DOI: 10.1002/adem.

201300043

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Ultrasonic Welding of Aluminum
Alloys to Fiber Reinforced Polymers**
By Guntram Wagner,* Frank Balle and Dietmar Eifler

To realize multi-material structures, e.g., out of light metals and fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites suitable joining methods are required. The ultrasonic metal welding technology was applied
to produce high strength joints between different aluminum alloys and carbon fiber reinforced polymers
(CFRPs) in the framework of research unit 524 of the German Research Foundation. The bonding
mechanisms were characterized by light optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The
performed analysis have shown a bonding zone with an intensive contact between the metallic surface
and the load bearing carbon fibers of the CFRP as a result of the ultrasonic welding process. Using
precipitation hardening aluminum alloy AA2024 tensile shear strengths of up to 58 MPa could be
achieved. In comparison to established joining techniques ultrasonic metal welding can be an interesting
alternative to realize dissimilar joints for the automotive or aircraft industry.

1. Introduction polymers (CFRP) in the Research Unit 524 of the German

A predominant aim of innovative products in the automo-
tive and aircraft industry, but also in railway transportation
and engineering in general, is weight reduction and to reduce
energy consumption. To achieve this, a higher amount of light
weight metals such as aluminum, titanium, or magnesium
alloys or FRP composites in engineering structures is necessary.
But to realize the necessary multi-material design also suitable
joining methods are required.
The Institute of Materials Science and Engineering of the
University of Kaiserslautern (WKK) has a long-time experience
on ultrasonic welding of dissimilar materials. High strength
metal/glass- and metal/ceramic-joints were realized for the
first time at WKK about 20 years ago. In recent years also welds
between dissimilar metals and the ultrasonic weldability of
glass FRPs were investigated.[1–5] Based on successful welds
and the gain in experience the ultrasonic metal welding
technology was applied to create high strength joints between
different aluminum alloys and carbon fiber reinforced
[*] Dr. G. Wagner, Dr. F. Balle, Prof. D. Eifler
Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
Kaiserslautern, P.O. Box 3049, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany
E-mail: gwagner@mv.uni-kl.de
[**] The authors would like to thank the German Research
Foundation (DFG) for the financial support in the framework
of the research unit 524.
Research Foundation.
2. Development of Ultrasonic Welding
Techniques
The possibility to weld metals by ultrasonic energy was
randomly discovered in the middle of the 20th century in the
USA. The original aim was to reduce the electrical contact
resistance between metals during resistance welding by
simultaneously acting transversal ultrasonic oscillations.
Thereby it was found out that a joint can also be realized
without the weld current only by ultrasonic oscillation.[6] In the
industrial production the ultrasonic metal welding process
was established in the 1950s.[7–9] At the same time also many
application fields for ultrasonic plastic welding have been
opened up, a welding variant which is characterized by an
oscillation amplitude perpendicular to the welding zone.[10]
Today both ultrasonic welding techniques have reached a high
relevance in industrial production. The ultrasonic metal
welding technique for example is used to realize joints at
cable harnesses or batteries and for the production of airbag
blasting caps.[11,12] The ultrasonic plastic welding method
is, e.g., suitable to close up food packages and beverage
packages but it is also established to realize high strength joints
at plastic toys or for housings of electronic components.[10,13,14]
Ultrasonic welding is also appropriate to join dissimilar
material groups. In a few publications in the sixties it was
referred that ultrasonic metal welding is also suitable to join

