higher education admission considered in this scholar.

Policy implementers: any individual or organization that accomplish the policy is an

implementer. universities, policy developers, higher education students and the society are
implementers. But In this paper case to identify professionals in advocacy, NEAEA Experts and
selective AAU instructors who write about policy and admission are policy implementers. In
some explanations, these implementers may include with Policy makers or developers.

Higher Education: Institutions that provide post secondary education and produce human
resource, conduct research, and involve in community services. Tertiary level institutions that
should educate students to become well informed and deeply motivated citizens, who can think
critically, analyze problems of society, look for solutions to the problems of society, apply them
and accept social responsibilities through lectures, practical work, fieldwork, tutorials, etc. for
the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes. AAU is an example of higher education in
this study.

Emerging Regions: Four regions from Ethiopia that are considered as there had no sufficient
access for education. They are Afar, Somali, Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. It gives
an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what the current theories are and
hypotheses, questions are being asked, and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and
useful. Literature review is not primary research but it reports on other findings (Abiy and others
2009)

Consequently this Chapter deals with review of related literature used for resolving the study. It
tries to assess the higher education admission policy, its quality perspective, policy development
and implementation, success and failure of these policies and its impact and relation with other
policies.
To assess the Ethiopian higher education admission policy from quality perspective, the
researcher tried to see related literatures by reviewing each subject and correlating with different
scholars.

2.1 HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education is a post secondary education that produces human resource, conduct research,
and involve in community services. They are tertiary level institutions that should educate
students to become well informed and deeply motivated citizens, who can think critically,
analyze problems of society, look for solutions to the problems of society, apply them and accept
social responsibilities through lectures, practical work, fieldwork, tutorials, etc. for the
development of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Teaching, research and serving the community
are the major roles that play by higher education institutions and contribute to the sustainable
development and improvement of society as a whole (UNESCO, 2013).

The 21st century is the knowledge era driven and catalyzed by the increasing capability of
knowledge creation and knowledge distribution. The institutions that create, package, and

13
circulate knowledge, information, and data lie at the center of the knowledge market.
Universities, especially those in Africa, are core institutions that link nations to the emerging
global forces of the knowledge domain. Simply put, universities are highest institutions of
national treasure that shape competitiveness and interaction with increasingly competitive global
world (Damtew, 2014) .

2.2 Policy
The term is used in many different ways, varying from institution to institution, organization to
organization and sometimes within institutions and organizations as well. It can be hard to pin
down, but there are some central features common to all good policy. It states matters of
principle, focused on action, stating what is to be done and by whom. Also it is an authoritative
statement, made by a person or body with power to do so.

Above all, good policy is a tool which makes administration easier, and allows people to get on
with the organization‘s core business more efficiently and effectively(Sydney, 2012).

Policy makers Enables to make valid decisions about priorities of influences according to their
specific contexts. They also can suggest criteria for evaluating and judging the process of policy-
making and its potential for success. (Ben-Peretz, 2009 p. 129)

Hadad & Demisky (1984, as cited in Selashi 2001) a policy is "an explicit or implicit decision or
group of decisions, which may set out directives for guiding future decision, or initiate, sustain or
retard action, or guide the implementation of previous decisions". Policies establish the
framework lJ1 which the operating staff at each level doing different activity makes decisions.

Policy is a plan of action used by the Ministry of Education to set out clear rules and expectation
for the delivery of programs and services to the public.

Policies come from legislation or from decisions made by elected officials, such as Ministers and
School Trustees, or public servants and school administrators. It also can be communicated
through various instruments, including: policy documents, laws, contracts, partnerships, the

14
funding formula, government direction such as the throne speech, and many others. Policy can
also be communicated informally through correspondences.

A policy outlines what a government ministry hopes to achieve and the methods and principles it
will use to achieve them. It states the goals of the ministry. A policy document is not a law but it
will often identify new laws needed to achieve its goals.

Laws set out standards, procedures and principles that must be followed. If a law is not followed,
those responsible for breaking them can be prosecuted in court.

So, policy sets out the goals and planned activities of a ministry and department but it may be
necessary to pass a law to enable government to put in place the necessary institutional and legal
frameworks to achieve their aims. Laws must be guided by current government policy. So that
laws and policies has to go by reconciling the process of action to be done.

Policy is a course or principle of action, adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or

individual. (Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary).

Rue and Byars (1986: 133) defined policies as general and broad guides to actions. As to the said
authorities policies may constrain or speed up attainment of objectives. Future strategies, plans.
Perations and activities are derived from policies. Monhan & Hengst (1982), Chandan (1995).
and Lenotides (1982) explained policies as guides or direction giving statements used to make
future decisions. Policies are nothing but guidelines to actions. Policymaking is "shaping needs
and formulating structures" and involves many things. Policies are documents of intentions and
objectives. Based on the intent and objective, a strategy is developed showing long-term
development targets.

A body to make a policy could be from the bureaucracy, from those with the political power
or a combination of the two. Policies may be made arbitrarily or with reason. They may
originate from TOP to descend or from BOTTOM to ascend. External factors and forces
influence policy making by supplying or withholding aid. Whatever the case may be however,
policies are what those with the political power perceive, sense and take step to make things
happen as they intend them to be.

15
Implementation on the other hand is putting a policy into effect. It is changing the substance to
practical terms. Education policy making and implementation is a chaotic activity and a concern
of everybody. The divergent and contending interests of the public at large make policy-making
and implementation problematic. Added to that is the attempt of those in power to inscribe their
ideologies and beliefs in policies to control thinking of the people.

More over the sector is not a neutral set of institution. It is inextricably connected to the forms

of domination and subordination of whatever form a given society. Hence analyzing policy-
making and implementation seems vital.

Agrawal (1993, as cited in Selashi, 2001) policies provide guidance to making decisions on
problems at hand or in the years to come, bring in together all decisions towards achieving
presented standards or goals, the means for assessing performance and, realize the degree of
consistency and uniformity in undertaking in any organization.

2.3 Factors or elements to be taken into consideration in

the process of determining policy

According to Torjman (2005), the first step in policy formulation is to determine the desired
objective. Policy directives can be understood as an expression of commonly accepted societal
values – e.g., fairness and equity are often cited as strong values. Public policy is basically
shaped by and must be consistent with these values.

Within this context, the selection of objectives typically derives from priorities and imperatives
set at the political level. The desired objective may be rooted in the platform of a political party
or approved at its policy conference. A policy direction may be announced, for example, in the
Speech from the Throne that opens a new Parliamentary session or in the federal Budget. It may
be signaled in a ministerial or departmental announcement regarding the government‘s intended
agenda in a certain area, such as promoting skills and learning, reforming the income security
system, supporting a bio-based economy or investing in environmentally clean technologies.

16
Policy objectives can also arise from negotiations with provinces/territories and subsequent
intergovernmental agreements that effectively incorporate an explicit or implicit agenda. Policy
directives derive as well from obligations, such as international covenants.

Laws and legislation

Policies must comply with existing laws. The Manual of School Law contains Acts, Regulations,
Orders in Council, and Ministerial Orders relating to education system.

Roles and Responsibilities

The Ministry of Education, boards of education and schools have different responsibilities for
developing, administering and implementing education policies.

Ministry of Education
The Minister of Education is responsible for administering education legislation and setting high
level education policy. The Ministry of Education sets policy in the areas of educational
standards, monitoring student performance and reporting the results to the public, working with
schools and communities to improve student and school performances, allocating funds for the
education system, and overseeing the governance of the system as a whole (Torjman, 2005)

Policy development is a decision-making process

A public policy is a deliberate and (usually) careful decision that provides guidance for
addressing selected public concerns. Policy development can be seen, then, as a decision making

process that helps address identified goals, problems or concerns. At its core, policy development
entails the selection of a destination or desired objective. The actual formulation of policy
involves the identification and analysis of a range of actions that respond to these concerns. Each
possible solution is assessed against a number of factors such as probable effectiveness, potential
cost, resources required for implementation, political context and community support.

In short, any given policy represents the end result of a decision as to how best to achieve a
specific objective. Most people actually apply a similar process in the decisions they make in
their everyday lives – even around fairly inconsequential choices.

17
There are also other factors in formulating Policy. These factors are Socio-political environment,
Economic functionality, Labor market demands, and Maximize economic growth. On the other
hand, Strategic direction which are Quasi-markets, Direct or indirect control, Skills and
knowledge requirements are indicators for policy formulation. The policy will also be
implemented based on the organizational principles such as patterns of accountability, clearly
defined outputs, and control mechanisms.

Policy makers Enables to make valid decisions about priorities of influences according to their
specific contexts. They also can suggest criteria for evaluating and judging the process of policy-
making and its potential for success (Ben-Peretz, 2009, p. 129).

2.4 admission Criterea in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia there are a number of private and governmental higher education institutions.
In private colleges since the expense of education is totally covered by students as long as
a student fulfills the entrance requirement he/she can join any higher education institution
he/she likes. However, in governmental higher education institutions as some percent of
educational and living expenses are covered by the government placement is done by
Ministry of Education based on the score of the student, the availability of fields of study,
the number of students that it can accommodate, the government policy, proximity of the
institution to student‘s home etc. (Getachew, 2008)
According to the interview from admission criteria decision makers, the recent entrance base is
the intake capacity of 33 government universities. The universities intake capacity is the base to
determine higher education admission result. Moreover, affirmative actions are considering for
four emerging regions in Ethiopia these are Afar, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambela and Somali
regions, equity in terms of gender, and students from pastoralist and semi-pastoralist groups or
family will have more opportunity to admit in higher education with a lesser result. Under
graduate admitted Students data in the year of 2006 E.C from emerging regions showed below in
chapter 4 table 5 for details.

18
 2.5 special supports for emerging regions

According to the ESDP IV, Ethiopian government has Special support programs that will be
developed for the emerging regions and to allow for a steep and swift decrease in pupil drop-out
rates. Some key outcomes for general education (which includes early childhood, primary,
secondary education and adult literacy or in HE levels) are:

- Student repetition and drop-out rates decreased through higher quality of teaching and
learning.
- Learning outcomes improved at primary and secondary schools through the reinforcement
and better coordination of key quality inputs and processes. It also enables to produce quality
students for the HE.
- Access to primary education universalized by 2015, through a continued expansion of formal
primary education and when / wherever necessary through ABE centers.
- General secondary education expanded in view of its universalize by 2025 in line with the
Middle Income Country Vision.
- Equitable access to quality primary and secondary education expanded amongst the four
emerging regions and the gap between the emerging regions and other regions reduced, by
giving special support to the education of emerging regions‘ children (both female and male).
- Capacity of educational management bodies at various levels strengthened
- 95% of adult illiterates will participate in a two-year FAL program.

For TVET, the goal is to create a competent, motivated, adaptable and innovative workforce and
to transfer accumulated and demanded technologies in Ethiopia, thus contributing to poverty
reduction and social and economic development through facilitating demand-driven, high quality
technical and vocational education and training, relevant to all sectors of the economy, at all
levels and to all people (ESDP IV, 2010).

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 2.6 Policies for Admission to Higher Education

To date, no one has compiled detailed descriptions of state-by-state requirements for admission
to public colleges and universities. Existing reports focus either on admission standards of
selected institutions of higher education in particular areas or on a particular type of admission
standard, such as required high school course work. None provide the degree of detail on score
levels for admission tests, minimum grade point averages (GPAs), performance-based measures,
or sliding scales that are needed to analyze the impact of admission policies on opportunities for
individuals to enter higher education (Goretz, 2010).

Contradictory voices were heard and considered both inside and outside the universities based on
the different platform of the society. Nowadays contradictory cultural and political dynamics
became noticeable. For example, some group of teacher unions, students and university
representatives oppose to any change in the existing matriculation policy. Other organizations
need to exercise their great power in various ways, including the use of the media to present their
point of view. These groups argued that a reduction in the number of external examinations
would have several negative consequences such as harming teachers who teach subjects that do
not require external exams, lessening students‘ motivation for studying these disciplines, and
causing students with lower abilities to lose the opportunity to balance their grades in one subject
area by their success in other subjects. In contrast others claimed that without external exams in a
variety of subjects they would lack a valid, equal, and reliable basis for screening students who
apply to enter institutions of higher education (Ben-Peretz, 2009) .

In light of these different ideas, there are people who need to have re-exam to be prepared by the
universities for students who are coming to join. Before students admitted and starting freshman
classes, universities has to prepare entrance exam after passing the national exam and assigned to
various field of study based on their grade and choice. Another group of people says the national
exam is enough to start their class and no need of admission exam to be prepared by the
universities so far they passed the national one.

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 2.7 International experiences in Higher Education
admission policies

According to Colorado state university in the U.S., the admission policy should be clear and
requires the curriculum that will enable the university admission standard of completion of a
specified higher education admission requirement to be met by first-time entering
undergraduates who graduate from high school in latest. This policy is comprised of seven
sections:

2.7.1 INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS ADMISSION POLICY

REVIEW
To ensure that the Admission Standards Policy continues to meet state goals and priorities, the
academic commission will review the policy every three years to determine if changes are
appropriate. Additionally, institutions shall report all undergraduate freshmen and transfer
applicants, including those for summer terms, to the Commission on the Student Unit Record
Data System Undergraduate Applicant File. Included with this policy is a technical appendix
describing the methodology used to calculate the competency for admissions index and
supporting documentation for data submissions. These data will be used to monitor the
compliance of institutions with the Commission‘s standards and to evaluate the impact of the
policy on institutions and students annually.

2.7.2 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AUTHORITY

There are a number of sections of the law that are applicable to the establishment of the
academic commission's policy on admission standards. Some of these are Establish state or the
country overall policies that differentiate admission and program standards and that are
consistent with institutional role and missions. The standards established shall use exam grade
point average. Instead of such criterion, additional criteria may be used for up to twenty percent
of the admitted or transfer students. The academic admission standards, policies, further defined
Commission directive, and graduate institutions of higher education.

21
The Commission shall begin immediately to establish and the governing boards or responsible
shall implement academic admission standards for first-time freshmen and transfer students at all
institutions of higher education in the state or country. The standards shall be established by the
Commission, after consultation with the governing boards of institutions, and the first step of
implementation shall be completed by the governing boards by the beginning of the first term of
the year.
The standards established shall use at least two of the following three criteria for first-time
admitted undergraduate freshmen students: Standardized test scores, high school or preparatory
level grade point average, and high school class rank. The criteria established shall be consistent
with the role and mission established for each government institution of higher education or
universities. In lieu of such criteria, additional criteria may be used for up to twenty percent of
the admitted freshmen. Students who meet the minimum criteria for admission shall not be
guaranteed admission to the institution to which they have applied, but they shall be eligible for
consideration.
No other admission standards shall be imposed by any agency or committee of the executive or
legislative branch of the government.

To become boulder campus or University and to produce quality students, quality admitting
criteria and studying each student background from their result and ranks are important even
though it is time consuming and costly. Of course to get quality things, paying more than the
cheapest one is obvious. Universities will also become a comprehensive research institution if
they have such a multidimensional selective admission standards and will produce quality
students since the input will be quality concern.
Universities having moderately selective admission standards can easily screen competent and
quality students from their good will and performance.

2.7.3 INTERNATIONAL POLICY GOALS

Policy Goals of the institution should design to establish admission standards based on student
performance and differentiated institutional role and mission while ensuring broad access to
undergraduate programs with average or fair results; to set clear performance expectations and

22
communicate those expectations to prospective students. The principle that the opportunity to be
admitted to higher education institute must be earned equal to all without discriminating.
Disabilities are exceptional in this case. Encourage diversity of ethnic groups in one university
by supporting the admission of applicants from underrepresented groups, applicants with special
talents, and applicants with disabilities. (University of Colorado, 2011)

2.7.4 HIGHER EDUCATION ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS

(HEAR) GLOBALLY ACCEPTED

Undergraduates must meet both the institution‘s standard and have completed the required
Higher Education Admission Requirements (HEAR) to meet freshmen admission standard. The
requirement also applies to other students subject to the freshmen admission standard, if the year
of high school graduation is in two years or the latest. Freshmen who have not completed the
required Higher Education Admission Requirements (HEAR) will not meet the university
admission standard except students age 20 or older. A student must pass mathematics and
English over the average. Students must receive a passing grade in each course to fulfill the
requirement.
English as acceptable courses include at least two units that emphasize writing or composition
skills as well as literature, speech, and debate. Also acceptable are honors, advanced placement,
and/or international higher education courses. Two units of ESL English may count towards
meeting the requirements when combined with two units successfully completed college
preparatory English.
Mathematics at a minimum, courses must include Algebra I, Geometry, and Algebra II or
equivalents. Also acceptable are honors, advanced placement, and/or Approved policy.

To meet the Higher Education Admission Requirements (HEAR) in Natural Science, the student
must complete at least two courses with laboratory work. A course with laboratory work shall
not be limited to textbook or lecture instruction, but shall include a variety of hands-on/minds-on
activities including experiments and investigations, whether occurring in a classroom laboratory,
a simulated online environment, or the field. Emphasis should be placed on inquiry skills that
take care of and support high-level thinking, such as developing scientific questions, writing

23
hypotheses, designing and/or refining experimental procedures, collecting/or analyzing data, and
drawing conclusions. HE preparatory ESL science courses that include content and academic
rigor comparable to other acceptable courses may satisfy requirements.
On the other hand, Social Science admitting students should be Acceptable for courses include
national and/or world history, civics, geography, economics, psychology, sociology, and
comparable coursework. Also acceptable are honors, advanced placement, and/or international
courses. To meet the Higher Education Admission Requirements (HEAR).

2.7.5 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN HIGHER

EDUCATION ADMISSION STANDARDS INDEX

In the US, In 1987 pursuant to statute, the Commission established state-level admission
standards for first-time entering undergraduates and transfer students at each of public
institutions. The standards established by the Commission in 1987 for an entering freshman were
based on the calculation of an admissions index. The index has two components: a student‘s high
school performance (i.e., high school grade point average (g.p.a.) or class rank) and performance
on a standardized test. For an undergraduate transferring from another institution, the standard‘s
criterion was a specific grade point average.

Prior to the adoption of this revised policy by the Commission, at least 80% of an institution‘s
fiscal year admits had to meet the appropriate freshman or transfer standard. Each institution was
allowed to admit students who do not meet the admissions standards up to a number not
exceeding 20% of the admitted pool of students. This pool, often referred to as ―the admissions
window,‖ provides institutional flexibility in admitting promising students who Approved Policy
on January 7, 2011.(University of Colorado, 2011)
The freshman standard applies to all in-state and out-of-state new freshmen applicants and to
transfer applicants with 12 or fewer college credit hours, except freshmen and transfer applicants
who meet one of the admissions standards index exemptions. These applicants may be admitted
provisionally for the purpose of participation. The Commission has developed a single scale for
evaluating the achievement records of applicants that incorporates measures of standardized test
scores, high school class rank, and high school grade point average.

24
Non-degree students applying for formal admission at the same institution are also subject to the
freshman standard if they are age 21 and under, regardless of college credit hours, or if they are
age 22 and over with 12 or fewer college credit hours, except those applicants who meet one of
the admission standards index exemptions.

2.7.6 DEVELOPED COUNTRIES PENALTIES FOR NOT

MEETING THE STANDARDS OF ADMISSION
If an institution should admit more than the allowed percent for either the freshmen or transfer
standard in any fiscal year, the Commission shall assess a financial penalty against the governing
board. Such penalty shall be based on the number of admitted students, regardless of residency,
exceeding the window percent limitation. The penalty will be calculated by doubling the number
of admitted students exceeding the window percent and then multiplying the amount of state
support applicable in the fiscal year in which the institution exceeded the window percentage.
The penalty is binding and may not be appealed.

If an institution exceeds the permitted window percent for two consecutive years, the
Commission, in addition to the financial penalty, may adjust the institution‘s index score by
lowering it to the next index level or the point at which the institution would comply with the
standards, whichever is lower. In general, the higher education will be penalized for the
dishonesty and will lose the goodwill and its standard.

2.7.7 WORLDWIDE ENROLLMENT LIMITS ON ADMISSION

STANDARDS

In Colorado, Standards for Out-of-State Students Must Equal or Exceed Those For In-State
Students. Effective July 1, 1993, the academic admission standards established for determining
admission of students who do not have in-state status, as determined pursuant to the admission
policy, shall equal or exceed those established for determining admission of in-state students.

25
The admission standards policy applies equally to both in-state and out-of-state students, no
differentiation is made by tuition status and the percent apply to the pool of all accepted students.
It is possible, however, for an institution to use its available window "slots" to give preferential
treatment to applicants according to student residency. Such a practice would violate the intent of
the statutory language. Therefore, the following procedures will be carried out yearly in order to
monitor compliance with the intent of this requirement.

Separate Window Calculations for In-State and Out-of-State Accepted Students : Each fiscal
year, after final Undergraduate Applicant data has been submitted and edited, separate window
calculations will be made by Commission staff for students reported as in-state and out-of-state.
Institutions whose in-state window percent is less than the out-of-state percent (by at least 0.5
percent) will be subject to further analysis. If this further review is not indicated by this
comparison, then the institution will be considered to be in compliance.

Acceptance Decisions by Admission Index Range: The acceptance decisions made by

institutions who do not meet the criteria will be analyzed by in-state and out-of-state applicant
for significant differences.

Within each category, the number of total applicants and the percent offered admission will be
calculated for both in-state and out-of-state applicants. If the percent of in-state applicants
offered admission is greater than the percent of out-of-state applicants in almost every case, then
the institution will be considered to be in compliance with the intent of the statutory language.
One or two exceptions will not necessarily be considered as evidence of lack of compliance as
long as these exceptions do not indicate a clear preference for out-of-state applicants, especially
in the ranges around the institution's cutoff score. (Goretz, 2010)

26
 2.8 ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION and admission
History

Many Ethiopians believe that Ethiopian higher education started in the 1950s with the coming of
a Western type of colleges and universities. However, writing the history of higher education in
Ethiopia, the starting point is not the 20th century. It precede the arrival of modern Western type
of education which started in the first half of the 19th century; or the arrival of missionaries who
saw the provision of educational facilities as the most effective way of winning new converts
(Bahru, 2002, as cited in Teshome Yizengaw , 2004).

According to Amare Asghedom (2009), The University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA), the
first modern higher education institution, was established in December 1950 following the
approval (by government and the Emperor, Haile Sellassie I) of a study in 1949 by Dr. Lucien
Matte, a Director of Taferi Mekonnen (now Entoto Technical School) who was requested to give
preparatory courses to a group of secondary school graduates, specially in science, history and
philosophy. This program began in January 1950 at the Taferi Mekonnen Secondary School.
On 20 March 1950, the Emperor decreed the opening of a Junior college to be named Trinity
College. Eight months later, the Emperor changed the name to read the University College of
Addis Ababa (UCAA).

The pioneer of HE in Ethiopia, UCAA started with a two-year junior college and four years later,
was extended to a four-year college, consisting of the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Sciences.
Utilizing some of the bilingual Jesuits of various nationalities, déclassé refugees from England
and Poland (Kiflu, 1993:15) who were teaching at the Secondary School of Taferi Mekonnen, as
a nucleus of the faculty, classes started on 11 December 1950 with 30 students, 7 faculty and 2
administrators (Burke & Blaesser, 1960: 2). The Emperor appointed Dr. Lucien Matte, the
Canadian Jesuit as the founding President of UCAA. The general objective of the college was
stated as: Providing Ethiopian youths with a sound academic background for professional studies
abroad and eventually, at the Haile Selassie I University, and then in course of construction and
organization (UCAA, 1962).

27
 2.8.1 Current status and Challenges of Ethiopian Higher Education

The ETP (1994) says, Education plays a role in the promotion of respect for human rights and
democratic values, creating the condition for equality, mutual understanding and cooperation
among people. Education does not operate in isolation; rather it has to be integrated with
research, practice and development to contribute towards an all rounded development of society.

According to Fuad Ibrahim (2011), The Ethiopian Government is allocating 4% of its GDP for
education and education managers have increased significantly. It shows how the government is
giving a special and high value for education and providing the necessary budget from a very
poor country. Moreover, The Ministry of Education has launched the General Education Quality
Improvement Program (GEQIP) a multi donor trust fund.

What a shock it was for me to realize the complete absence of highly respected and greatly
acclaimed professionals and experts in the Ethiopian delegates who have an extensive knowledge
and experience in higher education policy and development. What is equally shocking to me was
the complete marginalization of the old and seasoned institutions including, of course, Addis
Ababa University the very institution the Bank considers it to be the flagship institution of the
nation It is simply ironic--and even self defeating--on the part of the nation and the government
to commit, to its credit, massive resources for the development of higher education in the country
and yet isolate and disengage its high-level experts at home in shaping the development of the
nation‘s higher education.

AAU is considered as a flagship institution as well developed Faculty of Education, Institute of

Educational Research, and now a national higher education research center. But it is guessed as
unacceptable on its credibility, recommendation and policy space. (Damtew, 2014).

2.8.2 EQUITY

The FDRE constitution says ―Government has the duty to ensure that all Ethiopians get equal
opportunity to improve their economic condition and to promote equitable distribution of wealth
among them.‖ (constitution , 2002) . One of the wealth for the society that should be distributed

28
equally to each citizen without favoring only to some group is education and the right to
education is a human right. This right recognized as a Human Right since the adoption of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

A quality education is fully inclusive and accessible to all people on an equitable basis. However,
in most countries, it is the girls and women who suffer most from discrimination and obstacles,
both in the families and within local communities and society in general. (UNESCO 2004, as
cited in Fekede, 2007)

Girls are faced with many obstacles which prevent them from continuing their education although it
varies from one region to another and between countries in different regions. Most of the time girls are
obliged to work to support their families (fetch water, looking after home, etc.) which in turn increases
gender gap and keep them out of school.(Fekede, 2007, p. 16)

On the other hand, within schools and classrooms, a welcoming and non-discriminatory climate
is critical to creating a quality learning environment. In many countries, attitudes discouraging
girls‘ participation in education have been significant barriers to providing quality education to
all students. The Republic of Guinea provides an example of how this barrier can begin to be
overcome. Between 1989 and 1997, Guinea was able to increase the percentage of school-age
girls enrolment from 17 per cent to 37 per cent. This was done through the establishment of a
high-profile Equity Committee, research to better understand various communities‘ needs and
attitudes, policy reforms related to pregnancy of school-age mothers, the building of latrines for
girls in schools, institutional reform that brought more women into teaching and administrative
positions, and a sensitization campaign to raise community awareness about the value of girls‘
education. Although curricular reform and other issues remain to be acted upon, and girls‘
persistence and achievement have not yet reached the level of boys‘, this case shows that efforts
to improve the learning policy and environment for girls and all students can lead to real results
(Sutton 1999, as cited in UNICEF 2014).

Once girls gain access to schools, however, they may experience both direct physical threats and
more subtle assaults on their confidence, self-esteem and identity (Pigozzi, 2000, as cited in
UNICEF 2014). The journey to school may be unsafe, since many girls experience harassment
and physical attacks either on public transportation in cities or remote paths in rural areas. At

29
school, teachers often require girls to do maintenance work while boys study or play, and allow
boys to bully girls. Girls must often sit at the back of the classroom, where teachers may call on
them infrequently. In some cases, extreme physical assault, including rape, may be perpetuated
against girls at school. The threats that come in the form of unequal treatment, harassment,
bullying and undervaluing girls harm them in profound and long-lasting ways.

Equity receives greater attention under ESDP IV. In particular the participation of females in
management and training positions needs to be strengthened so as to ensure an increasing
number of role models for female students. Females will be encouraged to join non-traditionally
female professional training. Preferential access will be provided to students from disadvantaged
regions and students with special needs. Furthermore, special attention will be given to the
emerging regions. Capacity development in planning and management of TVET will be
intensified in order to enhance implementing capacity of the TVET Strategy and in turn to
increase enrolment rates. (ESDP IV, 2010)

2.8.3 ACCESS

It is true many developing countries suffer of a lack of accessibility of higher education. Despite
huge improvements in enrollments rates, the availability of university education is still limited
due to lack of financial and human resources (Deuren, 2014).
According to UNESCO (2014) In education, the term access typically refers to the ways in which
educational institutions and policies ensure or at least strive to ensure that students have equal
and equitable opportunities to take full advantage of their education. Increasing access generally
requires schools to provide additional services or remove any actual or potential barriers that
might prevent some students from equitable participation in certain courses or academic
programs. Factors such as race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability, perceived
intellectual ability, past academic performance, special education status, English language ability,
and family income or educational attainment levels in addition to factors such as relative
community affluence, geographical location, or school facilities may contribute to certain
students having less ―access‖ to educational opportunities than other students.

30
Generally speaking, the widespread use of the term access in education, along with related terms
such as equity or at-risk, reflects increased national attention to the needs of students who have
historically been underserved by schools, who have failed to take full advantage of their
education, whose learning needs have been overlooked, or who have otherwise ―fallen through
the cracks.‖ When used in reference to education reforms, access typically refers to school
strategies or policies designed to remove institutional disincentives, impediments, or barriers to
academic success, whether intentional or unintentional, or to provide the resources, social
services, and academic support that certain students may need to succeed in school. If access is
denied or left unaddressed by a school, students may struggle academically or drop out, learning
gaps may compound or widen over time, students may graduate unprepared to enroll and
succeed in a postsecondary-degree program, or students may be unable to participate in certain
courses, school programs, extracurricular activities, or sports, among other undesirable outcomes.

The following constitutes a brief, representative list of the types of access that government
agencies, districts, and schools may provide to students:
 Access to assistive technologies, accommodations, or modified school facilities and
transportation vehicles that make full participation in school programs possible for
students with various forms of disability (the Americans with Disabilities Act and the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, for example, establish minimum compliance
requirements for schools).

 Access to equal opportunities in educational programs and activities regardless of gender,

race, or sexual orientation, including extracurricular activities and sports (Title IX,
Education Amendments of 1972 and the Student Nondiscrimination Act of 2010 are
examples of policies that establish minimum compliance requirements for schools).

 Access to adequate health care and nutritional services, including free or reduced-price
school breakfasts and lunches to ensure that children living in poverty are not attending
school sick or hungry.

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 Access to adequate public transportation to attend public schools and charter schools that
may or may not be located near student homes.

 Access to intensive instruction in the English language or academic language for students
who cannot read, write, or speak English, and access to interpreters and translated
documents for non-English-speaking students, parents, and families, including
multilingual translations of school policies, academic materials, parent communications,
event announcements, website content, etc.

 Access to counseling, social services, academic support, and other resources that can help
students who are at risk of failure or dropping out remain in school, succeed academically,
graduate with a diploma, and pursue postsecondary education.

 Access to individualized education programs (IEPs) for special-education students,

access to mainstream classrooms and academically challenging content through inclusion
strategies, which includes access to any trained professionals or specialized educational
resources that may be needed to ensure that the needs of special-education students are
being met.

 Access to advanced-level learning opportunities such as honors courses or Advanced

Placement courses, dual-enrollment opportunities, or other programs that historically
required students to meet prerequisites before being allowed to enroll in a course or
participate in a program. (By eliminating certain prerequisites or other barriers, schools
can increase access to more challenging academic content, stronger preparation for
postsecondary success, and college-level learning).

 Access to technology, including high-speed internet connections and adequate hardware

(computers, laptops, tablets) and software (particularly learning applications) so that
students have equitable access to the same digital and online learning opportunities
regardless of their family‘s income level or ability to pay for these technologies.

