INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY The former studies God not by faith, but by reason alone; the latter
treats of God not by reason, but by faith. Natural Theology treats of
What is PHILOSOPHY?
 The term "philosophy" was coined by Pythagoras (Greek
philosopher who noted 3 types of man; a lover of pleasure,
success, and wisdom; the last according to him, is the superior
type).
 Greek word (philia - love sophia - wisdom)
 LOVE OF WISDOM (etymological definition)
 It gives the impression of someone who is seeking wisdom, not
one who has found it. Thus, we would only call someone a
physicist, say, if one actually had some knowledge about
physics; but we call someone a philosopher if he is one who is
aiming at wisdom without necessarily achieving it.
 A man could never perfectly possess a comprehensive
understanding of all that is meant by wisdom but it is only in
continuous and ardent pursuit of it. As it said, only God can be
called wise. We can only be lovers of wisdom; we can never be
wise.
 Etymology – literal definition
Philosophy is the science of all things by their first causes as known
in the light of reason.
a. As science (What is science? How is Philo a Science?
Science → scire (Latin) - to know
When a person causes of things, one has attained certitude.
Certitude - natural result of knowing not only the facts but also their
causes.
Since scientific knowledge is knowledge of causes, it must, therefore,
be certain. It is not merely an opinion, a conjecture or a belief. Rather,
it is certain knowledge that results from analysis of causes of things.
The definition of science as cognito per causas (a knowledge of
things attained by an investigation of their causes) strictly applies
only to science in its perfect, full-blown stage.
Philosophy is a science because it seeks to acquire knowledge of
the causes of things. It does not rest on opinion of belief but pursues
the causes of things. Moreover, when philosophy reaches its final
stage and brings itself to perfection, it attains absolute certitude.
b. As the science of all things (Scope of Philo/
What about God?)
Philosophical enterprise deals with all intellectual endeavors. A
subject matter of philosophy is so vast; it is limited only by the
capacity of the human mind to ask new questions and to formulate
old ones in some novel way.
Philosophy is the science of things. It deals with concrete, real,
contingent things. Many are of the belief that philosophy deals only
with the abstract that is beyond the physical. But this is not
completely true. It is true that we make use of abstract concepts in
philosophy but only to aid us in our understanding of concrete things.
What is concrete, real, contingent thing? It is a thing that is not self-
existent. A being that is not self-existent owes its existence to
something other than itself. It is that which has its own cause for its
existence. And this is precisely what philosophy concerns itself with:
not only that things are but also why things are.
It is only God that is excluded in its scope since by definition. God
is considered a Necessary Being, one whose existence depends on
itself.
Philosophy is the science of all contingent things. The inclusion of
God, therefore, in this whole philosophical enterprise, arises "not on
account of God, but on account of the whole contingent world".
c. As known in the light of reason (What do we use in
philosophizing?
The italicized phrase means that philosophy seeks the first causes of
things as far as they can be rationally established by the human mind
unaided by Divine Revelation.
Branch of Philosophy that deals with God is Natural Theology
(Theodicy), a subject that is distinct from Revealed Theology.
contingent beings as its principal subject matter, and secondarily
treats of God as the first Cause of the existence of these contingent
beings.
Revealed Theory treats of God as its principal subject matter, and
secondarily treats of contingent beings as His effects.
There is no opposition in the realms of Natural Theology and
Revealed Theology. In fact, faith and reason can co-exist. John Paul
II, in his encyclical Fides et Ratio which was released in the middle
of October 1998, treated of the compatibility of faith and reason.
A philosopher uses his power of logic, reason, perception, and
interpretation in order to make a more qualified judgment about
making the 'leap of faith' in a given direction. This does not eradicate
the need for faith but rather removes the uncertainty of which faith to
accept, and gives the person some comfort that his faith is not
unfounded.
Division of Philosophy
Metaphysics - the study of reality (beings and Being).
Epistemology - the study of validity of human knowledge.
Ethics - the study of the morality of human act.
Logic - the study of correct reasoning. Logic is the basic tool that
philosophers use to investigate reality.
Cosmology - the science of the universe.
Theodicy - the philosophical study of God.
Value of Doing Philosophy
What is the relevance of philosophy today?
Philosophy aids as a framework for all knowledge and its study is
invaluable for acquiring the skill of critical thinking that is the mark
of well-educated person. It also serves as a tool for integrating
knowledge.
Philosophy refers to the study of things that are themselves higher;
higher in the order of abstraction, higher in that plane of thought and
of action on which the examined life is lived. It is philosophy that
pulls us up out of the distractions of the moment and allows us to
see further, to see more clearly where we've been, what we've
done, who we are, who we might become.
Introduction to Ethics
Greek Tradition
- good life = happiness
Judeo-Christian
- righteousness before God
- love of God and neighbor
Etymology
Ethos (Greek)
- characteristic way of acting
- includes cultural mannerisms, religion, politics, laws and
social aspirations of a group of people
Mos/Mores (Latin)
- tradition or custom
Ugali (Filipino)
- nakaugaliang pamamalakad sa buhay
Ethics
- also called moral philosophy, is the discipline concerned
with what is morally good or bad, right and wrong
Nature of ethics
- a practical and normative science, based on reason, which
studies human acts, and provides norms for their goodness
and badness
Ethics is a science
- ethics is a systematic study of the grounds and norms of
morality
Ethics is a normative science
- sets a basis or a norm for the direction and regulation of
human actions
- aids man in distinguishing whether one’s action can be
considered good or bad
Ethics should be based on reason  Moral dilemmas are a pervasive part of working life. They occur
- all ethical theories must have its basis from the power of in the public and private sectors and from the smallest to the
reason largest organizations

