➢ Rutherford’s model or alpha rays scattering experiment

Experiment
▪ Rutherford perform alpha rays scattering experiment in which he bombarded
thin gold foil with the beam of fast-moving alpha particles coming from radium.
▪ To detect the presence of alpha particles around the gold foil a circular ZnS
screen is placed around the gold foil.
▪ The point at which alpha rays strike the screen a flash of light was observed.
Observations
▪ From his experiment, Rutherford made the following observations-
o Most of the alpha rays passed undeflected from the gold foil.
o Few alpha rays get defected by small angle
o A very few one in about 1 in 105 particles defected back with large angle
or rebounded on the same path.

Conclusion
From his observations he concluded that:
▪ Most of the space of atom is empty since most of alpha particles passed
undeflected through the gold foil.
 ▪ Since few alpha particles deflected through small angle thus there must be
some positively charged body within the atom due to which some positively
charged alpha rays suffered deflection.
▪ Since a very few alpha particles rebound back on the same path or deflected by
large angle thus there must be a very- very small highly dense body inside the
atom.
▪ In this small positively charged dense body present in the atom were named as
nucleus.
Rutherford Planetary model of atom
▪ Atom consist of 3 subatomic particles they are, electron, proton and neutron
along with a centrally placed highly dense positively charged body called
nucleus.
▪ Nucleus contains nucleons i.e., protons and neutrons hence nearly all the mass
of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
▪ The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular paths called orbits.
▪ Planetary model of atom, Rutherford proposed that atom consists of two parts
1. Nucleus: It is very small positively charged highly dense body present in
the center of atom, the entire mass of atom is concentrated in nucleus, thus
nucleus contain proton and neutrons.
2. Extra nuclear: It is the space around the nucleus in which electrons remove
just like planets revolve around sun

➢ Atomic Number
The number of protons present in an atom of an element is called as atomic number. It
is represented by Z, or the number of elements in present in atom (natural) is called as
atomic number.
➢ Mass Number
The seen table of protons and neutrons present in on atom of an element is called as
mass number or total no. of nucleons (particles in present in nucleus) is called mass
number. It is represented as A.
A = Z + No. of neutrons
E.g., Find the no. of neutrons in C atom.
Z=6 A = 12
A = Z + neutrons
12 – 6 = N
6=N
❖ Natural abundance
• The percentage of various isotopes of an element present in nature is called their natural
abundance.
• While calculating the relative atomic mass of an element the natural abundance of
isotopes of the element is considered and a weighted mean is determined which gives
the relative atomic mass.
E.g. 1: Cl exists in two isotopic forms - 75% 𝑜𝑓 35 37
17𝐶𝑙 & 25% 𝑜𝑓 17𝐶𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒∗𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
100
35 ∗ 75 + 37 ∗ 25
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 35.5 𝑎𝑚𝑢
100
E.g. 2: Ar exists in three isotopic forms
Isotope Percentage Abundance Atomic Mass (g mol-1)
(%)
36
18𝐴𝑟 0.337% 35.96755
38
18𝐴𝑟 0.063% 37.96272
40
18𝐴𝑟 99.60% 39.9624
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑜𝑛
0.337 ∗ 35.96755 + 0.063 ∗ 37.96272 + 99.60 ∗ 39.9624
=
100
= 39.9476 𝑎𝑚𝑢
[Note: Relative atomic mass = Fractional abundance  Atomic mass of different isotopes]
❖ Mass Spectrometer
• A device which is used to separate particle according to their respective masses and it
also tells us about the relative proportion (abundance) of these particles in a given
sample.
• It consists of the following regions:
A - In this part a substance is first converted into atoms/molecules in vapor state.
B - The substance is converted into positive ions.
C - The positive ions are accelerated.
D - Atoms of difference masses are deflected in magnetic field, lighter the particle,
more is the deflection.
E - The particles are detected.
F - The vacuum pump creates vacuum inside the instrument.
➢ Region A (Vaporizer)
• It contains vaporized substances. If the substance is a gas, then it is filled at low
pressure where as if the sample is solid/liquid then it must be heated to convert
into vapor.
• It is connected to the spectrometer through a tube of very small diameter or a
capillary tube so that the transfer of substance into the instrument can occur
slowly.
➢ Region B (Ionizer)
• The particles are converted from neutral atoms to positively charged ions by
bombarding them with fast moving electron; due to this electron present in the
atoms are knocked out forming positive ions.
➢ Region C (Accelerator)
• The positive ions are accelerated by the help of high electric potential difference
between two parallel electrodes having holes in center.
➢ Region D (Deflector)
• The fast-moving positive ions are subjected to a magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet. Due to this the particles get deflected and strike the detector plate
after moving in a circular path.
• The particles with greater mass will not be deflected around the tube and strike
the detector plate, whereas the particles with smaller mass will be deflected more
and strike the walls of the instrument at X and Y position respectively.
➢ Region E (Detector)
• Here the particles are detected on the basis of their masses by means of current
flow required to neutralize the positive charge that they carry, greater the number
of particles of a given mass greater is the amount of current required to neutralize
them.
• By varying the strength of magnetic field, ions of different mass can be brought
to focus on the detector hence the relative abundance of ions of different masses
produced can be determined. This is known as mass spectrum.
• Usually, electron bombardment is adjusted to produce ions with single charge.
If any double charged ion is produced it deflects more than singly charged ion
 and will behave in the same way singly charged ion of ½ the mass. That why x
axis in the mass spectrum diagram below is labeled as m/Z.

Mass Spectrum of Magnesium

➢ Region F (Vacuum Pump)

• It contains a vacuum pump which helps in creating vacuum inside the body of
mass spectrometer, so that the particle of the substance can pass through the
spectrometer tube without colliding with other particles.
❖ Applications of mass spectrum
• It is used to find the natural abundance of isotopes of a particular element and thus
helps in calculation of relative atomic mass of the elements.
• Thus, the various operations taking place in the mass spectrometer are summarized as:
1. Vaporized sample introduced.
2. Ionization by electron bombardment.
3. Positive ions accelerated by a magnetic field.
4. Ionized particles are detected.
❖ Chemical Species
➢ Ions
They are formed due to loss or gain of electrons from atoms. They are of two types: (i)
Cations (ii) Anions.
▪ Cations
If an atom loses electrons (metal) so as to acquire stability, it forms cations. Cations
carry a positive charge because it contains more number of protons than electrons.
Na→ Na+ + e-
2,8,1 2,8
Protons = 11 Protons = 11
Electrons = 11 Electrons = 10

Mg→ Mg2+ + 2e-

2,8,2 2,8
Protons = 12 Protons = 12
Electrons = 12 Electrons = 10
[NOTE: The size of cation is always smaller than a neutral atom, as cations are formed due to
loss of electrons due to which the number of shells decreases, Zeffective increases, nuclear force
of attraction increases, hence size decreases.]
▪ Anions
If an atom gains electrons so as to complete octet and acquire stability, it forms
anions. Anions carry a negative charge as it contains more number of electrons than
protons.
F + e-→ F-
2,7 2,8
Protons = 9 Protons = 9
Electrons = 9 Electrons = 10
O + 2e-→ O2-
2,6 2,8
Protons = 9 Protons = 8
Electrons = 9 Electrons = 10
[NOTE: The size of anion is always greater than a neutral atom, as anions are formed due to
gain of electrons due to which it has a greater number of electrons than protons, Z effective
decreases, nuclear force of attraction decreases, hence size increases.]
➢ Isotopes
Atoms of same element having same atomic number but different mass number.
Isotopes contain same number of electrons and protons but different number of
neutrons.
12 14
6𝐶 6𝐶
Electrons 6 6
Protons 6 6
Neutrons 6 8
Isotopes have same chemical properties but their physical properties like density, rates
of diffusion are slightly different from each other.
➢ Isobars
Atoms of different elements having different atomic number but same mass number.
Isobars differ in electrons, protons and neutrons each other but have same number of
nucleons.
40 40
18𝐴𝑟 19𝐾
Electrons 18 19
Protons 18 19
Neutrons 22 21
➢ Isotones
Atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons.
14 15
6𝐶 7𝑁
Electrons 6 7
Protons 6 7
Neutrons 8 8

➢ Isoelectronic
Chemical species containing same number of electrons are called as isoelectronic, in
isoelectronic series the species having maximum positive charge is smallest in size
whereas maximum negative charge is largest in size.
Al+3 < Mg+2 < Na+ < Ne < F− < O−2 < N−3
Smallest in size Largest in size

e− = 10 in all of these
• Rutherford’s Model leading to 2 – D Bohr’s Model
➢ Drawbacks of Rutherford model
o Rutherford was not able to explain the stability of an atom. According to
Rutherford an atom consists small positively charged body called nucleus
present in the center and the negatively charged electrons revolved around
it.
o But according to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory whenever a charged
body moves around another charged body loss of energy in form of
radiations take place.
o Due to this the orbit of the revolving electron keep on becoming smaller and
smaller following a spiral path and ultimately the electron should fall in the
nucleus.

o Thus, the atom should collapse. However, this is not so and atom is quite
stable. The Rutherford model could not explain this stability of an atom.
o He was not able to explain the line spectrum of atoms.
o He was unable to explain the distribution of electron around the nucleus and
the energy of electron.
➢ Bohr’s model
o It was given by Neil Bohr on the basis of Planck’s Quantum Theory.
o According to it:
▪ An atom consists of a small positively charged based called
nucleus in the center around which electron moves in circular
orbits.
▪ Out of large number of theoretically possible orbits around a
nucleus electron revolve only in the orbits which have a fixed
 value of energy, these orbits are called as energy levels or
stationery states. This is so because the energy of electron in a
particular orbit is fixed and does not change with time.
▪ The different orbits around the nucleus are numbered and
designated as:
1, 2, 3 ,4…………….
K, L, M, N………….
▪ As per Kepler’s law, the energy of electron in different orbits is
given by Bohr’s formula:
2 𝜋2 𝑚𝑒 4
En = − 2 2 ∗ 𝑍 2
𝑛 ℎ
Where, m = mass of electron, e = charge of electron, h = Planck’s
constant, Z = Atomic Number & n = Number of orbits
Putting values of constants:
𝑍2
En = −21.8 × 10 −19 𝑛2 J/atom
Z2
= −13.6 × eV/atom
n2
Z2
= −1312 × 2 kJ/mol
n
▪ He also gave a formula for determining the radius of an atom of an
element:
𝑛2 ℎ 2
rn =
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
Putting values of constants,
𝑛2
rn = 0.529 ×
𝑍
▪ He also gave a formula for determining the velocity an atom
2𝜋𝑒 2 𝑍
Vn =
𝑛ℎ
Putting values of constants,
𝑍
Vn = 2.18 × 108 ×
𝑛
▪ Since the electron revolves only in those orbits which have fixed
value of energy. Hence, electron in an atom can have only certain
definite value of energy and not any arbitrary value of their own.
This is called as quantization of energy.
▪ Angular momentum of electron in an orbit is given by:
𝑛ℎ
mvr =
2𝜋
Thus, angular momentum is also quantized as it is an integral
ℎ ℎ 2ℎ
multiple of , Thus, for first shell angular moment is , for 2nd ,
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
rd 3ℎ
for 3 and so on.
2𝜋
▪ Like energy the angular momentum of an electron can have only
certain definite values not any arbitrary value of its own. Therefore,
angular momentum of an electron is also said to be quantized.
▪ Energy is emitted or absorbed only when electron jumps from one
orbit to another. When energy supplied to an atom the electron in the
atom jumps from ground state to higher energy level absorbing a
definite amount of energy, this state of an atom is known as excited
state.
 ▪ When the electron falls back to its ground state it emits the energy
absorbed, which is equal to the difference in energy of excited state
and ground state.
∆ E = E2 – E1
E2 = Excited / Higher state energy & E1 = Lower Energy/Ground
State
ℎ𝑐
E=
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
= E2 – E1
𝜆
𝑍2
For H2, En = −21.8 × 10−19 ×
𝑛2
−21.8 ×10−19
E1 =
𝑛12
−21.8 ×10−19
E2 =
𝑛22
Where n1 and n2 are the lower and higher shells respectively.
E 2 = E2 – E1
−21.8 ×1019 −21.8 × 1019
` ∆E = ( )–( )
𝑛22 𝑛12
−1 −1
∆ E = 21.8 × 10−19 x[ + ]
𝑛22 𝑛12

−19 1 1
∆ E = 21.8 x10 x[ − ] J/atom
𝑛12 𝑛22

1 1
∆ ∆ E = 13.6 x [ − ] eV/atom
𝑛12 𝑛22

1 1
∆ E = 1312 x [ − ] kJ/mol
𝑛12 𝑛22

➢ Limitations of Bohr’s model

o It is unable to explain the spectrum of multi electron atoms.
o Bohr was not able to explain the splitting of spectral lines in magnetic
field (Zeeman effect) and electric field (Stark effect).
o He was not able explain 3-D model of an atom.
o He was not able to explain the shape of molecules.
o He was not able to explain de- Broglie principal of dual nature &
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
• Electromagnetic wave theory of radiations
• It was given by J.C. Maxwell.
• According to it:
o Energy is emitted or absorbed by a body continuously in form of radiations or
waves.
o These waves are called as electromagnetic waves since they consist of electric
and magnetic field oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation.
o These waves travel with the speed of light i. e. 3 × 108 m/s.
o These rays do not require any medium for propagation thus they can travel even
through vacuum.
❖ Characteristic of Electromagnetic waves
λ Crest

Trough

• Wave length (𝛌) → The distances between two adjacent points on two consecutive
crest or trough are called its wavelength. It is denoted by λ.
Unit is A ͦ (Angstrom)
1 A ͦ = 10−10 m, 1 nm = 10−9 m ,1 pm = 10−12 m, 1 μm = 10-6 m
• Amplitude (a) → Height of crest or depth of trough or Maximum displacement from
mean position.
Unit = cm or m
• Frequency (𝛎) →The number of waves passing through a point per second.
Unit = Hz (Hertz) or second-1
C speed
v=
 wave length
• Wave number → The number of waves present per cm in length is called wave
number.
Unit = cm-1.
⊽ = 1/λ