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aluminum foils with glass but this findings were not further
REVIEW
pursued for a long time.[15,16] But in the eighties institutes
started with systematical investigations to realize ultrasonic
welded joints between dissimilar materials.[17–21]
3. Operation Modes of Ultrasonic Welding
Systems
In comparison to other joining techniques such as brazing or
soldering ultrasonic welding is characterized by very short
welding times and a low energy input in the welding
zone.[22,23] As already briefly described two base variants of
ultrasonic welding machines exist, the ultrasonic plastic
welding system and the ultrasonic metal welding system.[22]
The significant difference between both welding techniques is
the direction of the ultrasonic oscillation, realized by a differing
positioning of the welding tool called sonotrode. In the case of
plastic welding the oscillation acts perpendicular to the
welding area. For metal welding an ultrasonic oscillation
parallel to the welding zone is used. To realize different weld
geometries as variants of ultrasonic metal welding spot-,
torsion-, and roll seam-welding were developed.[24,25] The
Guntram Wagner is senior scientist at the
Institute of Materials Science and Engineering,
University of Kaiserslautern. He has done his
PhD to the topic of ultrasonic metal welding of
metal/glass- and glass/glass-joints. Since 1997 he
is working on the field of joining and ultrasound
techniques. Current research fields are pressure welding
methods such as ultrasonic welding and friction stir welding
as well as the very high cycle fatigue behavior of metal matrix
composites using ultrasound testing facilities.
Frank Balle is postdoctoral fellow at the
Institute of Materials Science and Engineering,
University of Kaiserslautern (Germany). His
main research topics are focused on ultrasonic
welding of dissimilar materials like metals to
composites or metals to glasses. Furthermore he
is working on the very high cycle fatigue behaviour of
composites and light alloys. Balle holds a diploma in
mechanical engineering and a post doctorate degree (Dr.-
Ing.) in materials science.
Prof. Eifler got his PhD from the University of
Karlsruhe. From 1991 to 1994 he was Professor
at the University of Essen. Since 1994 he is
Professor at the Institute of Materials Science
and Engineering at the University of Kaisers-
lautern. Current research activities are focused
on the characterization of the fatigue behaviour of metallic
materials using mechanical, electrical, magnetic and thermal
measuring techniques. Additionally innovative joining tech-
niques like ultrasonic welding as well as friction stir welding
are important topics.
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G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
main components of ultrasonic metal welding systems are
exemplarily shown for spot welding in Figure 1.
The ultrasonic generator (1) converts the 50 Hz main voltage
into a high frequency alternating voltage of 20 kHz. In the
converter (2) this oscillation is transformed into mechanical
oscillations of the same frequency by a reversed piezoelectric
effect. The oscillation amplitude in the welding zone is
achieved by an appropriate design of the booster (3) and the
sonotrode (4). The amplitude, which acts parallel to the
welding area, typically ranges between 5 and 50 mm. During
the ultrasonic welding process the joining parts (5) are pressed
on an anvil (6) by pressure or electromechanically with a
clamping force between 50 and 2500 N perpendicular to the
welding zone. The length of the process can determined by
welding time, a specified amount of energy or the time to
reduce the high of the components.
Moreover, beside the machine parameters oscillation
amplitude, welding force and in the most cases the transferred
welding energy, there are significant material parameters,
which influence the quality of the welds (Figure 2).
In addition to chemical, physical, and mechanical properties
of the materials the geometry of the upper joining partner is an
important factor due to the unavoidable energy absorption of
the material. Welds can be realized for a thickness of up to
3 mm in maximum depending on the mechanical and physical
properties of the upper joining partner. For thicker materials
the energy absorption in the upper component is so high that
finally the transversal oscillation in the welding zone is not
sufficient to develop a weld. The surface roughness of the
joining partners is also essential for the weldability. If the
roughness is too low, the parts only slip on each other. For
too high roughness the energy is transferred in few points in
the welding zone. As a result of this localized hot spots can
occur, accompanied by extreme temperature gradients, which
causes especially for brittle materials thermo-shock provoked
fractures during or immediately after finishing the welding
process. For ultrasonic welds with glass or ceramics a surface
roughness in the range of Ra ¼ 0.2–5 mm is well suited
An equable temperature increase of the weld components
can support the development of the welding area, but in the
most cases it is not necessary for the realization of the joint.
Test series with pre-heating of the metallic joining partner
have been shown that temperatures up to 250 °C influences
Fig. 1. Principle of ultrasonic spot metal welding.
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REVIEW
may be the causal component for the joints.
But the results were unexpected. The inves-
tigations have shown that up to 50% better
results can be achieved for ultrasonic metal
welding (Figure 3).[31,32]
The reasons for this behavior can be found
in cross-sections (Figure 4). For ultrasonic
plastic welding only a bonding between the
metal and the polymer matrix occurred.
Moreover, the oscillation perpendicular to
the surface caused damages at the glass fibers
(Figure 4a). Using the ultrasonic metal
welding system the polymer matrix was
plasticized and displaced out of the joining
Fig. 2. Important welding parameters of ultrasonic metal welding.[42] area and as a result of this a direct contact
between the metal sheet and the glass fibers
was developed (Figure 4b). Consequently
the mechanical properties positive because the better deform- mechanical load on the joint can be directly transferred from
ability of the components enable a more distinctive contact the metal into the fibers. In addition no damage of the glass
between the welding partners. For higher pre-heating temper- fibers could be determined.[31]
atures the energy assumption in the upper component is such
intensive that a weld cannot be developed.[26]
5. Aluminum/Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer (CFRP)-Joints
4. Metal/Glass Fiber Reinforced (GFRP)-Joints
5.1. AA5754/CF-PA66-Joints
At the WKK systematic investigations about the ultrasonic
weldability of metals with brittle materials like glass or ceramic
5.1.1. Specimen Geometry and Experimental Setup
were carried out for the first time. To develop a welding zone
between the metal part and the glass an Al-interlayer is Due to the successful results for Al/GFRP-joints the
necessary, because aluminum is the only material which weldability of Al/CFRP-joints were investigated. At first the
enables a weld with glass or ceramic in
standard ambient conditions. It was possible
to realize vacuum-tight welds which
achieved tensile shear strengths of up to
50 MPa for metal/glass-joints[27] and up to
120 MPa for metal/ceramic-joints.[28,29] To
understand the bonding mechanisms micro-
structural investigations were carried. In
high-resolution transmission electron micro-
graphs of the bonding zone it could be shown,
that the thickness of the developed joining Fig. 3. Comparison of achievable strengths using ultrasonic metal welding and ultrasonic plastic welding.[31]
zone lies in range from 2 nm up to 10 nm
and the changes in the surface structure
predominantly occurs in the metal compo-
nent.[30] The main bonding mechanism prob-
ably based on intermolecular interactions
because for a diffusion bonding the welding
time is too short.
Based on the knowledge of ultrasonic
metal welding of metals to glasses and
ceramics further investigations concerning
the ultrasonic weldability of glass FRPs
were carried out. In this case the ultrasonic
metal welding system was compared with
the plastic welding system, because it was Fig. 4. Bonding zone of an (a) ultrasonically metal welded and (b) ultrasonically plastic welded metal/GFRP –
assumed that the plastic matrix of the GFRP joint (SEM).[31]