Ethics studies human acts  In hectic working environments, people can become blind to the
- those actions that are done by the human person based on moral dilemmas they face, by failing to see the moral
knowledge and the full consent of the will dimensions of their choices

Human acts  They arise when we are facing a difficult situation

- deliberate and intentional actions
- reveal the thoughts and inclinations of the person doing
them
- manifestation of one’s character and conduct
Acts of man
- instinctive and involuntary
False moral dilemmas
- are instances where it is clear what a person ought to do,
but he or she is either tempted or pressured to do something
else
- the choice is clearly between a morally right and a morally
wrong option

Virtuous Antonette Palma-Angeles PhD

- inclination to do good I just saw my father sitting in a corner of an expensive
restaurant kissing a woman on the lips. She is clearly not
Vicious my mother.
- habit of doing wrong
I do love my father who I idolize. He has been a good
 Ethics provides norms for the goodness and badness of a certain provider and he always spend time with us.
action
But my mother does not deserve this. She is devoted to
Ethics vs. Morality him and us her children. I do love her very much, too.
Ethics
- can be also defined as the science of the morality of human What should I do?
acts - Do not decide base only on your feelings!
- applicable to everyone regardless of belief  Take pause
 Stop
Morality  Look
- quality of human acts by which they are constituted as  Listen
good, bad, or indifferent
- moral, immoral and amoral applies to a specific group of Ethical Decision Making is a
people, community, culture, or even personal. Reasoned Process
- Facts
Types of Ethics - Stakeholders
Normative Ethics/Prescriptive - Values
- study of moral problems which seeks to discover how one - Options
ought to act, not how one does in fact or how one thinks - Consequences
one should act
1. Gather facts
Descriptive / Applied Ethics - What do I already know?
- study human behavior as a consequence of beliefs about - What are the things I need to know?
what is right or wrong, or good or bad, insofar as that
behavior is useful or effective 2. Stakeholders
- a conclusion is drawn from the observation made above, - What is at stake?
namely that some action is wrong in one society and is right - What are their interest that they protect?
in another
Father
Importance of Studying Ethics - Family, happiness, respect of children
 Man needs to study ethics to be guided so that he may be
able to fully understand what real happiness is Mother
- Love from Father, Fidelity of husband, Family
 Through ethics, the human person will be able to
understand that the goal of a human being is not merely the Children
acquisition of material goods - Family
3. Articulate the Dilemma (Values)
 It is the nature of the human person to incline himself - Competing Values
towards the good. The human person naturally finds beauty
in doing good deeds Respecting my father’s privacy, preserving
Man by nature is GOOD peace and harmony in the family
Vs.
 He will eventually obtain meaning in his existence if he Fidelity in marriage, upholding the truth
will be in constant search of goodness
4. List the Alternatives (Options)
 Tell my mother
Moral Dilemma  Keep quiet
 Talk to my father and demand that he confess
Moral dilemma o If he does not, etc.
- are situations where two or more moral values or duties
make demands on the decision-maker, who can only honor
one of them, and thus will violate at least one important
moral concern, no matter what he or she decides to do
- tension between moral values and duties that are more or
less on equal footing
- a situation where the moral values at stake are of equal
importance

