These include: The rise of computational propaganda and the ‘weaponisation of

mistrust’6 The digital disruption of advertising, causing the collapse of the

traditional business model for news publishing, and mass unemploymentɒ The
failure of digital advertising to support journalism as a replacement for print
advertising (Google and Facebook are now the main beneficiaries of digital
advertising sales) Digital convergence transforming content-commissioning,
production, publication and distribution, significantly increasing deadline
pressure and leading to additional job lossesɒ Targeted online harassment of
journalists (particularly women), their sources and their audiences8ɒ Social
media platforms placing audiences at the forefront of content discovery and
distribution, and making them collaborators in the production disorder’
As a result, the lines between fact, entertainment, advertising, fabrication and
fiction are increasingly blurred. And when disinformation and misinformation
are published, the social news distribution system, dependent on peer-to-peer
sharing, frequently sends the content viral, making it impossible to pull back,
even if journalists and other fact-checkers successfully debunk it. The rise of the
audienceThe Digital Era removed barriers to publication and signalled “the shift
of the tools of production to the people formerly known as the audience,” who
became co-producers, of content, including news - a function and practice
described as ‘produsage’. They initially built audiences via email and chat-
rooms before social media platforms dramatically amplified their reach.b) The
arrival of social mediaIn many countries, by the late-2000s, Twitter and
Facebook had joined YouTube as social media mainstays, influencing the
practices and professional identities of journalists (especially regarding
verification, audience engagement, and the clash of the personal and public
spheres that occur on social platforms and the distribution of content. As
individuals formed networks built around trust, peer-to-peer distribution of
content (particularly on Facebook) began to challenge traditional methods of
content dissemination.Users curated their own content streams - including
content from news services, journalists and other reliable information providers
- without mediation. As a result of distribution via ‘trust networks’ (users and
peers), inaccurate, false, malicious and propagandistic content masquerading as
news found increased traction. Researchers have discovered that both emotive
content, and content shared by a friend or family member is more likely to be
redistributed on social media.While journalists and news organisations have
necessarily embedded themselves within these platforms for the purposes of
newsgathering, audience engagement and content distribution (they needed to be
where their audiences were active), ‘filter bubbles’ or ‘echo chambers’
developed (even if they are not quite as hermetic or insulated as sometimes
suggested). These reduced many individual users’ exposure to alternative views
and verified information. This development has amplified the risks associated
with ‘information disorder’.
Disinformation disguised as news emanating from the U.S., French, Kenyan,
and German elections in 2016 and 2017 is just the tip of the iceberg of a great
many information challenges to societies – although perhaps with greatest
potential consequence. Consider, however, that television stations and social
media users around the world tracked in real time a miracle in the making in
Mexico in 2017 as rescuers tried to free a schoolgirl, #FridaSofía, trapped in
rubble after an earthquake – only to find she did not exist5. The story was false,
though not perhaps a case of deliberate fakery. Yet journalism has to avoid both
the mistaken and the counterfeit. Not all falsehood in news is ‘fake news’ in the
sense of disinformation, but both are problematic for the ability of society to
understand the world
good journalist Inquisitiveness about a wide range of issuesɒ Concern to become
and remain well-informedɒ Alertness to opportunities to use critical thinkingɒ
Trust in the processes of reasoned inquiryɒ Self-confidence in one’s own
abilities to reason Open-mindedness regarding divergent worldviewsɒ
Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinions Understanding of the
opinions of other peopleɒ Fair-mindedness in appraising reasoning Recognising
and honestly facing one’s own biases, prejudices, stereotypes, or egocentric
tendenciesɒ Prudence in suspending, making or altering judgments Willingness
to reconsider and revise views where honest reflection suggests that change is
warranted