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Fig. 5. Optical micrographs of the base materials: (a) AA5754 H22, (b) CFRP (matrix: PA66).[36]
aluminum wrought alloy AA5754 were welded in work-
hardened, thermal-softened, and quarter-hard condition (H22)
with a thickness of 1 mm. The rolling direction (RD) can be
clearly indicated by elongated grains in the longitudinal
section of AA5754 (Figure 5a). The small intermetallic
precipitations are of type (Fe, Mn)Al6 (Fe, Mn)3SiAl12, Mg2Si,
and Al3Mg2.[33]
Figure 5b shows a cross-section of the CFRP organic sheet
with a thickness of 2 mm. The fiber reinforcement of CF-PA66 is
a C-textile satin 5H-fabric with a weight per unit area of
285 g m2. The fiber volume fraction of the organic sheet is
about 48%. It was produced by the Institut f€ ur Verbundwerk-
stoffe (IVW), Germany, in a film-stacking process using six
layers of CF-fabric and finally consolidated in an autoclave.
The specimen geometry is shown in Figure 6a. The welding
area of the sonotrode is 10  10 mm2. Since it was not possible
to determine exactly the geometry of the joining area the tensile
shear strength was calculated by the ratio of the tensile shear
force related to the sonotrode welding area. To realize high
reproducible joints, it was necessary to control precisely the
welding force during the joining process by an integrated force
measuring device. Therefore a special clamping device was
developed at WKK (Figure 6b).[34]
Fig. 6. (a) Specimen geometry, (b) ultrasonic spot welding system for Al/FRP joints.[42]
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G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
To investigate the weldability of Al/CFRP-
joints systematically a statistical model
named “central composite design circum-
scribed (CCC)” was used. In comparison to a
stepwise variation of each welding parameter,
this model for non-linear relationships allows
to find the optimal parameters with consid-
erably less welds. An important advantage
of the CCC-model is the description of the
mutual dependence of the three central
welding parameters oscillation amplitude,
welding force and energy in relation to the
achievable tensile shear strength of the joints
(Figure 7).[35] The orthogonal structure of the
statistical test plan guarantees the indepen-
dence of the influencing variables and permits a clear
benchmark of the different parameters.
This design of experiments reduces the number of welding
tests by approximately a factor of seven in comparison to a
conventional stepwise investigation of the influence of the
three welding parameters. At the same time the reproducibility
of the joint strength could be significantly improved. Further
details about the experimental procedure for ultrasonic
welding are given in ref.[34]
5.1.2. Monotonic Properties and Interfacial Area
The suitable combinations of the welding parameters were
identified in monotonic tensile shear tests. For each parameter
combination 12 welds were performed. Figure 8 summarizes
the achievable tensile shear strengths for AA5754/CF-PA66-
joints for varied welding forces FUS, which act perpendicular to
the welding zone, and oscillation amplitudes u parallel to the
welding zone with a constant welding energy WUS of 2160 Ws.
It had to be noted that the welding time is a depending hidden
parameter during the optimization. For example for a higher
welding force and constant u and WUS the welding time is
reduced, because the power of the welding system increases as
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Fig. 7. CCC-model for statistical analysis of ultrasonic metal welded joints.
Fig. 8. Contour plot (WUS ¼ 2160 Ws) for AA5754/CF-PA66-joints.[42]
a result of the higher wear in the welding
zone. In addition the number of oscillations
with the amplitude u decrease because of the
shorter welding time. Due to these effects
statistical-based investigations are necessary
to find the best parameter combinations.
The maximum tensile shear strength of
about 31.5 MPa can be determined for FUS
¼ 160 N and an oscillation amplitude
of u ¼ 40.5 mm. But in two-dimensional cuts
of the diagram the mutual dependence of
the process parameters can be discussed in
detail (Figure 9).[34] In every diagram two
process parameters are constant. In Figure 9a
the oscillation amplitude u varies between 38
and 42 mm. Besides the cours of the average
tensile shear strength the lower and upper
confidential interval for 95% is specified. With