Competing values
- moral dilemma is a situation where the decision-maker has
to give priority to one moral value over another
- moral Dilemma is not about 2 or more
- opposing choices but of opposing values
 - Existence Precedes Essence
argues that we cannot explain human nature in the same way that we
describe a manufactured article

7. Make a decision
- There is no painless decision, sometimes the best decisions
are the toughest to make
- Justify your decision!
- What do you have?
Reasoned process
 Sartre believed that if there is no God, then there is no
 You cannot make this on every decision that you have to make given human nature precisely because there is no God to
 Do this in important decisions that you have to make have a conception of it. Human nature cannot be defined in
 Be patient! advance because it is not completely thought in advance.

Process
1. Gather the fact
2. Stakeholders
3. Articulate the Dilemma (Values)
4. List the alternative (Options)
5. Compare the alternative with values
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision

Freedom of Human Person

B. F. Skinner (Burrhus Frederic Skinner)

- Law of Nature / Total Determinsm
 People as such merely exist, and only later do we become
- famously claimed that human freedom is nothing but our
our essential selves
ignorance of the basic laws of nature
- humans can be controlled
 To say that existence precedes essence means, Sartre says,
that people exist, confront themselves, emerge in the world,
Environment
and define themselves afterward
- is what creates the human beings
- can be done by redesigning and manipulating his/her
 First, we simply are, and then we are simply that which we
physical environment
make of ourselves
 The recurrence of any behavior can be increased or
 For Sartre, man lives alone in a world that is bereft of
decreased
meaning. Since man has no past to cling on to, no human
 By way of positive and negative reinforcement, reward and
nature to depend on, the person must be solely responsible
punishment, and extinction
for everything, including the values that he creates in the
world
Reward
- increase good behavior
Is man free to do everything he wants?
Punishment
- In order to answer this, Sartre mentions in Being and
- decrease bad behavior
Nothingness the three types of being:
o en soi (in-itself)
Law of Nature
o pour-soi (for-itself)
- it is the environment that forms human nature
o pour-autrui (for-others)
- control it in order to achieve the desired results
- in this sense, he is suggesting that human freedom is an
En soi (in-itself)
illusion
- being-in-itself represents human facticity
- refers to human situatedness
Total Determinism
- being-in-itself refers to that which is static and self-
- in philosophy, theory that all events, including moral
contained
choices, are completely determined by previously existing
causes
 Man is set under the background of tradition, culture and
- Skinner’s stimulus response theory is a matter of cause and
language
effect
Pour-soi (for-itself)
 But man can never be reduced to the automatic reactions to
- the being-for-itself is truly dynamic and reflexive
the stimuli he finds in the environment
- it is not fixed
 Man can always transcend his physical condition is he
- being-for-itself then refers to transcendence and possibility
chooses to
 Man holds the ability to go beyond his given situations. He
 The person is the owner of his life
can rise above his circumstances
 He cannot be solely determined by his environment
 Sartre tells us that man has a choice it is for this reason that
for Sartre, existence is a curse, for man is condemned to be
John Kavanaugh (Human Freedom)
free
“It would seem that determinism as a scientific method has a great
deal to offer us in helping us understand how one’s historicity
 Man is responsible for himself
influences one’s behavior. As a total explanation of all human
behavior, it fails to account for the data of questioning, self-reflection, Pour-autrui (for-others)
and intelligent inquiry” - asserts that when a man is making a choice in the process
of making himself, he chooses not only for himself but for
Absolute Freedom all of humankind
Jean Paul Sartre
- Existentialism
  Man is therefore responsible not only for his own
individuality. He is responsible for everyone
 Thus, man creates not only his individuality but the
individuality of the whole humanity
 Thus, although a person may create his own values in
making himself, we nevertheless create at the same time an
image of humanity as we believe it ought to be
Absolute Freedom
- act of choosing
- man chooses alone for he is the one and final arbiter of his
choice
- freedom in this regard is absolute
“Freedom is man; man is freedom”
- in essence then, man is nothing but the choices that he
makes
Freedom (Sartre’s concept)
- is not the freedom to just do something or anything
- he says “you are free” because the person always has a
choice, “therefore choose”
Final Notes:
 Man must not simply go with the flow
 You are free to determine yourself and become the person
you want to be
 This implies human possibilities, the power to go beyond
the momentariness of life situations
 Be responsible
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg
October 15, 1927
• born in Bronxville New York 1948
• enters The University of Chicago and completes his
bachelor’s degree in Psychology in one
• begins his doctoral work at The University of Chicago
1957-1958
• completes his doctoral dissertation research on the moral
development of children Lawrence Kohlberg 1968
• As a result of his dissertation research, Kohlberg found
professional fame
Lawrence Kohlberg 1971
• While conducting cross-cultural work in Belize, Kohlberg contracts
a tropical disease that plague him physically and mentally for the next
sixteen years
Lawrence Kohlberg 1987
• On leave from a Massachusetts hospital where he is seeking
treatment for the above illness, Kohlberg commits suicide by
drowning himself in Boston Harbor.
He was 59 years old Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg extended Piaget's
theory;
Jean Piaget’s 2 Stage Theory
1st Stage: 10 or 11 Younger
 Regard rules as fixed & absolute
 Based moral judgements on CONSEQUENCES
2 nd Stage: 10 or 11 Older