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 2.8.4 Debate on Access

There are many potential debates that might arise in response to access-related issues in
education. Perhaps one of the most well-known, high-profile examples is affirmative action,
since affirmative action is, generally speaking, an attempt to increase access, whether it‘s access
to college for minority students or access to jobs for minority educators.
While the debates about access in education are both numerous and various, many debates center
on differing interpretations of equity—what is fair and just—and equality—what is applied,
allocated, or distributed equally. For example, a school might choose to allocate resources—
funding, teachers, staff time, etc.—equally among all students. In this hypothetical case, white,
wealthy, and high-performing students would receive the same amount of school resources as
minority, low-income, and special-needs students. On the other hand, another school might
choose to allocate resources in ways that it deems to be equitable. In this case, minority, low-
income, and special-needs students might receive comparatively more resources in an attempt to
compensate for and overcome preexisting factors that might place them at an educational
disadvantage. Some view equal resource allocation as equitable (every student receives the same
level of resources), while others perceive equal resource allocation to be fundamentally
inequitable because it fails to take into account the preexisting inequities in society that may
have already adversely affected some students and placed them at an educational or aspiration
disadvantage, such as racial prejudice, income inequality, or disability.
College access is another potential source of debate. Some educators might argue, for example,
that all students should be able to pursue collegiate education and that the only way to ensure
college access is enroll every student in a course of study that prepares them to succeed
academically in college-level courses when they graduate from high school. The failure to
prepare all students is equivalent to denying them college access because they lack the
knowledge, skills, and aptitudes they would need to gain admission to a collegiate program and
earn a postsecondary degree. In addition, some may argue that educators should proactively
encourage students to consider college, particularly students who may be less likely to pursue
higher education, such as students whose parents did not earn a postsecondary degree or whose
familial culture does not value or encourage collegiate education. Such strategies would be

33
considered ways to increase access for students who are at a disadvantage in terms of college
preparedness and aspirations.
Others, however, might argue that college is a personal decision and that schools should not
encourage students to pursue college degree if they are not interested in college, if their career
ambitions do not require a degree, or if their family cannot afford college, for example. In this
view, preparing all students for college could become inequitable because it ―forces‖ students to
take a college-preparatory course of study, it may discourage students from pursuing other forms
of education (such as career and technical education), or it may inadvertently discourage students
from considering alternative options (such as a career in the military or skilled trades, which may
not require a college degree) because of the overt and implied messages students receive in
school. In this case, equal treatment—all students being prepared for and encouraged to attend
college—may be seen as denying students access because it allocates educational resources to
achieve a specific outcome (more students attending college), which could divert resources away
from other educational programs, reduce the perceived value of other options, and potentially
stigmatize non-collegiate ambitions.(2014)

2.8.5 Affirmative Action

According to the ESDP IV (2010), Affirmative action for traditionally disadvantaged groups
such as females, students from disadvantaged regions and students with special needs will be
strengthened through preferential access, academic support programs, and the establishment of a
gender– friendly environment and climate at HEIs. Specific support provided to female leaders
will receive special attention. Affirmative action programs will also include the following:

 Ensure the establishment of a system that can develop awareness in the university
communities to condemn and control sexual harassment, gender biased violence, female
discrimination and harmful practices.
 Develop the awareness and skills of the university communities to protect themselves
from HIV/AIDS and transfer their knowledge to change the attitude of the surrounding
young people.

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  Establish and practice reward systems that motivate individuals and institutions to
recognize their results and achievements and to be used to inspire others.

The debate over the wisdom of ―affirmative action ― has taken place mainly in the political
arena . Yet the issue is essentially a moral one involving conflicting ideas or, more precisely,
conflicting expressions of a single ideal, fairness. Affirmative action was conceived as a means
of overcoming the effects of centuries of discrimination. Several decades ago more and more
people became convinced that denying education and employment opportunities to women
merely on the basis of their gender and to black (or Hispanic) men merely on the basis of their
color (or ethnicity) was unfair and therefore unethical.
Clearly, decency required that something be done to correct the situation . but what was the best
and most reasonable approach ? one idea was to guarantee equal educational and employment
opportunity to all citizens and to create laws providing for the prosecution of individuals who
failed to honor that guarantee. Critics responded that such a guarantee was fine for the future but
did nothing to correct past injustices. Another idea was to provide special educational ―catch-up‖
programs to offset academic deprivation. Critics argued that this solution would not achieve
results quickly enough; the only fair solution, in their review, would be to give women and
minority men preference over white males in college admissions and employment. Such
preference generally took the form of ―set-asides‖ and hiring quotas.
Although arguments against preferences were initially dismissed as shallow and in some cases,
racist, in recent years they have been given a more impartial hearing. One such argument is that
preferences cause racial animosity; another is that they cheat the very people they are designed to
help by putting them in educational or employment situations for which they have not been
prepared ; a third is that they deprive society of the most highly trained and qualified people. But
the most common and perhaps most substantive, argument is that preferences have resulted
less in fairness toward women and minority males than in unfairness toward white males. Those
who advance this argument maintain that the only fair system is none that is completely blind to
gender, race, and ethnicity and judges each individual solely on his or her qualifications.
However the affirmative action issue is ultimately resolved, it offers an unmistakable lesson even
when an ideal is universally accepted, it can still be very difficult to achieve. (Ruggiero, 2004)

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 2.8.6 RELEVANCE

Referring ESDP II (2002), Curriculum reform which aimed at improving relevance and quality
of education calls for concomitant changes in teaching methods, teacher discipline, role of
teacher in producing good citizens, system of examinations and assessment, and provision of
teaching resource materials in the classroom etc. for its successful implementation. Therefore,
efforts need to continue to make the curriculum more relevant to the needs of the society and the
economy and to meet the desired cognitive and attitudinal levels of students at each cycle.

The fact that a large majority of the Ethiopian population lives in rural areas and in fairly
dispersed communities poses specific problems for the education sector: spreading education and
ensuring equitable access to education presents specific challenges in such a geographic context.
In addition, the existence of many pastoral and semi-pastoralist groups raises issues of
organization of the school system and also of the relevance of the curriculum(ESDP IV, 2010).

In education, the term relevance typically refers to learning experiences that are either directly
applicable to the personal aspirations, interests, or cultural experiences of students (personal
relevance) or that are connected in some way to real-world issues, problems, and contexts (life
relevance). Personal relevance occurs when learning is connected to an individual student‘s
interests, aspirations, and life experiences. Advocates argue that personal relevance, when
effectively incorporated into instruction, can increase a student‘s motivation to learn,
engagement in what is being taught, and even knowledge retention and recall. Indirectly quality
of input to the HE can be affected unless relevance in related to culture and lifestyle are seen in
the policy development. But the researcher leaves this issue for other researchers to see
whether it affects or not since delimited the scope of the study only in HE admission area.
The following are a few representative forms of personal relevance:

Individual choices: A teacher might ask students to write about the United States
presidency, but then allow them to choose which president they will study. A student with a
personal interest in hiking and the outdoors might select Theodore Roosevelt, for example,

36
because he was a naturalist and conservationist who led scientific expeditions and helped
establish the first national parks.
Product choices: If a particular learning standard is being taught, such as ―conduct
historical research using original sources,‖ a teacher might allow students to demonstrate their
research skills by creating different products. For example, a student interested in filmmaking
might create a short documentary using archival photography. A student interested in music and
technology might produce an audio podcast in the style of an old radio-news program or
presidential address. Another student who aspires to be a writer might choose to write a historical
essay or short work of historical fiction that incorporates period facts and details.
Varied content: In a news and journalism course, for example, a teacher might ask students
to monitor and analyze news stories about current world events. Students might be allowed to
choose an area of personal interest—e.g., politics, environmentalism, science, technology—and
monitor news reports in those areas as relevant events unfold. Even though students are studying
different news topics, the course teaches students about effective reporting techniques, how news
is created, how to analyze news coverage, and how effective news stories are structured, for
example.
Cultural connections: In a world-history course, a teacher might allow students to
investigate certain historical topics or time periods through a culturally relevant connection. For
example, during lessons on imperialism and colonialism, students from different cultural
backgrounds might choose to write essays that explore the effects of imperialism and colonialism
from the standpoint of their racial, ancestral, or cultural heritage.
Life relevance occurs when learning is connected in some way to real-world issues, problems,
and contexts outside of school. Life relevance is generally intended to equip students with
practical skills, knowledge, and dispositions that they can apply in various educational, career,
and civic contexts throughout their lives. As with personal relevance, advocates contend that life
relevance can improve engagement, motivation, and learning acquisition. Life relevance may
also intersect in a variety of ways with personal relevance. The following are a few
representative forms of life relevance:
Skill acquisition: While instructing students, a teacher might incorporate practical skills
that students can apply throughout their lives. For example, students might be asked to use
technology to create a variety of products that demonstrate what they have learned, such as

37
audiovisual presentations, websites, software programs, databases, or spreadsheets. While the
students are learning history, science, or mathematics, for example, they are also acquiring
technology skills that will be useful in adult life.
Practical context: When teaching abstract mathematical concepts, a teacher might use
practical life contexts to help the concepts ―come alive‖ for students. For example, students
might be asked to follow a favorite sports team and conduct mathematical analyses using team
statistics. Similar teaching strategies could be used with a variety of different data, such as
demographic, economic, or financial data.
Current events: In a unit on presidential elections in a social-studies course, students might
be asked to monitor campaign advertising on radio, television, and the internet, and then research
the accuracy of the statements being made. Students may then write an analysis of how
campaigns manipulate the presentation of facts to influence voter opinions about a particular
candidate or issue.
Community connections: In a government course, a teacher might draw comparisons
between national governmental functions and how the government works in the local community.
The teacher might ask students to study local politics, interview elected officials, and put
together a citizen-action proposal that will be presented to the city or town council. As students
learn about local politics, they get a more concrete understanding of how government works at
the state or national level.
Career aspirations: In a business course, a teacher might ask students to develop a
business plan for a proposed company. Students pick an industry that interests them—such as
fashion, video games, or cooking—and then they research existing businesses in the field,
determine how they will raise start-up funding, create a marketing campaign, and pitch their final
proposals to local business leaders. While learning about business and economics, students also
learn whether the career path is a good fit for them, and they acquire practical skills that will help
them when they enter the workforce.(2014)

2.8.6.1 Relevance Reform

Educators may use a wide variety of educational strategies to increase the relevance of what is
taught and learned in schools—just a few examples include 21st century skills, authentic learning,

38
career-themed academies, community-based learning, differentiation, learning pathways,
personalized learning, and project-based learning. It should be noted that while there have been
growing calls nationally for schools to increase their emphasis on teaching relevant concepts and
skills, relevance in education is not a new concept—teachers have been integrating relevance
into their lessons and teaching since formal schools were created, albeit to widely varying
degrees. In addition, career and technical education programs have long been focused on career
preparation.

2.8.6.2 Relevance Debates

While few arguments are made against the concept of greater relevance in education, there is
often debate about the degree to which schools should address relevance and the best ways to go
about it. In particular, there may be debate about or criticism of the specific strategies and
practices used to increase relevance, some of which may be met with misunderstanding,
skepticism, or apprehension. For example, in recent years many educators, policy makers,
educational organizations, and charitable foundations have called on schools to focus on the
―new three Rs‖: rigor, relevance, and relationships—i.e., to make sure that (1) students are held
to high expectations and challenged academically and intellectually, (2) what gets taught reflects
both personal and life relevance, and (3) educators form strong relationships with students and
get to know them and their specific learning needs well. While some may express concern that
the new three Rs will replace the original three Rs—reading, writing, and arithmetic—advocates
would argue that the ―rigor, relevance, and relationships‖ concept does not in any way displace
the necessity of teaching students how read, write, and do math. Still, the perception that students
are not ―getting the basics‖ is fairly widespread in the United States, and efforts to change or
improve schools are often perceived to be in conflict with more traditional forms of education,
which are associated in the public mind with ―the basics.‖
Other critics may argue that striving for greater relevance will introduce too much choice or
flexibility in terms of content (what gets taught), process (how it gets taught), and products (what
students do or produce to show what they have learned). Reforms, in this view, may ―water
down‖ courses, not teach the most important subjects, or fail to adequately prepare students.
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Increasing relevance in teaching may also require teachers to make significant changes to the
ways in which they have traditionally taught. For example, lessons may need to be entirely
reconceived or teachers may need to learn new instructional techniques. Given the numerous
ways in which relevance may play out in schools, it is important to acquire a strong
understanding of a particular school‘s academic philosophy, how its program is structured, and
what results it‘s achieving.

2.9 Quality Education

What does quality mean in the context of education? Many definitions of quality in education
exist, testifying to the complexity and multifaceted nature of the concept. The terms efficiency,
effectiveness, equity and quality have often been used synonymously (Adams, 1993).
Considerable consensus exists around the basic dimensions of quality education today, however.
Quality education includes:
-Learners who are healthy, well-nourished and ready to participate and learn, and supported in
learning by their families and communities;
-Environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive, and provide adequate
resources and facilities;
-Content that is reflected in relevant curricula and materials for the acquisition of basic skills,
especially in the areas of literacy, numeracy and skills for life, and knowledge in such areas as
gender, health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS prevention and peace;
-Processes through which trained teachers use Learners-centered teaching approaches in well-
managed classrooms and schools and skilful assessment to facilitate learning and reduce
disparities;
-Outcomes that encompass knowledge, skills and attitudes, and are linked to national goals for
education and positive participation in society.

This definition allows for an understanding of education as a complex system embedded in a

political, cultural and economic context. It is important to keep in mind education‘s systemic
nature, however; these dimensions are interdependent, influencing each other in ways that are
sometimes unforeseeable.

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Moreover, quality of education depends on other factors such as mode of delivery, commitment,
qualification of teachers, the supply of educational materials, and other issues . Definitions of
quality must be open to change and evolution based on information, changing contexts, and new
understandings of the nature of education‘s challenges. New research ranging from multinational
research to action research at the classroom level contributes to this redefinition. Systems that
embrace change through data generation, use and self-assessment are more likely to offer quality
education to students (Glasser, 1990). Continuous assessment and improvement can focus on any
or all dimensions of system quality such as learners, learning environments, content, process and
outcomes.
The internal system of quality enhancement of every institution shall provide for clear
and comprehensive measures of quality covering professional development of academic staff,
course contents , teaching-learning processes, student evaluation, assessment and grading
systems, which shall also include student evaluation of course contents together with the
methods and systems of delivery, assessment , examinations and grading. (HE Proclamation 650/,
2009 p. 22/2)

2.10 Quality inputs for education

Quality is at the heart of any educational system. It influences what students learn, how well they
learned, and what benefit they draw from their education. Many educators measure the quality of
education in terms of input, process and output. Input refers to human and material resources,
and entry requirement of students to higher education, process refers to the teaching-learning
activities and output is the employability and academic standings. (Derbessa, 2005, as cited in
Teklu Tafase, 2009 ). The influence of inputs on student learning is one of the great legends of
quality in education. Factors that impact on learning and concluded that input shad an impact on
student learning and output. Others also argue that learning is influenced by the extent to which
students take part in purposeful activities that contribute to their learning and certain inputs can
potentially influence student learning. (Teklu, 2009 p. 19)

41
Quality and quantity of graduates to produce graduates that (a) have sufficient skills and
knowledge to provide the nation‘s labor force and (b) be vigorous citizens and ethical members
of the society.

(a) Quality in higher education is a multidimensional concept, which should embrace all its
functions, and activities: teaching and academic programs, research and scholarship, staffing,
students, buildings, facilities, equipment, services to the community and the academic
environment. Internal self-evaluation and external review, conducted openly by independent
specialists, if possible with international expertise, are vital for enhancing quality. Independent
national bodies should be established and comparative standards of quality, recognized at
international level, should be defined. Due attention should be paid to specific institutional,
national and regional contexts in order to take into account diversity and to avoid uniformity.
Stakeholders should be an integral part of the institutional evaluation process.

(b) Quality also requires that higher education should be characterized by its international
dimension: exchange of knowledge, interactive networking, mobility of teachers and students,
and international research projects, while taking into account the national cultural values and
circumstances.

In order to complete the university study efficiently, students should have sufficient knowledge
and preparation before attending at the university. Such decisive factors of preparation are
academic background, character, interest, motivation, value, etc. (Mulu, Nega; Yohannes,
Woldetensaye; Amare, Asgehedom; Wesenu, Yimam; Wanna, Leka; Ayalew, Shibeshi;...Yalew,
Endawoke, 2009 p. 7)

According to Ayalew (2009), the rapid expansion of enrollments is also related to achievements
in primary and secondary education. By 1999, enrollment in primary education 50 exceeded 99
percent, while the rates for junior high school and senior high school exceeded 88 percent and
41%, respectively. A large proportion of students who complete primary and secondary school
wish to continue on for a college degree. The rapid increase in enrollments is also associated
with some problems. The first is the wide spread concern about quality issues. Quality inputs,
especially quality faculty, could not be developed as rapidly as needed. During the expansion,

42
some two-year specialized institutes upgraded themselves in to colleges, and some colleges
enlarged their programs in both cases without sufficient attention to quality.

Government spending priorities are increasingly shifting towards the secondary and tertiary
sectors, but support is needed to ensure that quality does not suffer and that the labor market
absorbs graduates effectively. (MoEReport, 2010)

On the other hand, the quality of education in the emerging regions improves, through: Providing
Learning materials (such as exercise books, pen, pencil) and uniforms for the needy students,
academic and professional upgrading of facilitators.

Under ESDP III, Ethiopia made significant progress in education. Access at all levels of the
education system increased at a rapid rate in line with a sharp increase in the number of teachers,
schools and institutions. There were important improvements in the availability of trained
teachers and some other inputs which are indispensable for a high quality education system.
Disparities decreased through a more than average improvement of the situation of the
disadvantaged and deprived groups and of the emerging regions. Efforts were made to make the
content and the organization of education more relevant to the diversified needs of the population,
for instance through the introduction of alternative basic education and the development of
innovative models such as mobile schools. Woreda education offices and communities have
strengthened their involvement in education planning, management and delivery. Increased
attention was given to the need to strengthen science and technology education. The university
system experienced an important expansion. Strategies were developed for ABE, ECCE and
FAL, and new school health and nutrition initiatives were launched.

The achievements under ESDP III are fundamental to allow Ethiopia to progress towards
becoming a middle-income economy by the year 2025. Challenges, however, remain in order to
realize this long-term vision. Because of the progress made during the previous years and within
this long-term vision, the focus of education policies under ESDP IV will shift towards priority
programs which address these remaining challenges. At the same time, work will continue on
other areas to ensure that the important achievements of the previous years are not lost. The main
challenges which ESDP IV addresses are as follows:

43
 - A strong improvement in student achievement through a consistent focus on the
enhancement of the teaching/learning process and the transformation of the school into a
motivational and child-friendly learning environment.
- The development of programs which help attract the unreached and the disadvantaged
into school and ensure that they complete primary education.
- A renewal of adult education with a specific focus on Functional Adult Literacy. The
number of illiterates has remained high and, for reasons of justice as well as economic
and social development, efforts need to be strengthened to build partnerships against
illiteracy.
- The strengthening of the capacity for knowledge creation, in particular in the domain of
science and technology, through an expansion of access to TVET and to higher education
without sacrificing quality. (ESDP IV, 2010)

Tigist (2009) cited Bourn (1992) as reference, quality in education should be regarded as a
system with all its interdependent components of inputs, process, and output factors. According
to this author, input factors include quality of students‘ intake, instructors, institutional buildings,
educational facilities and resources, etc. Process factors on the other hand, include the teaching-
learning process, teaching methods, curriculum and the overall interaction of inputs. The output
contains such factors as students‘ development of the necessary skill, knowledge and attitude,
their efficient performance in the educational setting and once they are in the world of work.

This research will also focus on students intake quality from the criteria or policy point of view
(UNICEF, 2014).

2.11 Environmental Policy in related to Quality.

Reducing other forms of discrimination is also critical to quality improvement in learning
environments. Most countries, in all parts of the world, struggle with effective inclusion of
students with special needs and disabilities. An examination of special education policies and
practices in China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand and Viet
Nam found that although most educational policies include some philosophy of inclusion,
significant gaps between policies and actual practices in schools and classrooms exist (Mitchell,
1995). Students of ethnic and language minorities, politically or geographically disfavored

44
groups, and groups at low socio-economic levels may also suffer from discriminatory policies
and practices that hinder the advancement of quality education for all students. This can occur by
excluding such students from school or by excluding their participation in school once they are
attending. In general, continued restructuring of most learning environments needs to occur to
improve learning opportunities for learners of all abilities and backgrounds.

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 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
This Chapter deals with Research Design, Data Sources, Sampling Techniques, Data gathering
tools, procedures of data collection, and data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

Different research designs have different attributes. The design is the structure of any scientific
work. It gives direction and systematizes the research. The method that researchers choose will
affect their results and how they conclude the findings. Most scientists are interested in getting
reliable observations that can help the understanding of a phenomenon.

It is known that qualitative research is ―subjective‖ and aims more at in-depth description.
Qualitative research measures, in hopes of developing universal laws where it can also be
described as an exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic reality. Qualitative research does
not claim that what is discovered in the process is universal, and thus, replicable.
In general, qualitative research generates rich, detailed and valid process data that contribute to
the in-depth understanding of a context. In analyzing qualitative data, we seek to discover
patterns such as changes over time or possible causal links between variables. (Wyse, 2011)

There are multiple types of research approaches like, deductive or inductive, applied or basic, etc.
but the most common two approaches to a research problem are Qualitative Research and
Quantitative Research.

Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs,

motivations and behaviors of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include
methods such as focus groups, in depth interviews, observation research and case studies.

46
Quantitative research on the other hand is research concerned with the measurement of
attitudes, behaviors and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone,
intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self completion methods such as mail outs and
online surveys. The researcher therefore conduct case study that includes six possible sources of
evidences for case study.

Case Study
According to Abiy et al ( 2009), Case studies emphasizes detailed contextual analysis of a
limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. They are largely descriptive
examinations, usually of a small number of sites (small towns, hospitals, schools). Case studies
can provide very engaging, rich explorations of a project or application as it develops in a real-
world setting. There are six possible sources of evidences for case studies: documents, archival
records, interviews, direct observation, participant – observation, and physical artifacts. In actual
facts, the case study‘s unique strength is ―its ability to deal with a full variety of evidences with
all those conducting methods. The researcher therefore works the study in interview, focused
group discussion, open-end questionnaires, document analysis and archival records of various
years of students‘ results and their HE entry policies.

There are various designs that are used in research, all with specific advantages and
disadvantages: True Experimental Design, Quasi-Experimental Design, Double-Blind
Experiment, Descriptive Research, etc. (Abiy Zegeye et al., 2009).

To assess Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy from Quality perspective:

The case of Emerging regions students in Addis Ababa University, the researcher has used a
descriptive survey of qualitative approach.

3.2 Data Sources

In this study, both primary and secondary sources used to gather sufficient information about the
Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy from Quality perspective. The total
populations of this study are 45 individuals. Primary sources to get first-hand information

47
concerning the policy are 6 higher level experts and 11 policy implementers who are working in
MoE and NEAEA by using open questionnaires and interviews, 13 Addis Ababa University
focusing department at law school teachers and 15 available emerging regions first year students
with in the university.

The secondary sources are taken from written documents like proclamations, directives and
circulars for higher education admission process, books, journals, and articles to support the
primary sources. Various websites and internet information also reviewed to avoid the
inadequacy of the data and to make the study rich in sources and reliable. The University
Registrar records, MoE data, brochures and reports, NEAEA records and bulletins are part of the
documents referenced for this study.

3.3 Sampling Techniques

According to Henry (1990), in a positivistic study, when seeking the views of a group of fifty or
less, argues against any form of sampling. He argues that you should distribute questionnaires
and collect data to the entire population, if possible. To elicit the views of larger groups, some
form of sampling is usually necessary to attempt to gather opinions that are likely to be
representative of the whole group. There are different types of sampling methods and of which
the one is Purposive Sampling. It enables the researcher to use own judgment to choose people
that are presented or are available that best meet your objectives or your target groups.

Sample must be of an optimum size, it should neither be excessively large nor too small. This is
because it should be large enough to be representative of the population and small enough to be
economical in terms of time, money and complexity of analysis (Best and Khan, 1989:16). All
teachers in AAU college of Law and students from emerging regions from are included using
available sampling technique because their number is small enough for qualitative study in the
college. In this study another university teachers who wrote about quality and admission is
interviewed to elaborate and have reach data about the research.

According to Ben-Peretz, (2009), policy is regulated by considering the law and proclamations.
Hence the sample area of the study is Addis Ababa university, law department. The study targets
this university since it is the first university in Ethiopia and yet responsible university on the
48
bases of preparation of National secondary school examination which determine the admission of
students to the higher education evaluating exam for the entire Ethiopia secondary school
students. The purposive sampling is also college of law available 15 teachers. 13 students who
came from emerging regions and currently learning at school of law and social studies have
taken as sample in the study since they are beneficiaries from affirmative action. Therefore, for
this research, 45 respondents participated in total. Of those, 8 are females, and 37 are males.
MoE and NEAEA staffs of 6 are policy developers, 11 implementers, 13 targeted teachers, and
15 are students placed from emerging regions to AAU, in social studies and Law school first
year of undergraduate program in 2006 E.C.

3.4 Data Gathering Tools

Data collection in qualitative research is not seldom based on unstructured or semi-structured,
but methodologically flexible techniques, e.g. individual depth interviews or group discussions,
that are suited to elicit great detail and a comprehensive view. Quantitative research uses highly
structured and rigid techniques. Unlike qualitative research, which allows unlimited expression
from respondents, quantitative research relies responses to pre-formulated questions but
Qualitative research typically is exploratory and/or investigative in nature. Its findings are often
not conclusive and cannot automatically be used to make generalizations. However, it is
indispensable in developing a deep understanding of a given thematic complex. Employing
multiple data collection instruments helps the researcher to combine, strengthen and amend some
of the inadequacies of the data. These instruments can help to collect adequate data about the
study (Creswell, 2003:62).

Therefore, data collection in this study includes open-end questions, interview, document
analysis and focus group discussion (FGD) on a purely qualitative method.
Both primary data collection using interview, questionnaire and FGD and secondary data
gathered from questioner and document analysis. The sample groups data collection is taken in a
repeated process and that took longer time from expected. These four data collection tools are
considered as important and applied for this study of Ethiopian Higher Education Admission
Policy from Quality perspective. It helps to see the past and current policies, quality factors,

49
affirmative action and all the necessary research data. Besides, these instruments can help to
collect adequate data about the study. Here are the description of these four data gathering tools:

3.4.1 Questionnaires

In research, questionnaires have a lot of advantages to gather a large amounts of information that
can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost
effective way. It also can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability. The results of the questionnaires can usually be
quickly and easily use by a researcher (Abiy Zegeye et al., 2009).
Since the study approach is purely qualitative, the researcher therefore uses open-end
questionnaires to collect relevant and first-hand information from key informants those are MoE
policy experts, higher education admission committee. This includes a total of 6 NEAEA experts
and MoE Higher officials, 13 teachers and 15 available emerging regions students in Addis
Ababa University at the school of Law and social studies. The items of the questionnaires are
mainly open-ended questions and followed by interviews to gather the research questions related
information in the subject of HE admission process, how it relates to quality and what supports
are provided to those affirmative action benefited students after they admit to universities.
Within the framework of the study, seven open-end questions submitted to Policy makers and
implementers, five open end question for teachers, and six questions to the emerging regions
students‘. List of these questions are attached in the Appendix section for reference.

3.4.2 Interview
Semi-structured interviews applied to collect data from MoE, NEAEA, teachers and students
since the research data collection method is qualitative. Moreover, using this instrument is
believed that it is important to get broad information about the issue under study. Some of the
interviews are voice recorded based on mutual understanding and agreement with interviewee
permission not to be bypass or use for any other purpose from ethical point of view. It doesn‘t
mean that most are refused the voice recording, but few accepted and it helped to re-listening and
write properly what the reply says in related to the study. The rights of privacy of individuals
will be kept last as a scientific researcher. Nine interview guiding questions for policy developers
and implementers forwarded and elaborative questions added during the interview. Those

50
guiding interviews helped the researcher to get detail information about how the HE admission is
processing and what factors are considered in the process of students admission to HE, what kind
of support is rendering to students admitting by affirmative action, how the policy affects
teaching learning process, and related issues. Most interviews are recorded by voice record only
when permitted by the interviewees. This record is a very helpful document for the researcher in
order to write each participants as they said. 4 interviewee individuals were not voluntary to be
recorded so the researcher doesn‘t take their voice record to make the study ethical. The overall
interview of this research took about 4:55 hours. Of the total interview time, MoE staffs for 2:35
hours, and teachers for 2:20 hrs.

3.4.3 Document Analysis

Document analyses are important and relevant sources of data. The data never alters and can be
subject to reanalysis. (Abiy Zegeye et al., 2009)
The researcher hence uses document analysis to this study to gather necessary and unchanging
information about the policy, admission requisites and its directives and implications. The past
and current Ethiopian higher education admission policy, and process also seen from different
documents. MoE documents and publications, NEAEA documents of recent and back admitted
students information especially from 2001-2006 E.C records, AAU registrar data and other
related documents and publications have been seen for this thesis and it was very helpful to
strength and obtain the necessary data. Constitution document, proclamation journals, books, and
articles also review to explore and have rich data on this research issues.

3.4.4 Focused Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of opinions, from a selected group of
people on a particular and pre-determined topic, some of these are consumer topic; political topic
etc. The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way what is being said (e.g.
by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc). The purpose of the discussion is introduced and
discussion ground-rules agreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems. Focus groups can be a useful way of finding
out what the main issues and concerns of any group are. This can help in questionnaire design or
to develop a future interview strategy. They can be a useful way too, of bringing to the surface

51
issues that might not otherwise have been discovered: the dynamics of a group can often make
people bolder in advancing their opinions. (Neville, 2007)

The main purpose of the Focused Group Discussion (FGD) was to get sufficient information
about how they joined the university, to see the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative
action in relation to quality input, to see their challenges in teaching-learning process the HE,
what institutional supports are rendering to those emerging region students, and to see how they
considered in HE admission policy. Two groups, with 7 members in the first and 8 in the second
was arranged for the total of 15 students who came from emerging regions to AAU. It took 50
minutes for the first and almost 1:10 hours for the second groups. Seven opening questions for
emerging region first year law students at AAU was raised for focus group discussion and
discussed by elaborating more questions. When new ideas raised from the discussion, further
clarification and contradictory ideas asked and different views were reflected. The discussions
were more focused on the ideas of the research framework. Nine of the emerging region
freshman law students at AAU participated in this FGD and it took almost 2 hours to finalize.
Language barrier was part of this discussion to express ideas especially for one student came
from Somali region the researcher therefore tried to translate in both Amharic and English
language as well as allow to speak in Somali language and to translate by one of the participant
in to English. Most and core points are transcribe in the study turn by turn. In this write down
process, key elements that related to the study subject matter in positive or negative attitudes are
equally treated. Opening questions are attached at the end appendix part of this paper.

3.5 Procedures of Data Collection

To assess higher education admission policy and its implications in quality of the study area, first
interview have been done as a pilot test to one policy MoE staff, and one NEAEA representative.
Two College of Law instructors at AAU and three students from same are pretested for
questionnaires. Due to an expectation of low capacity of understanding English, university
students questionnaires verbally translated in to Amharic on the pilot survey process. This
translation is also used during the final FGD of students to minimize respondents‘ confusion

52
from misunderstanding of questions, and misleading of the researcher from wrong replies. Focus
Group discussion is preferred and arranged for students since their numbers are many to
interview individually.
Accordingly, with some modifications and clarifications, the final instruments developed and
used for the study purpose as stated on the data gathering topic. The questionnaires are planned
to design and administer by the researcher to policy developers, teachers and students. An
interview also conducted for the purpose of the study based on the permission and willingness of
the participants. Finally, document analysis made by the researcher to strengthen this scientific
research data and information.