increasing oscillation amplitude up to
40.5 mm an intensive displacement of the
matrix of the CFRP causes a better contact
between the metal sheet and the fibers. After
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the peak value a damage of the textile and thus a decrease of
the tensile shear strength occur. A variation of the welding
energy and the welding force shows nearly the same
tendencies (Figure 9b,c). These detailed investigations show
that the optimum parameter triple is FUS ¼ 160 N, u ¼ 40.5 mm,
and WUS ¼ 2160 Ws.
For a further optimization of the joint strength the surface
condition of the aluminum sheet was varied by mechanical
and/or chemical pre-treatments. Figure 10a shows a load–
displacement curve for an AA5754(R ¼ rolled, initial condi-
tion)/CF-PA66-joint. The hybrid weld fails without any
preliminary warning at a tensile shear load of FZ ¼ 3860 N.
The change of the electrical resistance DR in the joint was also
measured. The curve is characterized by a course of nearly zero
followed by an intensive increase due to a sudden fracture
of the welding area between aluminum and carbon fiber
composite.[43] By the application of a chemical surface pre-
treatment of the aluminum sheets using a pickling process in
nitric acid (acid pickled ¼ AP) the tensile shear strength of
the joints increases considerably.[39] Figure 10b illustrates a
characteristic load–displacement–curve for AA5754(AP)/CF-
PA66-joints. After reaching the yield point of the entire
hybrid joint at approximately FZ ¼ 4000 N, plastic deformation
occurs characterized by a flat discontinuous course. The shape
of the load–displacement–curve in this range can be traced
back to the PLC-effect in the AA5754 sheet, see detail in
Figure 10b.[40,41]
The change in the electrical resistance DR was also
measured. During elastic deformation of the weld no change
in DR could be observed. The first change of DR corresponds to
the yield point of the joint (first dashed line in Figure 10b).
After a slow linear increase of DR due to plastic deformation as
a result of Al/C-fiber debonding a pronounced increase of the
electrical resistance was measured straight before final
Fig. 9. Achievable tensile shear strength as function of (a) oscillation amplitude, (b) welding force, and (c)
welding energy for AA5754/CF-PA66-joints.[34]
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REVIEW
Fig. 10. Load–displacement- (e_ ¼ 0,2  103 1/s) and load–resistance-curve for (a) AA5754(R)/CF-PA66- and (b) AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joint.[43]
failure of the hybrid weld occurs (second dashed line in
Figure 10b).
Figure 11 shows a characteristic welding area of an AA5754/
CF-PA66-joint. It can be seen that the polymer matrix is
displaced out of the welding zone and the ductile aluminum
flows around the carbon fibers. Based on this cross-section it
can be assumed that an intermolecular contact as well as a
mechanical interlocking has been developed during the
ultrasonic metal welding process between the metal and the
fibers. Furthermore, no damage of the fibers was observed.[42,43]
The assumption that a direct contact between metal surface
and carbon fibers is possible, were proven by additional
welding experiments of Al sheets with a C-fiber textile without
polymer matrix. A cross-section of the interfacial area of an
Al/C-fiber textile-joint is shown in Figure 12. Focused ion
beam (FIB) preparation was used to investigate the interface
between carbon fibers and Al bulk material in detail. It can be
seen, that after the ultrasonic welding process the carbon fibers
are perfectly embedded by ductile aluminum due to the plastic
deformation of the metal sheet.[23,37]
Furthermore the microstructure of ultrasonically welded
hybrid joints was studied by analyzing the polymer layer
before and after the ultrasonic welding process. According to
Fig. 11. SEM micrograph of an AA5754/CF-PA66-joint (cross-section).[42]
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G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
the satin fabric structure (Atlas 1/4) the polyamide layer
thickness near the surface depends on the position in the CFRP
sheet. The transition zone of the crimped fiber bundles is
characterized by periodically repeating layer thicknesses of
about 250 mm (Figure 13). During the ultrasonic welding
process in the contact area of the sonotrode tip the fiber
reinforcement covering polymer layer is displaced by the
ultrasonic transversal waves. Digital image analysis clearly