 Regard rules as changeable
 INTENTIONS
For example, the young child hears about one boy who broke 15 cups
trying to help his mother and another boy who broke only one cup
trying to steal cookies.
Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that
moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the
lifespan. Lawrence Kohlberg He used Piaget’s storytelling technique
to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. Theory of Moral
Development Lawrence Kohlberg He based his theory upon research
and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral
dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of
each scenario.
Lawrence Kohlberg One of the best known stories of
Kohlberg’s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.
Story of Heinz
A woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a
form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000.00, ten times what the
drug cost him to make. Story of Heinz The sick woman's husband,
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could
only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that
his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay
later. But the druggist said "no." The husband got desperate and
broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.
* Should the husband have done that? Why do you think so?
Kohlberg is not really interested in whether the subject says
"yes" or "no" to this dilemma but in the reasoning behind the
answer.
Kohlberg’s (6) Six Stages
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
 A person is motivated by obedience to authority.
 Commonly associated with young children
 Involves little thought about morality.
 Moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1 - Obedience & Punishment
 Earliest stage of moral development
 Common in young children
 Children see rules as fixed and absolute.
 Obeying the rules is important to avoid punishment.
 Morality is motivated solely by punishment.
Story of Heinz
To the Heinz dilemma, the child typically says that Heinz was
wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or
"It's bad to steal," as if this were all there were to it. Story of
Heinz When asked to elaborate, the child usually responds in
terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing
is bad "because you'll get punished."
Stage 2 - Individualism & Exchange
 Children account individual points of view
 Judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
 Reciprocity is possible but only if it serves one's own
interests.
 The goal is to avoid punishment.
Story of Heinz
"Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take
the drug, the druggist would not." Since everything is
relative, each person is free to pursue his or her individual
interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he
wanted his wife to live, but that he doesn't have to if he
wants to marry someone younger and betterlooking.
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1: “I will keep quiet so that teacher won’t get mad at
me.”
Stage 2: “I will let you copy mine if you do my homework.”
Level 2: Conventional Morality
 People focus on following social norms and customs.
 Begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role
models. (Entering teens)
 Reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the
person belongs.
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
 Also known as "good boy-good girl" orientation
 Focused on living up to social expectations and roles
 Emphasis on conformity, being "nice"
 Consider how choices influence relationships.
 Emphasizes the maintenance happy interpersonal
relationships and pleasing others.
 A need to avoid rejection, disaffection, or disapproval from
others.
Story of Heinz
They typically argue that it was right to steal the drug because "He
was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were
good, that of saving the life of someone he loves." Even if Heinz
doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he should steal the
drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his
wife die”
Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
 Consider society as a whole when making judgments
  Please individuals to maintaining social order by following although it is often useful to make deals and exchange favors with
social norms, customs, and laws. others
 Focus is on maintaining law and order by following the
rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority. At stages 3 and 4, young people think as members of the
 Becomes aware of the wider rules of society to avoid guilt. conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations.
 A need to not be criticized by a true authority figure
At stage 3, they emphasize being a good person, which basically
Story of Heinz
means having helpful motives toward people close to one At stage 4,
In response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand
the concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society as a
that Heinz's motives were good, but they cannot condone the theft.
whole. Summary
What would happen if we all started breaking the laws whenever we
felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society
couldn't function. At stages 5 and 6 people are less concerned with maintaining society
for it own sake, and more concerned with the principles and values
Stage 3 reasoning works best in two person relationships with that make for a good society.
family members or close friends, where one can make a real
effort to get to know the other's feelings and needs and try to At stage 5 they emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes
help. that give everyone a say, and at stage 6 they define the principles by
which agreement will be most jus
COMPARISON BETWEEN STAGE 3 & 4
At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent becomes more
broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the
emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and
performing one's duties so that the social order is
maintained.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3: “I will buy that dress so that my friends will like me.”
Stage 4: “You should not cut the class because it’s against school
rules.”