3.6 Data Analysis

According to Hartley (2004) data collection and analyzing case study evidences are developed
together in an iterative or frequent process, which can be a strength as it allows for theory
development which is grounded in empirical evidence. Ingeneral data analysiss means a search
for patterns in data.
In fact the ultimate goal of the case study is to uncover patterns, determine meanings, construct
conclusions and build theory (Patton & Appelbaum, 2003, p.67). Qualitative data analysis is
non-statistical, its methodological approach is primarily guided by the concrete material at hand.
The data collected from the respondents using the four methods; questionnaire, interview, FGD,
and document analysis are analyzed to assess Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy
from Quality perspective in the case of Emerging regions students in Addis Ababa University.
Different literatures are reviewed that relates to the study and data are analyzed in qualitative
method. Not to be reflected perception of individuals rather than having scientific evidences
from other scholars and most acceptable ones, the researcher has seen and evaluate in depth the
result of interviews and questionnaires collected.
Few Amharic statements have written in Amharic as it was said during the interview and FGD to
show-up the strong statements and what originally said and yet tried to translate in English by the
writer. Descriptive ways are used and organized in most responses and records are transcribed as
it was said by respondents and reviewed from different scholars view point.

53
Analysis have been checked how the policy is changing frequently to determine its relevance and
the standing of the respondents. The documents such as journals, books, manuals, directives and
articles also
seen and analysis done to evaluate the admission policy outcome and higher education input
quality issues. The NEAEA higher education students placement by their entry year, the
Universities intake capacity and actual placed students from emerging regions and others, HE
undergraduate program entrance minimum grade that was decided by the committee document
findings are reviewed and interpreted in relation to the literature and this study subject.
To all these processes, analysis and interpretations made based on the data collected through
questionnaires, interview, FGD and document analysis.

3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research. The main issues to consider although the
ethical issues surrounding these items are not always clear-cut. The rights of privacy of
individuals, voluntary nature of participation and the rights of individuals to withdraw partially
or completely from the process, consent and possible deception of participants, maintenance of
the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable participants and their
anonymity or secrecy should be considered and practiced. On the other hand, reactions of
participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect data, effects on participants of the
way in which data is analyzed and reported, as well as behavior and objectivity of the researcher
should not be reflected. (Neville, 2007)
As a scientific research, the writer is concerned on ethical issues to ensure that all data and
information are viewed and printed in appropriate way and without referring any doubt of the
participants and respondents. No individual names are stated on the research that could create
harmful or unethical issues on the respondents. Some documents that are expected as
confidential are not annex with the research from research ethics point of view. All participants
on the data collection process, interviewed personnel, group discussion participants and collected
documents are from volunteer participants without any deception by explaining the purpose and
convincing in clear manner because research ethics emphasizes to give value for the rights of
privacy of individuals, voluntary nature of participation and the rights of individuals to withdraw
partially or completely from the process. (Neville, 2007)

54
 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Various theories of higher education admission policy and its concern from quality perspectives
were discussed in the second chapter of the literature review. Other countries and universities
admission experiences and theories also explained in that chapter specially focusing on the
international experiences of developed countries. The soundness of these theories and
experiences would be tested here using both primary and secondary data. This fourth chapter
focuses on the analyzing of data collected and presenting the outcome. As a qualitative research
which means exploratory research, the data for this study consisted of policy makers and
implementers interview, focused group discussion of AAU admitted students from emerging
regions in Law school, open-end questions and document analysis to answer the basic questions
that are: (1) What are the Higher Education admission policies/criteria in Ethiopia? (2) What are
the institution/academic supports rendered to those students who admitted to university on the
basis of such admission policy/criteria? and (3) What are the challenges faced in the
implementation of such admission policy/ criteria from quality input perspective? Does the
policy favor to the emerging region students in admission?

The identified questions are categorized by the subject and analyzed. MoE and NEAEA who are
deciding on the admission criteria and implementers are interviewed and filled open-end
questions also it examined from their perspective. Here the concern of the researcher is to get
sufficient knowledge on the issue of higher education admission requisites for undergraduate
regular students in the Ethiopian government universities focusing on AAU and how quality is
consider in this process. Challenges faced in such admission policy/ criteria and the quality of
inputs to the universities or how quality is considered during students placement process and
entry result decision from participants‘ inductive/logical theory also seen in a qualitative
instrument. The institution/academic supports rendered to those students who admitted to the

55
University from emerging regions that are Afar, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambela and Somali are
on the basis of such admission criteria focusing part of the study to see subjective experiences.
Since the gathered data from interview, FGD, questionnaires, and documents are too much, the
researcher summarized the presentation and analysis of similar ideas together to avoid
unnecessary redundancy.

56
 Respondents Category
MoE &
NEAEA, Policy
(Policy Impleme Perce
No Subject Makers) nters Teachers Students Total ntage
Sex:
82.20
Male 6 8 10 13 37 %
Female 17.80
0 3 3 2 8 %
TOTAL 100.00
1 6 11 13 15 45 %
Age:
24.40
<21 11 11 %
21-30 28.90
5 4 4 13 %
31-40 22.20
2 1 3 6 10 %
41-50 17.80
3 2 3 8 %
>50 6.70%
2 1 3
TOTAL 100.0
3 6 11 13 15 45 0%
Service Years in
policy
area/teaching/
college student:
<5 53.30
Yrs 1 4 4 15 24 %
6-10 28.90
Yrs 3 5 5 13 %
>10 17.80
4 yrs 2 2 4 8 %
TOTAL 100.0
6 11 13 15 45 0%
Respondents
Group % 13.40% 24.40% 28.90% 33.30% 100%

Table 1 : Gender, Age and Experience distribution of respondents

Sample selection in qualitative research is usually based on a smaller number of not-necessarily

representative cases. Respondents are frequently selected with the expectation that they fulfill
certain criteria. Moreover in the data analysis, it is non-statistical and its methodological

57
approach is primarily guided by the concrete material at hand. Findings are usually descriptive in
nature although conclusive within the respondents resource and literature reviews framework.
The background of respondents is summarized in Table 1 as follows:

For this research 45 respondents participated in total as shown above in table 1. Of those, 8 are
females, and 37 are males. As indicated in this table, 6 are policy developers, 11 implementers,
13 targeted teachers, and 15 are students placed from emerging regions to AAU, Law school first
year of undergraduate program in 2006 E.C. In this distribution from total respondents‘ 13.4 %
are policy makers from MoE and NEAEA but the percentage doesn‘t show any comparison since
they are only a 6 people committee members who are responsible to decide on government
universities entrance minimum grade decision makers. These committees are from Ministry of
Education and NEAEA. 24.4% of participants are policy implementers who are from AAU,
MoE and NEAEA who are more of experts. 28.9 % are Teachers from AAU Law school, and the
remaining 33.30% are students. The experiences of teachers and MoE with NEAEA also shown
on the above table. 46.7% of the total respondents have over 6 years of services in various fields
that relates to teaching and policy making from the entire respondents.

In terms of age as seen below in figure 2, from 45 entire respondents, 24.4 % (11) of the
respondents are below 21 years old and all are students joined to AAU from the four
emerging/developing regions. The highest percentage in terms of age disbursement is between
21-30 years, which is 28.9% (13) respondents. In this group, most of the policy implementers are
available. From the remaining, 22.2% (10) are between the age of 31-40, 17.8% (8) respondents
are 41-50 and the rest of 6.7% (3) people are over 50 years. This age distribution exhibits a fact
that younger employees are holding policy implementers and majority of the policy makers are
above 40 or at matured level except one. Among the teachers responded over 76 percent were in
their 20‘s and 30's. Only three of the teachers were found over 40 years.

A striking feature is the dominance of males in all policy makers share in policy and placement
decision making activities, from the total 6 respondents, no women was found as a policy maker
or developer. This might show the gender disparity and gap in holding key government positions
especially at the top level but need to take another research by interested group.

58
In general the assessment of Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy from Quality
perspective in the case of Emerging regions students in Addis Ababa University, policy and its
concern on quality is seen from four groups of respondents as seen below in pie graph.

The respondents are:

1- MoE & NEAEA (Policy developers)
2- Policy implementers
3- Teachers, and
4- Social study Students at AAU from four emerging regions

MoE & NEAEA (Policy

6 developers)

15 Policy Implimenters

11
Teachers (AAU college of
Law)

1st yr Students at AAU,

Law school from emerging
13 regions

Figure 1 - Pie diagram of respondents group and number

4.1 Analysis On ETHIOPIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Admission POLICIES And Its Application
Before 1974, during the regime of Emperor Hailesilassie I, any student scored average of two
point out of five subjects (that includes English and Mathematics) in ESLCE had been placed to
the university. After the fall of the Emperor, when students increased and scored over the intake
capacity of universities, MoE started increasing entrance policy/criteria from 2.00 to 2.2, 2.4, ….
to 3.6 and above.

59
The policy and minimum entrance grade for regular under graduate program was frequently
changing during the Derg regime (1974 to 1991) due to various situations. For instance, in the
mid of 1980‘s many students were coming back from two years of National Military service and
for them, the government gave a chance to join in available universities who had 1.6 result and
above in ESLCE. In those years, other students who were not giving a national military service,
entrance criteria was increased from 2.2 to 2.8 for diploma program, and from 2.4 to 3.0 for
degree program. Students placement base is the intake capacity of the government universities
available in Ethiopia and this base works until now to reconcile the number of students against
the intake capacity. Currently, these government universities are grown from 3 (Addis Ababa,
Alamaya and Asamara Universities) to 33 especially after the years of 1991 to 2013.

Students placement to higher education in a regular under graduate program of the government
universities is the responsibility of MoE. According to the respondent from AAU Lecturer,
Universities have no mandate to decide on placement of students, it is centralized by the MoE.
Once students are assigned to the Universities by MoE, the university will check the circular and
accept and provide the necessary education and facilities to assigned students.

Although the admission policy was changed every time from the previous governor era, selecting
and assigning such students is the responsibility of MoE. Universities/ higher education institutes
have no any mandate to select quality inputs (selecting or examining regular undergraduate
students) by preparing entrance exam or reviewing secondary school results. Though this idea
and practice is not easy to examine each students from their quantity, cost, location and time
perspective; the authority also not given to universities. This is what the universities lack on
quality input from students point of view, they have to accept whatever the assigned student
result is and have no right to reject them.

60
Admission policies/criteria to Higher Education in Ethiopia
According to MoE Education statistics (2005), the Ethiopian education and training policy (ETP),
currently a regional examination will be given at grade 8 to certify completion of primary
education. The first national examination, the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate
Examination (EGSECE), will be given at grade 10 to certify completion of general secondary
education and to selected students that qualify for the preparatory education. Similarly, the
second national examination, the Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination
(EHEECE) will be given at grade 12 to determine placement of students in higher education
institutions.

The MoE GEQIP (2008) says, At the federal level, in addition to overall coordination of GEQIP
implementation, the MOE will also be responsible for certain assigned activities, including the
procurement of large procurement activities (such as textbook, vehicles, and IT equipment) on
behalf of Regions. In addition, universities at the federal level and teacher training institutions at
the regional level will be responsible for teacher development activities in close coordination
with the MOE and REBs, respectively. Regions and Woredas will be responsible for the
implementation of specific activities based on their respective GEQIP plans that are consistent,
on the one hand, with national standards and on the other, with regional priorities.

Admission to HE based on Students Characteristics

According to a document collected from NEAEA (2010), titled as ―Government Higher
Education Regular students Enrollment policy and its process circular‖ , the following students
will get special favor to admit to the higher education:
All students, based on their choice and their EHEECE result, students will get their choice of
universities and field of study. The following groups of students are privileged for stated
benefits and have special favor and consideration by the policy:
1- Disabled students are beneficiary from HE institution choices and entrance grade.
2- Female students (Both HE institution choices and entrance grade)
3- Students with highly health problem and who can have medical certificate (Only HE
institution choices)

61
 4- Somali, Afar, Benshangul-Gumuz, and Gambela region which considered as emerging
students (only entrance grade)
5- Oromia Region and Southern Nation and Nationalities Peoples region students from
pastoralist and semi-pastoralist groups (only entrance grade)
4.2 This admission special consideration or affirmative action takes place by reducing the
entrance grade for those students stated above and this entrance grade will consider that
it should not compromise or influence education quality.
4.3 Challenges of higher education admission criteria/Policy
Policy is not a sudden of action rather policy is like judging by individuals or the society life as a
whole. As some of the questioner respondents and interviewees stated; HE admission policy is
not fair and consistent because it gives too much attention on quantity than quality. Quality is
compromising in favor of receiving large number of students who are not competent to join
universities. The entrance examination result should focus on admitting students who performed
above average. The policy should follow strictly the result of EHEECE rather focusing on
quantity.

According to respondent T1, The policy is not transparent and instead of concentrating on
achieving good grades and knowledge, most students are content with getting their degree and
try to get jobs via the back door. It is also a big challenge in teaching-learning process that the
concerned organ is seriously affected by corruption because of lack of transparency.
The desire to enroll as many students as possible on the one hand and the concern for quality on
the other hand are the most important issues to be considered. Some students who were admitted
based on affirmative action struggle to complete their programs but a challenge for them. This
also has impact on the teaching- learning process. The poor profile on admission criteria is surely
affecting the very poor process of teaching learning process.

From the interview of T2, Language ability and competence should be taken into consideration
in the process of determining the students admission in the HE. Discriminatory allotment of
places and assigning children of the rich, officials and well connected groups at AAU is part of
the challenge in HE admission process. Overcapacity admission is another confront.

62
The 3rd teacher correspondent also mentioned in the interview that, the current HE admission
policy is highly centralized. It would be better to allow higher education institutions to determine
admission of their students. In this condition, admission is part of the problem in the sense that
Universities do not have a say in it. Moreover, the capacity of HE, the need of the country, and
the interest of the students should be taken into consideration.

From the documents NEAEA, Inconsistency is visible in HE admission policy and cutoff points.
The entrance grade is different from year to year and group to group of admitting students. The
following table shows this inconsistency in the recent five years of time.

Students Higher Education placement by their entry year and

group

Entry Grade
Entry to HE
No Type/Group of students Field of Study in Gender
Year
Male Female
Natural Science
Regular & Extension 180 150
pastoralist and Emerging regions 175 145
Visually impaired
1 2002 E.C.
Social Science
Regular & Extension 205 180
pastoralist and Emerging regions 187 151
Visually impaired 104 104
Natural Science
Regular & Extension 298 280
pastoralist and Emerging regions 280 280
Visually impaired
2 2003 E.C.
Social Science
Regular & Extension 290 280
pastoralist and Emerging regions 280 280
Visually impaired 240 240
Natural Science
Regular & Extension 290 280
3 2004 E.C.
pastoralist and Emerging regions 280 280
Visually impaired

63
 Private examined students 295 295
Private HE entry 265 265
Social Science
Regular & Extension 290 280
pastoralist and Emerging regions 280 280
Visually impaired 240 240
Private examined students 295 295
Private HE entry 265 265
Natural Science
Regular & Extension 294 290
pastoralist and Emerging regions 285 285
Visually impaired
Private examined students 299 297
Private HE entry 265 265
Social Science
4 2005 E.C.
Regular & Extension 275 270
pastoralist and Emerging regions 270 268
Fully unable to hear students 270 270
Visually impaired 230 230
Private examined students 299 297
Private Blinds 256 256
Private HE entry 265 265
Natural Science
Regular & Extension 325 305
pastoralist and Emerging regions 305 300
Visually impaired
Private examined students 330 320
Private HE entry 265 265
5 2006 E.C. Social Science
Regular & Extension 285 280
pastoralist and Emerging regions 275 270
Fully unable to hear students 270 270
Visually impaired 230 230
Private examined students 290 290
Private HE entry 265 265
Table 2 : Students Higher Education placement by their entry year and group
Source: NEAEA
As shown above in table 2, the admission criteria of students to the HE is highly inconsistent.
For instance, the admission criteria for regular/extension natural science male students from
2002 E.C. to 2006 E.C. increases from 180 to 325 entry grade. It increases by 81% within five

64
years of time and this inconsistency has an indirect influence on quality and discrimination from
batch to batch. It is clearly shown in the below figure 2.

Natural science Male HE students

cut-off point in 5 Years
350 325
298 290 294
300
250
200 180

150 Entry Grade

100
50
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 2: Natural science Male HE students cut-off point in 5 Years from 2002-2006 E.C.
[

Moreover, the entry grade has variation from gender to gender, by the students regional group,
etc. From this document, the study also shows that there was no grouping uniformity of students.
In 2002 E.C. there were only three student groups which are Regular & Extension, pastoralist
and Emerging regions, and Blinds for both Natural and Social science students entering grade
group. After two years in 2005 E.C, this three student grouping became five and seven for
Natural and social sciences respectively. In that year, Private examined students, and Private HE
entry included in a separate students group of Natural science and fully unable to hear students,
Private Blinds added on the social science group of entering to the HE students.

In the past five years, the minimum HE admission grade is highly fluctuated and inconsistent
and the variation is too high as seen above on the table. Students admitting to the universities
quality from their grade point of view has a big difference as shown in the above table 2.

65
 4.4 Review on quality of inputs to the universities and
emerging regions students placement
How do you determine the current higher education admission policy? Please explain in brief?
What factors are taken into consideration in the process of determining the admission policy? Its
challenges and benefits were asked :
One of the interview respondents (P1), said:
Emerging regions are considered as under privileged population sector having
lesser point to join in the universities based on the intake capacity as a
determining factor. Two contradictory issues are seen here. The first challenge is
the base of placement students to Universities, which is intake capacity. If the
MoE and NEAEA decide the grade only based on the intake capacity, I can say it
is challenge, the input will be “አሰስ ገሰስ” anyone who can’t fit and compete for the
university level. It makes a big challenge not only for students but also for
university lecturers. Universities are giving undifferentiated support and teaching
system to all students and Teachers have one uniform curriculum and will give
same exam for all type of students whether they placed in affirmative action or by
their result. Even if the students have below grade “C”s as compared to the
previous 2.0 entrance minimum criteria, they are assigning from affirmative
action and that leads for various problems. One thing you should underline is
that, ”ትምህርት መቀባት ወይስ ትምህርት/የተማረ መገንባት? ጥራት ከታች ነው መጀመር ያለበት” Are we
painting or building quality students? Quality should start from bottom or
primary schools. It is difficult to assure quality at higher level only. “Quality is a
vicious circle” one interconnected to the other end. Poor quality teachers can
produce Poor quality students or inputs to the next level. The pool has to be
improved from the base not at the university level. If the foundation which means
primary and secondary level of the schools, has a problem, it will be difficult to
improve on the university level. It is like a building construction. If the basement
or foundation is not strong and well constructed, painting on the top wall, ceiling
and roof will be meaningless.

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 The challenge of poor input results for same poor output or, if incompetent
student is graduated and going back and assigned as a teacher to primary and
secondary schools, definitely their output will be poor quality. Unless these
students are quality and competent enough, the consequence and outcome will be
gloomy.

According to Mulu (2009), in order to complete the university study efficiently, students should
have sufficient knowledge and preparation before attending at the university. Such decisive
factors of preparation are academic background, character, interest, motivation, value, etc.

P1 interviewee also said,

I am not saying affirmative action is not important, even it works in the USA. But
saying affirmative action is right or wrong is controversial. It is not from
principle and policy point of view but in my view, the problem is from application
process. There are people who are saying affirmative action is right, “ጻፎችና ፤
ፈሪሳውያን” ‘Scribes and The Pharisees’, (government policy implementers and
supporters). And there are also others who are against the idea of affirmative
action application.
In my opinion, these emerging region students who are assigned to the
universities in a lesser grade or advantageous from affirmative action have no
lesser intelligence, but their primary and secondary education is given with
incomplete resources like, quality teachers, adequate education materials or
inputs including books, etc. and they will be competent with other region students
in both genders if they get all facilities. In this case the only difference between
students will be family. The families will also be changed through time if the
primary and secondary education facilitates the necessary and culture will be
improved from education, I believe.” አናት ላይ መጥቶ ችግሩን ለመፍታት ክመሞከር፤ ከስር
ከመሰረቱ መፍታት ይሻላል እላለሁ”. ’It is better to solve the problem from the bottom than
trying at the top’. This affirmative action must go down to the primary level not at
the university level. Students can join to the university by their own effort when
they get the necessary support at primary level. Affirmative action is a short cut

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 but the problem is after they join to the university, they couldn’t compete and pass
exam like other students who joined by their grade.
According to Respondent P1,

As an option, the government has to preparing special class for those students
benefited from affirmative action. This special class must be given minimum for a
year as an entrance or preparatory system separately. Students might be late for a
year from graduation but they will be benefited from this opportunity not to be
dismissed, withdraw or lack from competition. It is a special support for those
students. But this is a second option. If this is not happen, the competition will be
between “the horse racers and runners”.

Another policy maker, represented as P2, explained that:

Giving an opportunity for the emerging region students who have no sufficient
educational materials and inputs, equity in terms of gender, and students from
pastoralist and semi-pastoralist groups is very important. Female students cannot
get enough time to study since they are responsible to work at home and highly
influenced by the culture. Emerging regions have also school access problem and
they were isolated from education for various reasons especially before 1991,
their nation and nationality was not even equally treated (for that another study
might require). Pastoralist and semi-pastoralist groups do not have stable and
one place living style and that difficulty results them not to have learning
opportunity so the government is trying to give an opportunity for these
disadvantaged group or underprivileged one. Moreover, Universities have to give
equal opportunity for all citizens and have to follow fairness principles in all
aspects.

Another participant, Represented as T1, also stated that:

“ዛፍ ችግኝ እያለ ካላቃኑት ካደገ በ%DL SVŸ\ Seu` ’¨<&&”. „If a plant is not straighten
in its seedling stage, trying after grow up will result in broken’. Primary and
secondary levels should produce quality students with a possible sacrifice and

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 provide competent and quality input for the universities. “If the seed is quality,
the plant and its fruit definitely will be quality as far as it gets fertile input.”
The quality of students is a component of the inputs into the educational process. Quality may be
affected by the previous educational experience and level achieved by the students, the method
of selection and the extent it can take into account matters that are not directly measured by high
school results but that will impact on their likelihood to succeed in further study, the amount of
choice students are given with respect to the institution and subject of study and various other
variables some of which are inside HEIs‘ control and some of which (such as the school
curriculum and examination), if they can influence at all, they can only influence through long-
term action such as the development of better links with schools. However, there are other
aspects that might be influenced by HEIs, in cooperation with the QRAA. There may be many
more mature people who for one reason or another may not have achieved a level in high school
appropriate for higher education study, but who have continued to learn through opportunities in
their work and are now capable of entry into (say) extension courses. In addition, many able
adults may be capable of study at degree or post graduate level, but they may not wish to study
for the length of time needed for a bachelor or masters qualification. The design of a
qualifications framework (perhaps containing post Grade 12 higher certificates and diplomas
after one and two year full-time equivalent study and post graduate certificates and diplomas that
may build towards a masters degree) and a system of accreditation of prior learning in
collaboration with the QRAA may provide a range of additional qualifications and enable people
while remaining in work to upgrade their skills to help meet the development needs of the
country (MoF report, 2004).
It is long time that quality is lost. The arrow showed down especially in the
university admitting criteria. Previously we call it ”¾Ñ“ T°uM”, ‗Christ-mass
storm’, which students were dismissed due to their result from HE after one
semester, but now a days, the policy is totally changed and I don’t understand
how teachers give passing grade to those students at most can’t even understand
simple English conversation. These students have even difficulties to write their
own full names in English, as it is obvious that English language is a medium of
instruction in the universities of Ethiopia.

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 General attitude has to be changed from students point of view. Students are
coming to get the certificate of graduation not the knowledge. Without students
interest and motivation, Without desire of study, change or quality improvement
cannot be practical. “Why Learning?” Should be clearly known from its
advantage and application point of view by stakeholders or the society those are,
students and their family, teachers, investors, and even the government. When
students are graduated, have they the capacity and knowledge on what they are
certified? Is also the basic question to be answered by all. All these are the
problem of poor quality input.
If a teacher in the university gives many “F”s, he/she will be evaluated and
criticized. University teachers are dissatisfied from their salary bases, high
intervention of politics, etc. The university became a pipe line. Students will enter
in one line and graduate on the other line without change. Most students who are
placed to the university could not read or write even simple essay.

Respondent T2 also said:

The university admission affirmative action criteria does not observe students
who are other than emerging regions. There are multiple of students in different
cities even in Addis Ababa, who have no learning opportunity and under extreme
poverty to get their daily bread, shelter and food but they considered as few
facilitated students and missed an opportunity from affirmative action. Students at
Tigray, Amhara, Harare or any other region students from farmer family or rural
area are still backward but they compete with facilitated one.
Regarding affirmative action, equity in terms of gender, admitting female students
with lesser grade comparing with male students has a moral issue for female
students. There is a concept of “both male and females are equal” with the
exception of natural or biological differences. Having this difference is in entry
grade might not been even acceptable by most female students from moral and
their potential point of view.

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Another teacher, T3 also explained in the questioner that,
The type of students now a days are not academically good as well as they exhibit
poor conduct and performance.

The following open-end questions were forwarded to seven teachers who are teaching different
field of studies at the college of Law in AAU and they replied.

The first question was : How do you determine the current higher education admission policy?
Please explain in brief.

T1 replied that ―Not bad‖ only and he doesn‘t want to explain details. But the second respondent,
represented as T2 also said that it is characterized by emphasis on quantity. Quality is
compromised in favor of receiving large number of students who are not competent to join
universities.

The third respondent, represented as T3 doesn‘t understand the question. But the fourth
respondent (T4) said that:
The admission policy is ok but I think that sometimes because of low cut-off students struggle to
finish their program of study. The next respondent (T5) explained: The university determines
students to be admitted on competitive basis . currently, the ( new) does not have say on
admission. According to T6’s reply, It is fairly good, and the final participant said (T7) that: It is
centralized. it would be better to allow higher education institutions to determine admission of
their own students.

Secondly, What factors/elements should be taken into consideration in the process of

determining the students admission in the HE? Was the question and according to respondent T1,
Grade, Gender and student tendency (academic) should be taken in to consideration.

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T2 said that:
The entrance examination result should focus on admitting students who
performed above average scale. But T3 replied that Merit, equity and capacity of
the higher education. And also the students’ inclination should be taken in to
account. And it is another view unseen by the researcher. The fourth respondent
also confirmed to take academic achievement, affirmative action (gender ,
disability, etc).

T5 replied, His /her preference result in preparatory school suitability to a particular discipline.
According to T6 : - Competence and language ability. T7 said that the capacity of higher
education on the need of the country and the interest of the students should be taken into
consideration.

The third question was ―What are the challenges in the process of determining under graduate
students admission to the HE from policy/criteria perspective? ―

According to respondent T1, quality control, filling regional quota but T5 said : Units (schools in
our case ) do not have a say!! On the other hand, T6 replied, Affirmative action ; i.e, applying the
policy , discriminatory allotment of places at AAU to children of the rich , officials and well-
connected groups are part of assigning students to convenient universities.

T7 replied:
Matching the interest of students with the need of the country.

The fourth question was ―Do you think the HE admission policy is fair and consistent? Why
‗Yes‘ or why not?‖

According to respondent T1,Yes, but no any explanation. T5 replied: I do not have the data as to
who applied or who is refused. So it is difficult /impossible to talk about fairness. T6 said ―no‖
without any explanation. T7 replied : It is fair and consistent. It is based on students achievement
and the need for human resources development.

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The fifth question was to explain What the challenges of teaching-learning process are? Does it
relate to admission policy? Please explain your opinion.

According to respondent T1, quality compromise – partly Yes. And T5 said, Surely it relates to
admission. The poor profile is very poor. T6 also said : Over-capacity admission, incompetence
of students admitted on affirmative action grounds. On the other hand, T7 replied: Admission is
part of the problem in the sense that universities do not have a say in it. But the main problem is
resources, be it material or human resources.

Here are few data‘s of students admission to show the affirmative action advantaged groups:
2005 for 2006 E.C. preparatory students and passed to University

No of students No of students passed the exam

took the Exam and placed in Gov't Universities Failed
Placement Male Female Total Male female Total
Regular students 62643 29290 91933
Extension Students 93962 73461 167423 756 275 1031
Passed by affirmative
action/
special consideration 727 9425 10152
Total 167423 64126 38990 103116 64307
100% 61.59 38.41

Table 3: 2005 for 2006 E.C. preparatory students who are taken the national exam data

Source: NEAEA 2006 E.C. data

As we can see the data in table 3, out of the total of 167423 students who took EHEECE 2005
E.C. to admit to the universities in 2006 E.C., 103116 students passed the exam and this is 61.59%
of the total. From these promoted students, 38990 (37.81%) are female and the rest 64126
(62.19%) are Male students.

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From all admitted to HE in all over Ethiopia government universities, 103116 students, only
10152 (9.85%) are benefited from affirmative action in 2006 E.C.

2006 E.C. AAU Enrolled emerging region Students data

Emerging Regions
College/
Benishan Total in
College/Faculity/ Faculity/
No gul- Gender
Dept Dep't
Afar Gumuz Gambela Somali Total
M F M F M F M F M F
Technology
1 (5killo & Lideta
campus) 3 1 3 1 4
2 Social Sciences 1 12 21 4 33 5 38

3 Veterinary
(Deberezeit Campus) 4 4 0 4
Agriculture (Selalie
4 2 1 1 7
Campus) 1 10 2 12
Business &
5
Economics (FBE) 8 8 0 8
6 Medicine 1 1 0 1
Other health Science
7
(Nursing) 2 1 2 1 3
TOTAL from 4
emerging Regions 2 1 0 1 13 0 46 7 61 9 70
Total admitted in
AAU from Ethiopia 4136
Total admitted
students to
AAU in % from
emerging regions 1.69%

Table 4 : AAU 2006 E.C. Under graduate admitted Students data

Source: AAU – Registrar, 19 May 2014

* M = Male
F = Female
Dep't = Department

Note: The total number of students admitted at AAU in the year 2006 E.C. are 4136 students.

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According to the source of data shown above in Table 4, AAU received a total of 4136 students
in all departments in 2006 E.C. and of which, 70 students are from emerging regions which is
1.69% of the total. Off the total students, only one female student is assigned in technology
came from Somali region.

2006 E.C. Affirmative action benefited emerging region students placement to undergraduate program
all over Ethiopia

All Emerging
regions
Benishangul enrolled
Regions Afar Somali Gunuz Gambela students total
natural science placed
students 55 446 195 80 235
Social Science placed students 98 51 59 27 776
Affirmative advantaged
sum 153 497 254 107 1011
Total 413 2715 930 558 103116
Affirmative advantaged
Percentage from all placed 37.05 18.31 27.31 19.18 0.98%

Table 5: Emerging regions enrolled students in 2006 E.C.

Source: NEAEA 2006 E.C. data

Table 5 shows the overall 2006 E.C. Affirmative action benefited students from emerging
regions who are admitted to the HE in undergraduate program all over Ethiopia government
universities. A total of 1011 (0.98%) students are benefited from emerging regions to join to the
universities. The four region benefited students are below one percent of the total number of
students. Off those students, only 235 enrolled to Natural science and the remaining 776 assigned
in social studies.

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 Universities intake capacity and # of students enrolled from emerging regions

Year 2002 E.C. 2003 E.C. 2004 E.C. 2005 E.C.

Intake
capacity 78981 94960 100234 103394
Total
enrolled
students 73984 78624 94464 99979
Failed
students
total 4997 16336 5770 3415
Gender F M Total F M Total F M Total F M Total
Afar 114 461 575 87 302 389 186 489 675 77 225 302
Somali 179 633 812 99 621 720 147 912 1059 393 1889 2282
Benshangul 173 590 763 159 606 765 331 601 932 311 634 945
Gambela 6 136 142 6 116 122 36 285 321 63 310 373
Total 2292 1996 2987 3902
Enrolled
Yearly % 3.10% 2.54% 3.16% 3.90%

Table 6: Universities intake capacity and # of students enrolled from emerging regions from 2002- 2005
E.C.

As shown in table 6, Except in the year of 2003 E.C., the number of enrolled students from
emerging regions increases following on the intake capacity of the universities increase. This
table shows how the intake capacity is taking as a base to admitting # of students in the
universities.

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 4.5 Assessment of Universities academic support to
affirmative action beneficiary students
Regarding affirmative action, the researcher interview three available teachers from AAU,
College of Law. The respondents are represented as TA1, TA2, and TA3.
The 1st question was to explain whether there are students who joined at the college of law
through affirmative action:

Respondent TA1 said: ―My role in the university is teaching but not administrative or registrar so
I am not sure in which system students are assigned to the university but there are students
coming from those emerging regions. We can‘t identify all those students from where they come
and yet there are some.‖

TA2 explained that,‖ there are students who are assigned in the university, but I have no the full
data since I am a teacher. They are also assigned by the ministry of education. We have no full
information from where they are coming and don‘t have any special support for students coming
from emerging regions and benefited from affirmative action.‖

TA3 replied, ―even though we have no detail data in the college, there are students who are
joining to the college of law benefited from affirmative action. Female students are also highly
encouraged and advantaged now a day in addition to the emerging region students.‖

To summarize the first question and teachers‘ respondent, students assigned at AAU by
affirmative action are not clearly known by their lecturers. There is no also any clue that tells the
teachers who is who and how those students joined to the university. After the registrar assigned
them, teachers will get list of students whom they teach only. In this process clear information
about student is lacked.

The 2nd question raised to the respondents was ―What kind of supports are the academic
institutions rendering to students who are admitted through affirmative action?

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TA1 said, academically there are no any institutional supports rendering to those students.
System is not developed even to assist them. But if students visit us during consultation time, we
assist students individually for a specific subject that we are teaching by a single course level
specially who they have language problems. We also give them to read some Amharic and
English books that are easy to understand and these solutions are our personal assistance but not
academically support by the institution. This solution is in a course level and only for students
who are coming and asking their teachers. If they don‘t come for consultation, we think that they
don‘t have a problem so we do not give them any support.

TA2: We haven‘t any organized academic support for emerging region and affirmative action
advantaged students. There is no any support need enquiry and we haven‘t arrange special
support for them also.

TA3 explained that, we support most students by providing the necessary educational facilities
like handouts, books, etc. especially for female students, we highly assist them but there is no
specially prepared as an academic support for affirmative action advantaged students.

To conclude the second question, there is no any academic support rended to those affirmative
action benefited students. But most teachers are always ready to assist any student who have
questions in related to their subject. It is more of personally given by the teachers, assisting
students but not academic support in an organized way.

What benefits have the supports rendered to those students brought forth? In terms of
performance, and the teaching-learning process?

TA2: In law school, even though it is not institutional policy, teachers individually are
supporting when students personally ask for it. We support by giving copy handouts, further
explanations on the misunderstood parts, and the like. Students are assigned by MoE and we do
not know how they assign to low college, when the MoE send their list we will accept, register
and start teaching. It needs to check what grade point they got, from where they come and the
like studies but we don‘t do it. If we do know how many students are assigned by quota that can

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give us a clear picture to provide additional classes for disadvantaged students, counseling
services, giving the necessary information are important. Even students are assigning up to the
end of the second week after the class is started. We don‘t know how they assign but
continuously they are coming not once but from day to day. By checking their grade, we have to
know who are our students assigned in this college to do further assistance after identifying.

TA3 : affirmative action is started since there is no equal recourses distribution between regions
and have some influences in gender. When those disadvantaged students can get those resources,
they can easily compete with others and became successful. Most students work on assisting
students, specially when students asking them, so that teachers will respond for any academic
related questions which they can assist in terms of teaching learning process.

To accomplish the query, only handout supply to be copied by students and consulting
personally by the teachers are benefit of students from the college. Since there is no clear policy
or procedure that states to give support for affirmative action advantaged students. That affects
indirectly students performance especially in the first and second years. The teaching learning
process also is affected by students unequal performance during the freshman level.
Does the admission policy through affirmative action affect the teaching learning process and
performance of students? Please explain.

Respondent TA1 explained that, margin of contradiction to some extent is very common in
policy formation and applying process. But you follow the principle than exception. There are
exceptionals who came from a very remote area but very successful students. Exceptions are
common in most cases. In teaching-learning process, I guess the admission policy has its own
impact. Economically disadvantaged regions got the admission with a lesser result but still
economically weak when they are in the university. Definitely their result will be less especially
in the first and 2nd years until they adapt . I can say 90-95% students coming from emerging
regions have language problem to understand the day to day lecture.

TA2 most of the time we see students couldn‘t understand English so we can understand that
those students have language problem. When they come to us for further assistance, we will help

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them in the office individually. If possible the admission must be by the interest of students and
competition. The criteria should have objective and if we accept such interested students for the
field of study, I believe they will be also successful in their result. Entrance exam will also be
prepared by the college to join this specific law study. Even if we give entrance exam, we will
have quota for the emerging region students and disadvantaged genders. We don‘t have any
control in admission because MoE will directly assign to the universities, we just teach whom
assigned by them. Admission must be competitive not forced assignment to universities. Like th
e gendor office helping ladies, compensation classes must be prepared for those disadvantaged
students who are admitting by affirmative action. Counseling, providing information, and other
important supports should be given to those students. Sometimes, students are assigning to law
college even after two weeks of class is started. It must be pre-planned and clear in assigning
students to the universities.

TA3 There is a gap in applying affirmative action. Background of students must be studied. We
have to see from two points, the first one is in educational process and secondly materials. Of
course it affects the teaching learinging process since students coming by their result could be
advanced in first year but affirmative action advantaged could lag on following classes. When
we see the material issue, some students who have good background can get books and copied
handouts easily but disadvantaged region students can have lack of income and that can
demoralize them and psychologically affected in addition to unavailability of the required
materials. In this case those students performance will be affected. Incontrast, there is a very
surprising issue, sometimes students who are advantaged from affirmative action and assigned
in the college are very distinction and awarded. Others who joined to the university with high
grade also withdraw by their lowest result sometimes so another research is required to see
whether it is talent, interest, or what reason it is. After one or two years even, it is difficult to
identify who was admitted to the university in lower grade or benefited affirmative action, and
who is not. Some of those affirmative action advantaged student will adapt and outshine in the
class.

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As a whole, margin of contradiction to some extent is very common in policy formation and
applying process. Language and communication problem , an economical influences, are some
of the teaching-learning process problems that directly or indirectly came from admission policy.

What common challenges are faced in dealing with students who joined your department through
affirmative action?

Respondent TA1 explains, students coming from emerging regions do have language problem.
Since the medium of communication in the university is English, most students have this
problem to understand even the lecture and to write various assignments and papers. Not only
English, The other language which additionally using in the university related to Law is Amharic.
Most criminal or commercial laws are written in Amharic and it is part of the teaching learning
medium of language. The highest level of court decision are also written and processed in
Amharic in that case, we sometimes give assignments for students to analyze some court
decisions. At that time, we see how they face problems to understand it. Moreover, when we give
references to read from the library, most law and related books are written either in English or
Amharic, so students coming from emerging regions will face a lot of understanding problems of
these books from language problem. The most important thing in the study and practice of Law
is Language. Unless a person understands the consequences, decision will be biased or violated.
Reading, critically analyzing, and practice with class participation are important for students. But
without understanding the language, all those processes are not easy in teaching learning process.

TA2 Language is one of the common problem for most students. Our medium of language for
teaching-learning process is English and Amharic. The Judges and law books of Ethiopia are
commonly Amharic so there are problems of understanding the language for most of those
students.

This university is considered as one of the best university in Ethiopia so it must be accessible to
all nationals. If we purely make competitive university only, it will become accessible only for
students who had better facility until secondary school.

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TA3: There is a pressure on teachers to take all students to same understanding specially in the
first and second years. Psychologically they are underestimated so they seems like unable to do
or understand the study. In those cases students will be highly affected to compete with others
even though they have the capacity.

In conclusion that language is one of the major problem affecting students who joined university
through affirmative action. Misunderstanding of the communication between teachers and
students, psychologically affect students and will result for poor performance and lower result
on study.

Do you think students who joined your college through affirmative action need special support ?
why or why not?

TA1 responded to have special support for affirmative action advantaged students, but it should
not be solved by one or two teachers. Academic solution and support is necessary for those
students, it should be pre-planned and well budgeted. Special language, special orientation,
etc … are necessary. If institutional system is set, it will not given to those students as privileged
but as their right. It must be more systematic and consistent. It should be given to all students
who are joining to this college by affirmative action. It also should be evidence based, thought of,
and move lasting.

TA2: Yes, special support is required but it needs to be identified in advance who they are, and
what their interest is but it is not an easy task from the instructors shortage point of view. Special
supporting skill also required for instructors. We even do not know who are benefited from
affirmative action as a teacher unless we got list from registrar. If regions are identified and those
students are selected and pre-informed for lecturers, the college can provide them special classes
and assistance in order to get quality graduates. Quota versus merit has a problem of
understanding because, if it is purely competitive, we will forget the students coming from
emerging regions with affirmative action, so, quota system is important. Combination of factors
might forced students to have lower result on entrance exam, but if the infrastructure is well done,
good result can be achieved in teaching-learning process and producing outstanding graduates.

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Quality may not be compromised in affirmative action if there is good research and preparation
to assist them. But by providing quota system and assisting those students to compete with others,
it is also possible by preparing special assistance. Affirmative action will not be only for
symbolic gesture but it should also work for quality education by preparing tutorial classes and
advises for those students in up-to-date manner. Assigning students to the field of study should
also be by the students‘ interest even though the government is working the need based system. I
believe that respecting students‘ choice is very important to get a very competitive output. If they
assigned by their interest, the output will definitely be excellent.

TA3 Yes, special support is necessary to qualify them. There is a pressure for those student
morethan other students. Their interest is one part and admission and subsequent special support
is vital for them. Once students are admitted the only hope to help academically are teachers so
we have to assist and qualify them to graduate and get back to their emerging regions to serve the
society and the government as a whole. I personally believe in quality. It should not be
compromised. When you see how sensitive our field of study, quality should be well-done. We
have to mange to produce quality lawyers.

In summary of the final question response, interviewees agreed that students who are joining to
the HE through affirmative action need special support. They should be given a special support
by the institution. Personal supports of teachers are good but couldn‘t be equally distributed for
all students. If it works as an institutional support, the HE can reach all in a strategic way.
Currently Universities do not have any special support set in the policy and special class given
for students who are coming from emerging regions and others assigned by affirmative action.
Academic special support for students who are assigned by affirmative action is believed to have
but with various reasons are unable to provide it.

A respondent explained that, AAU teachers are responsible to teach a maximum of 12 credit
hours per week. If instructor teaches over this limit, overtime must be paid. From this limited
hour, it will be difficult to have special support for affirmative action advantaged students and
also there is no any policy currently set to support them in the universities

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Teachers evaluation of students result is uniform, there is no differences by gender in teaching,
tests, exam and the like processes within the university. Once students are assigned at different
departments or field of studies, their effort and potential will help them to retain and graduate
from the university or to be dismissed. There is only one truck to run in the university, which is
uniform education is given to all without any discrimination or partiality.

4.6 Policy Consistency

There should be consistent policy in terms of admission to higher education that will give more
value for quality and will not be changed every year. As Colorado state university policy in the
U.S. says, the admission policy should be clear and requires the curriculum that will enable the
university admission standard of completion of a specified higher education admission
requirement to be met by first-time entering undergraduates who graduate from high school in
latest with higher grades. The academic commission will review the policy every three years to
determine if changes are appropriate and it is more of consistent.

It is believed that policy is not rigid but conditions must view when and why policy will be
changed. In Ethiopia, policy consistency was seen 9th - 12th grade study, then taking exam
ESLCE until early 1990‘s . The current policy is of course changing and inconsistent. ESLCE
was taken repeatedly until 1994. But after that the policy changed to complete 2ndary school in
grade 10 and take preparatory education for 2 years and then to take university entrance exam
(EHEECE). The entrance to HE minimum requisite changes from year to year, from conditions
to conditions. Table 2 above is an explanatory for this inconsistency shown from Year 2002 E.C.
to 2006 E.C. Students Higher Education placement by their entry year and group shows in that
table that varies from year to year with a lot of discrepancy percentage. Consistent or unchanged
from tiem to time policy is helpful for students to prepare and evaluate themselves during the
final exam and to get fair and equal education opportunity for all citizens.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION

This chapter deals with summary, conclusions and recommendations. The first part is concerned a
concise summary of the major findings presented. Recommendations are presented based on the
conclusion.

5.1 Summary

The purpose of this study was to assess Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy from
Quality perspective: The case of Emerging regions students in Addis Ababa University. It
also review how the higher education admission policy lacks quality as a criteria, identify what
factors are affecting the HE admission policy, implications of the strengths and weaknesses of
this policy, fairness or its judgmental conditions to stakeholders, and considered quality related
criteria. Developed countries policy and experience in related to the study is also tried to see. The
Ethiopian HE admission policy and overall activities of this policy in the past, current status and
what the plan for the future are examined.
To accomplish the objective of the study, the following three basic research questions were
raised and reviewed.
1 What are the Higher Education admission policies/criteria in Ethiopia?

2 What are the institution/academic supports rendered to those students who admitted to
university on the basis of affirmative action and of such admission policy/criteria?

3 What are the challenges faced in the implementation of such admission policy/ criteria?
Does it consider quality of inputs to the universities? Does the policy favor to the
emerging region students in admission?

To answer these questions, the study engaged purely qualitative approach research method using

85
interview, open-end questionnaire, focus group discussion (FGD), and documentation on both
primary and secondary data collection methods.

These data collected from a total of 45 participants those are the Ministry of Education (MoE)
responsible unit, Ethiopian National Examination Agency (NEAEA) experts and higher officials,
AAU- School of Law teachers and focused group higher education teachers, and students who
are joined at AAU-School of Law in 2006 E.C. in regular program from emerging regions.

Summary of the major findings

1. Concerning the admission criteria
2. Concerning academic Support

3. Challenges of admission policy from quality input perspective

The study identified that the current HE admission policy is not fair and consistent because it
gives too much attention on quantity than quality. Moreover, the first base to place students to
the HE is intake capacity of universities as a whole. If the universities have vacant rooms,
incompetent students who got below average will be assigned.

The higher education entry level or grade is also vary from year to year. There is no consistent or
fixed minimum grade that can help to see the input quality of students because it is driven by the
intake capacity.

Affirmative action on this policy also gives attention for Emerging regions and female students
to be considered as under privileged population sector. Two contradictory issues are seen here.
The first problem is the base of placement students to Universities is intake capacity that leads
for challenging or irrational decision from quality students selection point of view. Any
incompetent student will join to the university to fill vacant rooms “አሰስ ገሰስ” ‗anyone who can‘t
fit for the position‘. The second contradictory idea is that quality input is missed in the policy
by the concern of accomplishing Affirmative action. If affirmative action gives special privilege
for poor performed students to be admitted to HE in a lower grade, definitely the quality input
will be compromised.
86
As stated in the literature review part, affirmative action will be taken place by reducing the
entrance grade for unprivileged one in the primary and secondary schools and this entrance grade
will consider that should not be compromise or influence education quality. If a student able to
joint to the HE with the below average grade, again quality will be poor in terms of input,
process and output since it is the vicious circle course.

According to some international HE experiences like Colorado state university in the U.S, the
admission policy should be clear and requires the curriculum that will enable the university
admission standard of completion of a specified higher education admission requirement to be
met by first-time entering undergraduates who graduate from high school in latest with higher
grades.

The academic commission will review the policy every three years to determine if changes are
appropriate and it is more of consistent.

But the Ethiopian policy is highly centralized by MoE. There is no room that allows higher
education institutions to determine on admission criteria of their students. In this condition,
admission is part of the problem in the sense that Universities do not have a say in it.

Higher Education Challenges of admission policy from quality input perspective

From the literature review, one of the quality of education in terms of input, refers entry
requirement of students to higher education. The influence of inputs on student learning is one of
the great legends of quality in education.

Others also argue that learning is influenced by the extent to which students take part in
purposeful activities that contribute to their learning and certain inputs can potentially influence
student learning.

Moreover quality is not given equal emphasis as equity, and access considered in admission
policy to the HE.

87
High political intervention, focusing on quantity of admitting students rather quality are the
current challenges to choose quality input for the universities. HE teachers right and benefit also
highly influenced by this intervention, their dissatisfaction is high. Within that influence,
students repetition and drop-out rates decreased in HE rather they graduate in an open pipe line
in other words, quality input value is ignored at this level.

Although the admission policy was changed every time from the previous governor era, selecting
and assigning such students is the responsibility of MoE. Universities/ higher education institutes
have no any mandate to select quality inputs (selecting or examining regular undergraduate
students) by preparing entrance exam or reviewing secondary school results.

The HE admission policy also lacks equity in terms of gender. There is a concept of ―both male
and females are equal‖ with the exception of natural or biological differences. Admitting female
students with lesser grade comparing with male students has a moral issue for female students.
Having this difference is in entry grade might not been even acceptable by most female students
from moral point of view.

The emerging region students learning process at the HE

Students, placing to HE from emerging regions by affirmative action have no any special support
given by universities after they join. For those students, special preparatory class in advance is
not given. Teaching-learning method, and teachers evaluation of students result is uniform.
There is no gender, background or result focused supports and differences in teaching, tests,
exam and the like processes within the university. Once students are assigned at different
departments or field of studies, their effort and potential will help them to retain and graduate
from the university or to be dismissed. But in the current unclear process, there is no dismissal
for most incompetent students. There is only one truck to run in the university, which is uniform
education is given to all without any discrimination or partiality.

The universities became a pipe line. Students will enter in one line and graduate on the other line
without change. Instead of concentrating on achieving good grades and knowledge, most
students are content with getting their degree and try to get jobs via the back door. It is also a big

88
challenge in teaching-learning process that the concerned organ is seriously affected by
corruption because of lack of transparency. Poor quality and below average resulted teachers
and students will definitely get their certificate in corruption.

Affirmative action is a short cut to give an opportunity to enter below average students to the
HE. In this process the problem of this action is after students join to the university. During
learning-teaching process in the universities, emerging region students, benefited from
affirmative action to join HE, couldn‘t compete and pass exam like other students who joined by
their grade. But the influence on the teachers and force-full and unfair evaluation leads teachers
to biased and give passing result for incompetent students.

Primary and secondary level education at the emerging regions, pastoralist and semi-pastoralist
groups are teaching-learning process as a whole should be improved to produce quality students
who can competent with others so that quality input for the universities will get from all regions
in both gender.

Learning outcomes should be improved at primary and secondary schools through the
reinforcement and better coordination of key quality inputs and processes.

Expanded amongst the four emerging regions and the gap between the emerging regions and
other regions reduced by giving special support to the education of emerging regions‘ students
(both female and male).

The necessary equitable resources, and education system for primary and secondary schools are
not provided at all levels and to all people in all regions especially in the emerging regions.

Universities academic supports for affirmative action privileged students

There is no any special support and class given for students who are coming from emerging
regions and others assigned by affirmative action to the universities.

89
One finding of this study is the weak academic support that certain emerging region students
may need to succeed in the HE. The needs of students who have historically been failed to take
full advantage of their education, whose learning needs have been ignored, or who have
otherwise lost the opportunity typically refers to school strategies or policies designed to remove
institutional disincentives, impediments, or barriers to academic success, whether intentional or
unintentional, or to provide the resources, social services, and weak academic support that
certain students may need to succeed in the HE.

The study also discovered that another major difficulty in academic support for those affirmative
action benefited students is denied or left unaddressed by the higher education. Students are
struggling academically or drop out, learning gaps seen in the HE.
Moreover, students are graduating unprepared to enroll and succeed in a postgraduate-degree
program. Even if they complete under graduate program with unfair decision and influenced
teachers, they can‘t proceed post graduate program.

The analysis also indicate that there is no any government support on the basis of preparing
special class for those students benefited from affirmative action. There is no any entrance or
preparatory system separately given to those students as an option.

90
 5.2 Conclusion

To conclude the study, Ethiopian higher education admission policy missed the valuable part of
education which is quality. Focusing only on quantity is not development in a competitive world
without quality. The Higher Education admission policies/criteria in Ethiopia is currently gives
more emphasis for affirmative action without considering quality. Students have to get bases
from primary and secondary education so that they can compete equally without any discrepancy
of gender, study region, nation, etc.

Major factors or elements are not taken into consideration in the process of determining the
admission policy. Quality input is highly challenged in the process of determining admission
policy or criteria. The HE admission policy is not fair and consistent from quality perspective
and time value. If quality is not considering when higher education admission policies are
developed and applied, the output will definitely be poor and incompetent.

Even though affirmative action is important to balance the disadvantaged groups with that of
advantaged one, institutional supports are not providing to those students when they join to the
university.

Without well organized and improper foundation, affirmative action is using as a short cut to
maximize quantity of graduates without quality. It is valuable if the very beginning level or
foundation is strong in quality at the primary and secondary education of all regions. In contrast
the required quality output, growth and development will not be visible so far other policies
affect the higher education admission policy, and government and political intervention is higher
in this process. Higher education should also be free from any political intervention and
assigning students should work without any other policy and political intervention but by the
student result of EHEECE and their entrance exam at the universities. This enables to get quality
students admitting to the HE in Ethiopia.

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 5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions summarized, the following recommendations are
forwarded to improve quality Ethiopian Higher Education Admission Policy .

The first finding that quality input to HE is missed due to considering quantity to fill the
intake capacity of universities. For this issue, Quality input / enrolled students to HE should be
evaluated based on their exam result not by the intake capacity of universities. Focusing on
quantity without considering quality will lead for poor and incompetent output.

Assigning students at the HE based on partiality of grade or result by gender, nation and
nationalities or regional grow-up / examined area, political and family background or
affirmative action will result to biased quality for unfair decision on policy. Affirmative action
should be started from primary school but not at the HE level. To produce and transfer quality
students to the HE, the necessary equitable resources, and education system from primary and
secondary schools should be done at all levels and to all people in all regions.

The primary and secondary level education and teaching-learning process at the emerging
regions, pastoralist and semi-pastoralist groups as a whole improved to produce quality students
who can competent with others, quality input for the universities will get from all regions in both
gender without any entrance criteria discrepancy. Learning outcomes should be improved at
primary and secondary schools through the reinforcement and better coordination of key quality
inputs and processes. The policy will not also favor to the emerging region students in admission
to HE process if the primary and secondary level education distributed equally and without
compromising quality. as mentioned quality is vicious circle, students, teachers, school facility as
a whole must be equally improved to avoid poor quality output or students that are coming from
any region and gender.

On the other hand, Universities should prepare entrance exam and there should be a one year
preparatory education support for the failed one as an option. This might take one year longer
time for students and costly, but comparing with producing of poor quality students, paying some
sacrifices is an alternative option.

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The findings showed that students admitted to universities on the basis of affirmative action do
not get differentiated support in the academic acts or no any special support class rather studying
and compete equally in the universities all together. There is no also any incentive for the
university lecturers to work overtime and give support for those special students. It is
recommended to have special support class to be given for students who can‘t compete equally
in the universities by paying overtime and special incentives to the university lecturers.

Policy is not a sudden of action rather policy is like judging by individuals or the society life as a
whole. There should be also consistent policy in terms of admission to higher education that will
give more value for quality and will not be changed every year unless forced measures occurred.

Challenges faced in quality of inputs for admission policy or criteria to the universities could be
also resolved, if universities have their own entrance special exam after assigning students by the
MoE and NEAEA. In this entrance exam, least graded students should get an additional one year
preparatory study option by assigned universities to start the regular HE as an option. The
institution/academic supports rendered to those students who admitted to university on the basis
of such admission policy/criteria

Finally, HE students admission opportunity by missing quality factors should be avoided to

improve quality input to the universities. It is also recommended to have further research in
affirmative action at the HE admission process. But as an observed shortcomings in admission
policy, quality has no any emphasis in the current Ethiopian higher education admission policy
and its application process.

Regarding affirmative action advantaged students, MoE, NEAEA and universities higher
officials and responsible personnel for policy making should set a common policy of special
institutional support for those advantaged students to provide special consultation, preparatory
time of one more year study in the university and revision time is required.

93
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 Appendix

Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational planning & Management

Open-end questions to MoE & NEAEA (Policy makers and implementers)

Dear respected respondent,

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks and appreciation for your time and sincere
cooperation to fill this questionnaire. The questionnaire is designed to assess the Ethiopian
Higher Education Admission Policy from Quality perspective: The case of Emerging
regions students in Addis Ababa University.
The result and success of this study will highly depend on the quality of your response and I
hope you will give a brief, accurate and honest responses to the items presented. Your response
will be kept confidential and used only for this academic purpose.

Directions:

 You are not required to write your name.

 Put a ―√‖ mark in the space provided in front of each item/background questions.
 Please try to fill all the questionnaires.
 Please give your opinion only which you think is the most appropriate response to each
question without biased by others perception.
 If the dashes provided are not enough for your reply, please use a separate paper and
write the question # for additional explanations. Please try to make your responses as
brief and precise as possible.

Part One: Background Information

1. Organization/Bureau _______________________ Position: __________________

2. Sex: Male ____ Female ____

3. Age in Years: <21____ 21-30____ 31-40____ 41-50____ above 50____

4. Nationality: _______________________

98
Open-end questions

1- How do you determine the current higher education admission policy? Please explain in
brief.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2- What factors/elements are taken into consideration in the process of determining the
admission policy?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3- What are the challenges in the process of determining admission policy/criteria?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4- Do you think the HE admission policy is fair and consistent? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5- What major factors are considering when higher education admission policies are
developed?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

6- How do you see the HE admission policy from quality perspective?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

7- What factors should be improved in HE admission policy? Please brief your opinion.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

99
 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational planning & Management

Interview guiding questions for policy developers/ makers and implementers

The purpose of this interview is to gather information from policy developers and implementers
about HE admission policy and their implications on quality of students at the government
universities.

1- How do you determine the Higher Education admission policies/criteria of Ethiopia?

2- What challenges faced in such admission policy/ criteria?
3- What are the prerequisites that students to be assigned at the HE / university?
4- Do you think Ethiopian HE admission policy is consistent, fair and relevant? How?
5- How do you see the HE admission policy from quality students/inputs selecting process
perspective?
6- What factors or other policies affect the higher education admission policy? Please
explain the possible solution or methods to be corrected.
7- Please identify implications of the strengths and weaknesses of this policy, fairness or its
judgmental conditions to stakeholders, and quality related criteria to be considered.
8- Is there any important information or experience taken from developed countries about
current HE admission policy? What and from which countries?
9- Please explain the overall activities of HE admission policy in the past, current status and
what the plan for the future is.

100
 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational planning & Management

Open-end questions to be filled by Teachers

Dear Teacher,
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks and appreciation for your time and sincere
cooperation to fill this questionnaire. The questionnaire is designed to assess the Ethiopian
higher education admission policy from quality perspective.
.
The result and success of this study will highly depend on the relevance and quality of your
response and I hope you will give accurate and honest responses to the items presented. Your
response will be kept confidential and used only for this academic purpose.
Directions:
 You are not required to write your name.
 Put a ―√‖ mark in the space provided of each item.
 Please try to fill all the items.
 If the dashes provided are not enough for your reply, please use a separate paper and
write the question # for additional explanations. Please try to make your responses as
brief and precise as possible.

Definition of Terms (for this questionnaire / interview)

Quality: is the level of fitness for purpose of students‘ needs and priorities as a result of
learning which can be measured by establishing an acceptable criteria and standards of good
performance which is the result.

Quality students: the value/worth of students‘ attainment or achievement of the

predetermined learning outcomes or the knowledge and skills students acquire as a result of
learning in which quality indicators like secondary education national exam result, test or exam
results and active participation during the lecture.
Admission Policy: The criteria which students will be assigned at higher education based
on the Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination (ESLCE) or the recent preparatory
final exam result and other prerequisites.

101
 Policy: refer to a prerequisite criteria of students to attend higher education. Particular
law or measures perhaps even a government circular or some other ‗soft law‘ instrument.
Higher Education (HE): Universities owned by government at under graduate level.
Thank you!
The Graduate student

Part One: Background Information

1. Faculty: _______________________ Field of Specialization:__________________

2. Sex: Male ____ Female ____

3. Age in Years: <21____ 21-30____ 31-40____ 41-50____ above 50____

4. Nationality: _______________________

5. Educational/ Academic level

a. 12th grade complete ____ b. Diploma____

c. B.A or B.Sc. ____ d. MA or M.sc____

e. Ph.D. ____ f. Other, please specify----------------------

6. Years of experiences

6.1. In education ________ years

6.2. In other areas ________ years (please specify) ____________________________

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Part Two: Questions related to the teaching-learning practice and quality students
admission policy

1 How do you determine the current higher education admission policy? Please explain in
brief.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2 What factors/elements should be taken into consideration in the process of determining

the students admission in the HE?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3 What are the challenges in the process of determining under graduate students
admission to the HE from policy/criteria perspective?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4 Do you think the HE admission policy is fair and consistent? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5 What are the challenges of teaching-learning process? Does it relate to admission policy?
Please explain your opinion.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Thank you!

103
 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational planning & Management

Interview guiding questions for Teachers

The purpose of this interview is to gather information from Addis Ababa University, college of
Law teachers about supports rendered to affirmative action advantaged students.

According to the ESDP IV (2010), Affirmative action for traditionally disadvantaged groups
such as females, students from disadvantaged regions and students with special needs will be
strengthened through preferential access, academic support programs, and the establishment of a
gender– friendly environment and climate at HEIs. Specific support provided to female students,
emerging region students (from Afar, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambela, and Somali Regions) and
the like:

1- Are there students who joined your department through affirmative action? If yes,
2- What kind of supports are the academic institution rendering to students who are
admitted through affirmative action?
3- What benefits have the supports rendered to those students brought forth? In terms of
performance, and the teaching-learning process?
4- Does the admission policy through affirmative action affect the teaching learning process
and performance of students? Please explain.
5- What common challenges are faced in dealing with students who joined your department
through affirmative action?
6- Do you think students who joined your dept through affirmative action need special
support? Why or why not?

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 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Educational planning & Management

Questions to be filled by the emerging regions students’ (students came from Afar,
Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambella, and Somali regions only)

Dear student,

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks and appreciation for your time and sincere
cooperation to fill this questionnaire. The questionnaire is designed to assess the Ethiopian
higher education admission policy from quality perspective at AAUniversity.
The result and success of this study will highly depend on the quality of your response and I
hope you will give a brief, accurate and honest responses to the items presented. Your response
will be kept confidential and used only for this academic purpose.

Directions:
 You are not required to write your name.
 Put a ―√‖ mark in the space provided in front of each item.
 Please try to fill all the questionnaires.
 Please give your opinion only which you think is the most appropriate response to each
question without biased by others perception.
 If the dashes provided are not enough for your reply, please use a separate paper and
write the question # for additional explanations. Please try to make your responses as
brief and precise as possible.

Part One: Background Information

1. Faculty: _______________________ Field of Study:__________________

2. Sex: Male ____ Female ____

3. Age: <21____ 21-30____ 31-40____ 41-50____ above 50____

4. Nationality: _______________________ 5- Region came from________________

4. Academic year: _______________

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Part Two: Open-end Questions for students

1- How did you join to the university?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2- What are the challenges you are facing in the learning process?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3- How do you see your admission to HE from other region students?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4- Is there any special support you are getting from the university? It can be from gender
office, guidance and counseling, etc. How do you see it and how important it is? Please
explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

5- What HE admission policy factors should be improved and that will be helpful for
students who are coming from your region?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

6- What HE admission policy/criteria should be improved by the Ethiopian government as a

whole?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Thank you very much for your cooperation!

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Opening questions for students Focused Group Discussion (FGD)

1- How did you join to the university?

2- What are the challenges you are facing in the learning process?
3- How do you see your admission to HE from other region students?
4- Is there any special support you get from the institution/academic staffs? It can be from
gender office, guidance and counseling, etc. How do you see it and how important it is?
Please discuss.
5- What HE admission policy factors should be improved and that will be helpful for
students who are coming from your region?
6- What HE admission policy/criteria should be improved by the Ethiopian government as a
whole?
7- Is quality considered in the HE admission policy? How?

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