show the reduction of the PA66-layer thickness within the
range of the crimped carbon fiber bundles by the ultrasonic
welding process, but not a complete displacement in the entire
welding area underneath the sonotrode tip.
In Figure 14 cross-sections of corundum blasted (CB) joint
are pictured. Especially at roughness peaks a direct contact
between the carbon fibers and the aluminum surface was
generated (Figure 14a). However, in zones between warp and
filling thread a polymer layer with a thickness of about 100 mm
remains because of the high layer thickness of about 250 mm in
the initial state before welding (Figure 14b). Instead of a direct
contact between carbon fibers and aluminum surface a pure
adhesive bonding between the aluminum and polymer very
similar to the conventional plastic welding technique
occurs.[36]
In Figure 15 the different surface conditions are pictured. A
comparison of as rolled (R) surface (Figure 15a) with CB
surface (Figure 15b) show an intensive increase of the
macroscopic roughness for the CB surface. The surface
roughness Ra increases from 0.3 to 3.0 mm (Table 1). By acid
pickling (AP) (Figure 15c), the surface roughness is hardly
affected and only selected peaks were removed. So the
roughness profile Rt decreases from 1.7 to 1.2 mm. Continuative
investigations have shown that an open and porous oxide
structure of the Al sheet has been generated and leads to an
improved interface strength of AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joints.
Due to the positive effect of CB and AP pre-treatments both
processes were combined. The developing surface, which have
nearly the same Rt but as expected with a lower Ra is shown in
Figure 15d. But the combination of both pre-treatments led
only to a slight increase of tensile shear strength to 50 MPa in
comparison to 46 MPa for CB and 49 MPa for AP could be
observed (Figure 15e).
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Fig. 12. Metal/carbon fiber textile-joint: (a) specimen, (b) back view of a prepared joint, (c) FIB cut through the welding zone, (d) detail of the welding zone.[37]
Regarding the long-term stability for the differing pre-
treatments considerable differences can be determined
(Figure 16). The hybrid joints were additionally tested
after aging of 1 and 4 weeks in an ambient temperature of
T ¼ 40°C and a humidity of 95%. For a mechanical and
a combined pre-treatment of the aluminum sheets (CB and
AP) nearly no decrease of the tensile shear strength was
measured. But for the only acids pickled joints the tensile
shear strength decreased 20%.[38] From a macroscopic point
of view a main reason for the higher decrease of the tensile
shear strength for these joints can be seen in the smoother
surface of the acid pickled aluminum in comparison to
Fig. 13. Polymer layer thickness of the CF-PA66 sheet before and after ultrasonic
welding.[46]
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blasted Al sheets. So an easier and faster attack of the
interface occurs. Possible microstructural reasons were
investigated by fracture surface analysis and X-ray photo-
electron spectroscopy (XPS) and are described in the
following communications in this journal.
5.1.3. Cyclic Behavior
Fatigue tests were performed at ambient temperature on a
servo-hydraulic testing system with a frequency of 5 Hz. Force-
controlled load-increase tests (LITs) and constant amplitude
tests were realized at a load ratio of R  0.
Figure 17 shows the experimental setup. The single overlap
samples were clamped by hydraulic grips. In addition, an
adjustable bending strut was used to minimize bending
stresses. PTFE-disks applied between the samples and the
struts reduce the friction in load direction. The cyclic
deformation behavior was measured with two strain gauges
positioned on the aluminum side and the CFRP side. To
characterize the cyclic deformation behavior with the strain
gauges, the total strain was determined. As described before,
one distinctive feature of the Al/CFRP-joints is a direct contact
between the aluminum sheets and the carbon fibers, which
allows the measurement of the change in electrical resistance
DR during monotonic and cyclic loading. A DC-power
supply enables reproducible long-term electrical resistance
measurements.
To estimate the endurance limit of the joints and to
determine appropriate stress amplitudes for constant
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 G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
REVIEW

Fig. 14. Optical micrographs at different interface positions of AA5754 (CB)/CF-PA66-joints: (a) polymer poor area, (b) polymer rich area.[46]

Fig. 15. SEM micrographs of pre-treated AA5754 sheets: (a) initial state, as rolled (R); (b) CB; (c) acid pickled (AP); (d) combined pre-treatment, CB and AP, (e) increase of the tensile
shear strength.[46]

amplitude tests, first stepwise LITs were performed with a

Table 1. Comparison of roughness properties for as rolled and surface pre-treated maximum number of cycles of 2  106. From a starting level of
AA5754 sheets (in mm).
250 N the cyclic force amplitudes Fa were increased stepwise
after 104 cycles at 250 N up to the failure (Figure 18).
AA5754 R CB AP CB & AP In Figure 18a the total mean strain eAl,m,t of the Al
sheet, the total mean strain eCFRP, m,t of the CFRP sheet as
Mean surface roughness Ra 0.3 3.0 0.3 2.5
Arithmetical roughness profile Rt 1.7 12.5 1.2 12.7

Fig. 16. Aging behavior of surface-pretreated AA5754/CFRP-joints (T ¼ 40 °C,

humidity ¼ 95%).[36] Fig. 17. Experimental setup for fatigue tests of single overlap Al/CFRP-joints.

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G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
Fig. 18. (a) Displacement amplitude and change in electrical resistance in stepwise load-increase tests for AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joints, (b) Load–Woehler-Curve of ultrasonically
welded AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joints.[43]
well as the change in electrical resistance DR for a chemical
pre-treated AA5754/CF-PA66-joint are shown. The courses
clarify that the total mean strains are not suitable as early
indication of imminent fracture of the specimen. However,
the electrical resistance is a stronger indicator for the
developing fatigue damage in the joining zone. A first slight
increase of DR could be observed at about N ¼ 4  104 cycles,
Figure 18a, point I. This first pronounced change in DR
correlates with the endurance limit of these joints, compare
Woehler-Curve in Figure 18b.[43] After N ¼ 7  104 cycles the
course shows a pronounced increase, Figure 18a, point II,
until final failure occurs at N ¼ 9.5  104 cycles. The load
level of point II is equivalent to the yield point of the entire
AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joint. Thus the electrical resistance is a
well suited and high sensitive physical value to determine
the actual fatigue state of Al/CFRP-joints.
In the following a constant amplitude tests (CAT) at
Fa ¼ 2250 N is shown (Figure 19). Again the total mean
strain eAl,m,t and eCFRP,m,t of the aluminum sheet and the change
of DR for the entire AA5754(AP)/CF-PA66-joints were
measured
During the first cycle total mean strains eAl,m,t and eCFRP,m,t
increases fast as a result of the load. Because of the less
thickness of the aluminum sheet (1 mm) in comparison to the
Fig. 19. Mean strain and change of electrical resistance during CAT of AA5754(AP)/
CF-PA66-joints, Fa ¼ 2250 N.
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CFRP (2 mm) eAl,m,t is more intensive. Afterwards both courses
are nearly constant. But the electrical resistance measurement
shows that the cyclic loading leads to slow damage
accumulation in the welding zone. The changes in the range
of 0.5 V are caused by microstructural changes and minor
plastic deformations in the aluminum. After 4  104 cycles a
progressive increase of DR can be observed as a result of the
proceeding increasing damage of the welding zone followed
by an abrupt final increase at failure of the joint
5.2. Comparison with AA1050- and AA2024/CF-PA66-
Joints
The previous results have shown that for a successful
ultrasonic welding process of Al/CFRP-joints a sufficient
plastic deformation capability of the metal sheet is necessary.
Therefore the metal component was varied. Beside the
commercially pure and ductile Al alloy AA1050 the precipita-
tion hardening aluminum alloy AA2024 were chosen. For
AA2024 a combined process of heat treatment and ultrasonic
welding was studied. To guarantee a sufficient ductility of the
AA2024 sheets a solution annealing at a temperature of 500 °C
for a period of 30 min of the Al sheet was realized before the
welding process. After water quenching, the ductile AA2024
sheet was immediately ultrasonic spot welded to the CFRP
within the next 15 min (Figure 20). This fast process is
necessary because of the rapid hardening of AlCuMg alloys.
Finally a post-weld heat treatment of the entire welded AA
2024/CF-PA66-joints was realized, which is characterized by
two consecutive procedures: artificial ageing for 20 h at the
temperature of T ¼ 180 °C and finally air-quenching or natural
ageing for 1 week at ambient temperature. Due to no
mechanical loading of the hybrid joint during aging at
T ¼ 180 °C no significant thermal impact of PA66 was
observed.[44]
The results of the tensile shear tests for Al/CF-PA66-joints
with three different Al are summarized in Figure 21. The
welding parameters for all hybrid joints were optimized
again by statistical test methods. For each Al/CFRP-
combination the best suitable process parameters are listed
in Figure 21.
http://www.aem-journal.com 9
 G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
REVIEW

Fig. 20. Precipitation hardening of hybrid Al/CFRP-joints after ultrasonic welding: (a) solution annealing, ultrasonic welding, and natural ageing, (b) solution annealing, ultrasonic
welding and artificial ageing.[47]

For AA1050/CF-PA66-joints the appropriate parameters 6. Conclusions

result in tensile shear forces up to 2460 N corresponding to
In the presented investigation the ultrasonic metal welding
tensile shear strength of 25 MPa, but in this case the ultimate
technique was applied successfully to join sheet metals with
tensile strength of the aluminum sheet limits the achievable
CFRP. With statistical test planning and the chosen CCC-
strength of the joints.[23] For the alloy AA5754(R) described
Model it was possible to find best suitable welding parameter
above the tensile shear strength of 32 MPa can be achieved. A
sets with only 15% of the necessary experiments in comparison
similar strength was obtained for AA2024/CF-PA66-joints
to a stepwise optimization. SEM micrographs of the bonding
without additional heat treatment direct after ultrasonic
zone have shown that an intensive connection between the
welding. In comparison to the AA1050/CF-PA66-joints the
metallic material and the load bearing carbon fibers of the
fracture predominantly occurs in the joining zone between
CFRP develops during the ultrasonic welding process. The
aluminum and CFRP. The highest tensile shear strengths were
polymer matrix was displaced out of the welding zone and no
realized for solution annealed, ultrasonically welded, and
damage of the carbon fiber reinforcement was observed. By
artificial aged joints. It has to be mentioned that in contrast to
using pre-treatments it was possible to realize a considerable
natural ageing, artificial ageing leads to a significant increase of
increase of the strength. Tensile shear strengths of up to 50 MPa
the monotonic strength of more than 40% and more than 65%
were achieved for AA5754 (CB þ AP)/CF-PA66 joints. For
compared with the AA2024 after annealing and before heat
joints with the precipitation hardening aluminum alloy
treatment.
AA2024 as metal component the tensile strength even
Because of the excellent results for AA2024/CF-PA66-joints
increased up to 58 MPa. In a comparison with established
the ultrasonic welding process were optimized in further
investigations. The results are presented in the following
communications in this journal.

Fig. 21. Tensile shear strength of different hybrid Al/CFRP-joints.[47] Fig. 22. Comparison of suitable methods to join metals with FRP.[45]

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2013,

10 http://www.aem-journal.com © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim DOI: 10.1002/adem.201300043
G. Wagner et al./Ultrasonic Welding of Al/FRP-Joints
Fig. 23. Ultrasonically welded AA5754/CF-PA66 hybrid demonstrator of the Research
Unit 524 of the German Research Foundation.
joining techniques it could be proved that ultrasonic metal
welding leads to the best results, see Figure 22.[45]
Also LIT and CAT were carried out with high-resolution
measuring techniques to describe the fatigue behavior of the
joints. The investigations have shown that for a load amplitude
of 1000 N run outs occur. Furthermore the measurement of the
electrical resistance has been proved as a very suitable method
to predict failure of the joints. The beginning of the damage of
the joints could be identified by this physically-based
measurement technique 1010 cycles before fracture occurs.
The possibility to join different sheet metals to CFRP with
high tensile shear strength extends the application of the
ultrasonic metal welding technique (Figure 23). Regarding
efficiency, automation, ecological compatibility and mechani-
cal as well as technological properties ultrasonic metal welding
is an attractive alternative to existing polymer joining
techniques.
Application fields for ultrasonically welded hybrid joints
can be seen in the automotive industry, e.g., to join different
lightweight structures using fiber reinforced materials or in
aircraft industry for construction elements of the fuselage,
aerofoil, or tail fin.
Received: February 13, 2013
Final Version: May 5, 2013
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ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2013,

12 http://www.aem-journal.com © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim DOI: 10.1002/adem.201300043