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

 People look beyond convention to determine moral norms
and appropriate social interactions.
 Judgment is based on self-chosen principles
 Moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice

Stage 5 - Social Contract & Individual Rights

 Begin to account the differing values, opinions and beliefs
of other people.
 Laws are important but members of the society should
agree upon these standards.
 Becomes aware there are times when they will work against
rules or the interest of particular individuals
 Emphasis on the social contract and the maintenance of
individual rights

Story of Heinz
In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear
that they do not generally favor breaking laws; laws are social
contracts that we agree to uphold until we can change them by
democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife’s right to live is a moral
right that must be protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes
defend Heinz’s theft in strong language: “It is the husband's duty to
save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every
other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more
important than property.”

Stage 6 - Universal Principles

 Reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning
 Follow these internalized principles of justice, even if its
against the law
 Moral judgment is motivated by one's own conscience
 Search for universal principles.

Story of Heinz
In actual practice, Kohlberg says, we can reach just decisions by
looking at a situation through one another's eyes. In the Heinz
dilemma, this would mean that all parties—the druggist, Heinz, and
his wife-- take the roles of the others.

Summary
At stage 1 children think of what is right as that which authority says
is right. Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding
punishment.

At stage 2, children are no longer so impressed by any single

authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since
everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests,