WC 802.11n — 802.11n builds upon previous 802.

11 standards by adding
multiple-input multiple-output. The additional transmitter and receiver
antennas allow for increased data throughput through spatial
multiplexing and increased range by exploiting the spatial diversity
Unit-4
through coding schemes like Alamouti coding. The real speed would be
100 Mbit/s (even 250 Mbit/s in PHY level), and so up to 4-5 times faster
2.5G Mobile Data Networks
than 802.11g.

Q1) What are IEEE802.11 standards and what other standards do they
support?
Q2) Explain the difference between IEEE 802.11 and 802.16?
A1) IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards carrying out wireless local area
network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz A2)
frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE
LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802)

802.11a — an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and S.No.802.16 802.11
provides up to 54-Mbps in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing encoding scheme rather than FHSS or IEEE 802.16
DSSS. standard IEEE 802.11
defines standard defines
802.11b — an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANS and
01. WiMAX. WLAN or WiFi.
provides 11 Mbps transmission in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only
DSSS. 802.11b was a 1999 ratification to the original 802.11 standard,
allowing wireless functionality comparable to Ethernet. It is designed
for long
802.11e — a wireless draft standard that defines the Quality of Service
distance/wide It is designed for
support for LANs, and is an enhancement to the 802.11a and 802.11b
02. area. limited area.
wireless LAN (WLAN) specifications. 802.11e adds QoS features and
multimedia support to the existing IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11a
wireless standards, while maintaining full backward compatibility with It provides a
these standards. coverage It provides a
range of 7 km coverage range of
802.11g — applies to wireless LANs and is used for transmission over 03. to 50 km. 30 m to 100m.
short distances at up to 54-Mbps in the 2.4 GHz bands.
 covers a wide
802.16
area.
standard is
used for 802.11 standard is
outdoor used for indoor For
04. usage. usage. encryption
purpose it
uses Data
It operates on It operates on
Encryption
frequencies of frequencies of 2.5
Standard with
2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 3.5 GHz,
Advanced For encryption
05. GHz. 5.8GHz.
Encryption purpose it uses
09. Standard. Rivest Cipher 4.
Standard
variants of
Different QoS
802.16 are Standard variants
options are It does not provide
802.16a, of 802.11 are
available like any QoS but
802.16d, 802.11a, 11b, 11g,
UGS, rtPS, Supported in IEEE
802.16e, 11n, 11ac, 11ad
10. nrtPS, BE, etc 802.11e.
06. 802.16m etc. etc.

Bandwidths
It provides a
varies
data rate of
dynamically
100 Mbps in a It provides a data
as per user Bandwidth variants
20 MHz rate of 54 Mbps in
requirement are 20 MHz,
07. channel. 20 MHz channel.
from 1.5 to 28 40MHz, 80MHz and
11. MHz. 160 MHz.
Limited number of
Large number customers/devices
of customers are connected
are connected which are within Q3) What are the mobile IP entities and technologies used in mobile
08. to this as it the limited range. IP?
A3) Mobile IP Entities  Foreign agent is used to provide the various services to the Mobile
Node (MN), when MN visits to the foreign network.
Following section defines several entities and terminologies used in  Foreign
agent can have care-of-address (COA), that is acting as
mobile IP. tunnel end points and forwarding the packets to the mobile node.
(i) Mobile node

A MN (Mobile Node) is an router or end system that can change its (vi) Care of address
point of attachment to the internet using mobile IP. (COA)
 Mobile node can be any device such as laptop or mobile phone.

Mobile node have its IP address and can communicate with  It is used to
another systems. define the current
location of mobile
node from an IP
point of view.
(ii) Correspondent node
 All the IP
A CN can be a Mobile Node (MN) or it can be a fixed IP host linked to a packets sent to the MN are first delivered to the COA, that is not
router. CN can be considered as a communication partner and at least directly send to the IP address of the MN.
one partner is needed for the communication purpose.

(vii) Home Agent (HA)

(iii) Home network
HA is located in home Network and provides various services for the
HN is a network having an address prefix matching that of a mobile node’s mobile node. Home agent maintains a location registry that used to give
home address. Mobile IP support is not needed within the home network. MNs location by the current COA.

(iv) Foreign network Q4) Explain IMT 2000 the third generation mobile services?

The Foreign Network (FN) is the current subnet of the MN visits and which A4)
is not belongs to the home network.
It is called international mobile telecommunication 2000. For indoor and
outdoor operation it has high data rate. It is for symmetrical and
asymmetrical data transmission. It can be implemented for circuit
(v) Foreign agent (FA)
switched and packet switched services. It can be implemented for
multimedia services.

Fig: IMT Family structure

Q5) Explain the architecture of WCDMA network?

Fig. Specification of IMT-2000 (radio interface)
A5)

International mobile telecommunication-2000 is ITU globally co-

ordinated term for 3G with some constraints like frequency spectrum uses
Parameter W-CDMA IMT-2000
and technical specifications.
Carrier spacing 5 MHz 3.75 MHz

Chip rate 3.84 MHz 3.6864 MHz

 It occupies 5 MHz channels. It has format for synchronization, power
Parameter W-CDMA IMT-2000
control etc.
Data modulation BPSK FW-QPSK

RV-BPSK
CDMA Technology
Power control 1.6 KHz 800 Hz
It allows multiple handset to get access at one base station same time. It
Frame length 10 ms/20 ms 20 ms for data and control 5 ms uses DSSS for access.
for control information.

Coherent No common pilot Continuous and auxiliary pilot

detection. for downlink for down-link. Handover

Antenna beam TDM dedicated Auxiliary pilot. It is handoff from one cell to another. Different strategies needed to
foaming. pilot. handle inter-cell intra-cell movements of users lies under same or
different BTS, MSC in handoff mechanism.
Forward link TDM dedicated CDM common pilot.
pilot. pilot.

Base station 3 steps : Time shifted PN correlation. Network Architecture

acquisition.
Slot, Frame, Code. Network architecture is designed in such a way that it supports packet
data transmission.

User equipment in W-CDMA is radio frequency circuitry, baseband

Similarities : processing, battery Universal Subscribers Identity Module (USIM).

 For higher data rate uses turbo code. Fig. WCDMA network architecture overview
 Convolutional code used as baseline.

 Complex QPSK spreading on downlink.

 Soft handoff and mobile assisted procedure for inter frequency hard

handoff proceed. Q6) What are features of HSCSD?

A6)

W-CDMA Features  HSCSD stands for high-speed circuit

switched data. It is enhanced version of circuit
Radio Interface
 switched data; it helps to improve error correction in various  According to peter Rysavy, Rysavy Research 1998 GPRS network is
level of quality of radio links. as follows :
 HSCSD provides data rate up to 14.4 kbps by using multiple time
slot at same time. It transfers time sensitive images or video at Fig: GPRS network
high speed. (1)
 In generate some latency compared to GPRS while in transmission

of normal voice and data traffic.

GPRS system


has a base of GSM

Features communication and somewhat of circuit switched phone
connection, Short Message Service (SMS).
1. High speed circuit switched data technology gives four times faster
compare to typical GSM networks. Fig: GPRS
Network
2. 38.8 kbps speed for all type of non-voice application. (2) (by
Peter
3. It works with multiple slot which makes allow for data transmission at
Rysavy)
higher rate.

4. With all standard conditions (UL, DL) user can attain 40 to 57.4 kbps in
specific area. Q8) Explain working of GPRS?

A8) Working of GPRS

Q7) Explain GPRS network?  SGSN:

A7)
 General Packet Radio System (GPRS) is a packet based data
services for wireless communication.
 A packet radio principle is used to transfer subscriber data packet
It manages to send and receive of packet data to and from MS. It is useful
for keeping track of mobile devices within scope of service area. It works
in mobility management subscribed user verification and provides data
required for billing.

within GSM mobile station and external packet data network.  GGSN:

 Data is split and transmitted at sender node and reassembled at

receiving end. GPRS support IP and X.25, these operate over It has vital role of routing information whichever is necessary for
cellular connection of a GSM. tunneling Protocol Data Unit (PDUs). To SGSN to Serve Distinct MS. It is on
interface for external PDNs. i.e. public data units like internet and X.25.
Charging gateway Q10) What is EDGE technology?

 It maintains log entries for activities like data being transfer, change A10) Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) introduces a new
in charging terms in peak/off to peak and vice-versa, end of modulation technique, as well as protocol enhancements for transmitting
session for GPRS etc. packets over the radio.
 It has collection records related to GPRS, usage in buffering of data,

storage, transfer of data. The use of the new modulation and the protocol enhancements, result in
dramatically increased throughput and capacity gains enabling 3G
services in the existing GSM/GPRS networks. No changes are needed to
the existing core network infrastructure to support EDGE. This
GTP emphasizes the fact that EDGE is only an “add-on” for BSS.

GPRS tunneling protocol uses to encapsulate IP or X.25 packet which are For EDGE, nine Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS) are introduced
transferred among SGSN and GGSN. (MCS1 to MCS9) and optimized for different radio environment. Four
EDGE coding schemes are using GMSK and five are using 8 PSK
Modulation.

Q9) List the applications of GPRS? Up gradation to EDGE

Application of GPRS  Mobile Station (MS) − MS should be EDGE enabled.

GPRS provides many functions among several applications. These are  BTS − HW supplied is Edge enabled.
listed below:
 BSC − Definitions for EDGE timeslots needs to be done in BSC.
 Chat
 GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) − Definitions for Edge need to be
 Information services as text or graphics.
defined in GSNs.
 Still images.

 Moving images  Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) − No definition is required.

 Web browsing
 Document sharing and remote collaborative working

 Audio reports
Benefits of EDGE
 Job dispatch

 Corporate email  Short-term benefits − Capacity and performance,

 Vehicle positioning
 File transfer.  Easy implementation on a GSM/GPRS network,
  Cost effective,

 Increases the capacity and triples the data rate of GPRS,

 Enables new multimedia services,

 Long-term benefit − Harmonization with WCDMA.

What EDGE Would Mean to Subscribers

 Streaming applications

 Very high speed downloads

 Corporate intranet connections

 Quicker MMS

 Video phone

 Verticalcorporate applications - Video conference, Remote

Q12) Explain the concept of data communication in GPRS?
presentations.
A12) GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network,
but, has additional entities that allow packet data transmission. This data
network overlaps a second-generation GSM network providing packet
Q11) Compare the 2.5G technologies?
data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet
A11) data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share
the same air interface resources concurrently.

Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:


Fig: GPRS Architecture
GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as
possible, but to effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular
network, some new network elements, interfaces, and protocols for
handling packet traffic are required.
GPRS Mobile Stations
New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because
existing GSM phones do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet
data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high-speed version of current
phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an
embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These
mobile stations are backward compatible for making voice calls using
GSM.
GPRS Base Station Subsystem
Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units
(PCUs) and a software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical
data interface to the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic.
The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not
require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile,
it is transported over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the
BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call. However, at the output of
the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called
the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes
(GSNs) and, Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to
external networks. It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles,
which is used to tunnel packets through the IP based internal backbone
to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks
and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of
GPRS mobiles, registration of mobiles in the network, mobility
management, and collecting information on charging for the use of the
air interface.
 BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base
Internal Backbone Transceiver Station (BTS).

The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets

between different GSNs. Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs,
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software
so the internal backbone does not need any information about domains
upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the
outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR or EIR is
packet control unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data
done using SS7.
traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.

Routing Area
GPRS The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to
Support core network elements called the serving GPRS support
Location Area in GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells.
Nodes node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).
Because routing areas are smaller than location areas, less radio
(GSNs)
resources are used While broadcasting a page message.

Databases All the databases involved in the network will require

Q13) Compare GSM and GPRS? (HLR, VLR, software upgrades to handle the new call models and
etc.) functions introduced by GPRS.
A13)

GSM Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Network Q14) How is data transferred though GPRS explain?
Element
A14) Data routing or routing of data packets to and fro from a mobile
user, is one of the pivot requisites in the GPRS network. The requirement
Mobile New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. can be divided into two areas:
Station (MS) These new terminals will be backward compatible with
 Data packet routing
GSM for voice calls.
 Mobility management.
Data Packet Routing
The important roles of GGSN involve synergy with the external data
network. The GGSN updates the location directory using routing
information supplied by the SGSNs about the location of an MS. It routes
the external data network protocol packet encapsulated over the GPRS
backbone to the SGSN currently serving the MS. It also decapsulates and
forwards external data network packets to the appropriate data network
and collects charging data that is forwarded to a charging gateway (CG).
There are three important routing schemes:
 Mobile-originated message - This path begins at the GPRS mobile
device and ends at the host.
 Network-initiated message when the MS is in its home network
- This path begins at the host and ends at the GPRS mobile device.
 Network-initiated message when the MS roams to another
GPRS network - This path begins at the host of visited network
and ends at the GPRS mobile device.
The GPRS network encapsulates all data network protocols into its own
encapsulation protocol called the GPRS tunnelling protocol (GTP). The
GTP ensures security in the backbone network and simplifies the routing
mechanism and the delivery of data over the GPRS network.
Mobility Management
The operation of the GPRS is partly independent of the GSM network.
However, some procedures share the network elements with current
GSM functions to increase efficiency and to make optimum use of free
GSM resources (such as unallocated time slots).
An MS can be in any of the following three states in the GPRS system. The
three-state model is unique to packet radio. GSM uses a two-state model
either idle or active.
Active State
Data is transmitted between an MS and the GPRS network only when the
MS is in the active state. In the active state, the SGSN knows the cell
location of the MS.
Packet transmission to an active MS is initiated by packet paging to notify
the MS of an incoming data packet. The data transmission proceeds
immediately after packet paging through the channel indicated by the
paging message. The purpose of the paging message is to simplify the
process of receiving packets. The MS listens to only the paging messages
instead of to all the data packets in the downlink channels. This reduces
battery usage significantly.
When an MS has a packet to transmit, it must access the uplink channel
(i.e., the channel to the packet data network where services reside). The
uplink channel is shared by a number of MSs, and its use is allocated by
a BSS. The MS requests use of the channel in a random access message.
The BSS allocates an unused channel to the MS and sends an access grant
message in reply to the random access message.
Standby State
In the standby state, only the routing area of the MS is known. (The
routing area can consist of one or more cells within a GSM location area).
When the SGSN sends a packet to an MS that is in the standby state, the
MS must be paged. Because the SGSN knows the routing area of the MS,
a packet paging message is sent to the routing area. On receiving the
packet paging message, the MS relays its cell location to the SGSN to
establish the active state.
Idle State
In the idle state, the MS does not have a logical GPRS context activated
or any Packet-Switched Public Data Network (PSPDN) addresses
allocated. In this state, the MS can receive only those multicast messages
that can be received by any GPRS MS. Because the GPRS network
infrastructure does not know the location of the MS, it is not possible to
send messages to the MS from external data networks.
Routing Updates
When an MS that is in an active or a standby state moves from one routing
area to another within the service area of one SGSN, it must perform a
routing update. The routing area information in the SGSN is updated, and
the success of the procedure is indicated in the response message.
A cell-based routing update procedure is invoked when an active MS
enters a new cell. The MS sends a short message containing the identity
of the MS and its new location through GPRS channels to its current SGSN.
This procedure is used only when the MS is in the active state.
The inter-SGSN routing update is the most complicated routing update.
The MS changes from one SGSN area to another, and it must establish a
new connection to a new SGSN. This means creating a new logical link
context between the MS and the new SGSN and informing the GGSN about
the new location of the MS
Q15) Explain 4G technology?
A15)
 4G takes on a number of equally true definitions, depending on
whom you are talking to. In simplest terms, 4G is the next
generation of wireless networks that will replace 3G networks
sometimes in future.
 Inanother context, 4G is simply an initiative by academic R&D labs
to move beyond the limitations and problems of 3G which is
having trouble getting deployed
And meeting its promised performance and throughput.
 Inreality, as of first half of 2002, 4G is a conceptual framework for
or a discussion point to address future needs of a universal high
speed wireless network that will interface with wire line
backbone network seamlessly.
 4G is also represents the hope and ideas of a group of researchers
in Motorola, Qualcomm, Nokia, Ericsson, Sun, HP, DoCoMo and
other infrastructure vendors who must respond to the needs of
MMS, multimedia and video applications if 3G never materializes
in its full glory.
Motivation for 4G Research Before 3G Has Not Been Deployed?
 3Gperformance may not be sufficient to meet needs of future high-
performance applications like multi-media, full motion video,
wireless teleconferencing. We need a network technology that
extends 3G capacities by an order of magnitude.
 There are multiple standards for 3G making it difficult to roam and
interoperate across networks. We need global mobility and
service portability
 3G is based on primarily a wide-area concept. We need hybrid
networks that utilize both wireless LAN (hot spot) concept and cell
or base-station wide area network design.
  We need wider bandwidth  With its use of existing technologies & communication standards,
 Researchers have come up with spectrally more efficient 4G present a comparably inexpensive standard.
modulation schemes that cannot be retrofitted into 3G  4G will utilize most of the existing wireless communication
infrastructure infrastructure
 We need all digital packet networks that utilize IP in its fullest form

with converged voice and data capability.

Q17) Explain the applications, advantage and disadvantages of 4G?

Reasons to Have 4G A17) Applications:

 Support interactive multimedia services:
wireless Internet, etc.
 Wider bandwidths, higher bit rates.
 Global mobility and service portability.
 Low cost.
 Scalability of mobile networks.
teleconferencing,  4G will provide for a vast no. Of presently nonexistent application
for mobile devices.
 4Gdevice will differ from present day mobile device in that there
will be navigation menus.
 4Gwill provide a seamless network for users who travel & required
uninterrupted voice/data communication.

What's New in 4G? Advantages and Disadvantages of 4G:

Entirely packet-switched networks. Advantages:

 All network elements are digital.  Supportfor interactive multimedia voice, streaming video, internet
 Higher bandwidths to provide multimedia services at lower cost (up & other broadband services.
to 100Mbps).  IPbased mobile system.
 Tight network security.  High speed, high capacity & low cost per bit.

 Global access, service portability & scalable mobile services.

 Better scheduling and call admission control technique.

 Ad-hoc & multi-hop network.

Q16) Explain the need of 4G?  Better
spectral efficiency.
 Seamless network of multiple protocols & air interfaces.
A16) Need of 4G:

 Firstly,
3G’s maximum data transfer rate of 384 kbps to 2 mbps is
much slower than 20mbps to 100mbps of 4G. Disadvantages:
  Expensive
 Battery uses are more hard to implement
 Need complicated hardware.
Q18) List all the designing goals which should be kept in mind for
WLANs?
A18) The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while
designing WLANs:
 Operational simplicity: Design of wireless LANs must incorporate
features to enable a mobile user to quickly set up and access
network services in a simple and efficient manner.
 Power-efficient
operation: The power-constrained nature of mobile
computing devices such as laptops and PDAs necessitates the
important requirement of WLANs operating with minimal power
consumption. Therefore, the design of WLAN must incorporate
power-saving features and use appropriate technologies and
protocols to achieve this.
 License-freeoperation: One of the major factors that affects the cost
of wireless access is the license fee for the spectrum in which a
particular wireless access technology operates. Low cost of
access is an important aspect for popularizing a WLAN
technology. Hence the design of WLAN should consider the parts
of the frequency spectrum (e.g., ISM band) for its operation which
do not require an explicit licensing.
 Tolerance to interference: The proliferation of different wireless
networking technologies both for civilian and military
applications and the use of the microwave frequency spectrum for
non-communication purposes(e.g., microwave ovens) have led to
a significant increase in the interference level across the radio
spectrum. The WLAN design should account for this and take
appropriate measures by way of selecting technologies and
protocols to operate in the presence of interference.
 Global usability: The design of the WLAN, the choiceof technology,
and the selection of the operating frequency spectrum should
take into account the prevailing spectrum restrictions in countries
across the world. This ensures the acceptability of the technology
across the world.
 Security: The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to
the requirement of security features to be included in the design
of WLAN technology.
 Safety requirements: The design of WLAN technology should follow
the safety requirements that can be classified into the following:
(i) interference to medical and other instrumentation devices and
(ii) increased power level of transmitters that can lead to health
hazards. A well-designed WLAN should follow the power
emission restrictions that are applicable in the given frequency
spectrum.
 Quality of service requirements: Quality of service (QoS) refers to
the provisioning of designated levels of performance for
multimedia traffic. The design of WLAN should take into
consideration the possibility of supporting a wide variety of
traffic, including multimedia traffic.
 Compatibility with other technologies and applications: The
interoperability among the different LANs (wired or wireless) is
important for efficient communication between hosts operating
with different LAN technologies. In addition to this,
interoperability with existing WAN protocols such as TCP/IP of
the Internet is essential to provide a seamless communication
across the WANs. 1.2.2 Network Architecture This section lists the
types of WLANs, the components of a typical WLAN, and the
services offered by a WLAN. Infrastructure Based Versus Ad Hoc
LANs WLANs can be broadly classified into two types,
infrastructure networks and adhoc LANs, based on the underlying
 architecture. Infrastructure networks contain special nodes called
access points (APs), which are connected via existing networks.
 APsare special in the sense that they can interact with wireless
nodes as well as with the existing wired network. The other
wireless nodes, also known as mobile stations, communicate via
APs. The APs also act as bridges with other networks. Ad hoc LANs
do not need any fixed infrastructure. These networks can be setup
on the fly at any place. Nodes communicate directly with each
other or forward messages through other nodes that are directly
accessible.
Q19) What are fundamentals on WLAN? What is the difference
between wireless and wired transmission?
A19) The terms "node," "station," and "terminal" are used
interchangeably. While both portable terminals and mobile terminals can
move from one place to another, portable terminals are accessed only
when they are stationary. Mobile terminals (MTs), on the other hand, are
more powerful, and can be accessed when they are in motion. WLANs aim
to support truly mobile work stations.
Differences Between Wireless and Wired Transmission
 Address is not equivalent to physical location: In a wireless
network, address refers to a particular station and this station
need not be stationary. Therefore, address may not always refer
to a particular geographical location.
 Dynamic topology and restricted connectivity: The mobile nodes
may often go out of reach of each other. This means that network
connectivity is partial at times.
 Medium boundaries are not well-defined: The exact reach of
wireless signals cannot be determined accurately. It depends on
various factors such as signal strength and noise levels. This
means that the precise boundaries of the medium cannot be
determined easily.
 Error-prone medium: Transmissions by a node in the wireless
channel are affected by simultaneous transmissions by
neighboring nodes that are located within the direct transmission
range of the transmitting node. This means that the error rates are
significantly higher in the wireless medium. We need to build a
reliable network on top of an inherently unreliable channel. This
is realized in practice by having reliable protocols at the MAC
layer, which hide the unreliability that is present in the physical
layer. Uses of WLANs Wireless computer networks are capable of
offering versatile functionalities. WLANs are very flexible and can
be configured in a variety of topologies based on the application.
Some possible uses of WLANs are mentioned below.
 Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive
Instant Messages on the move.
 In areas affected by earthquakes or other such disasters, no suitable
infrastructure may be available on the site. WLANs are handy in
such locations to set up networks on the fly.
 There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to
set up computer networks. In such places, wiring may not be
permitted or the building design may not be conducive to
efficient wiring. WLANs are very good solutions in such places.
Q20) What are the qualities and services provided by 3G networks?
A20) Third generation (3G) is the generic term used for the next
generation of mobile communications systems. These have been created
to support the effective delivery of a range of multimedia services. In
addition, they provide more efficient systems for the over-the-air
transmission of existing services, such as voice, text and data that
are available today.
3G wireless technology represents the convergence of various 2G
wireless telecommunications systems into a single global system that
includes both terrestrial and satellite components. One of the most
important aspects of 3G wireless technology is its ability to unify existing
cellular standards, such as CDMA, GSM, and TDMA, under one umbrella.
3G wireless networks consist of a Radio Access Network (RAN) and a core
network. The core network consists of a packet-switched domain, which
includes 3G SGSNs and GGSNs, which provide the same functionality that
they provide in a GPRS system, and a circuit-switched domain, which
includes 3G MSC for switching of voice calls.
3G: what's new?
A wide range of market-focused applications
 Long-term market-driven creativity, an innovative value chain and real
user benefits, driving genuine market demand
 Advanced, lightweight, easy-to-use terminals with intuitive
interfaces · Instant, real-time multimedia communications
 Global mobility and roaming
 A wide range of vendors and operators, offering choice, competition
and affordability
High-speed e-mail and Internet access
3G enabled users to transmit voice, data, and even moving images. In
order to realize these services, 3G improves the data transmission speed
up to 144Kbps in a high-speed moving environment, 384Kbps in a low-
speed moving environment, and 2Mbps in a stationary environment. 3G
provides services like Internet connection, transmission of large-scale
data and moving contents photographed by digital cameras and videos,
and software downloading.
At present, maximum data transmission speed is 64Kbps offered in 3G
services, and it was expected that by toward early 2001, 384Kbps would
be possible. At the early stage of 3G services, a 144Kbps-transmission
speed is expected. By around 2005 when 3G is in general use; a maximum
speed of 2Mbps will be possible.
WC
 Unit - 5

Fig
Introduction to Wireless Channels and Diversity 2

Q1) Explain AWGN channel modelling?

A1) The uplink model for discrete time is shown below. The equation for
output can be given as

y[m] = x1[m]+x2[m]+w]m]

The performance of the channel can be achieved by knowing the capacity

of the channel. The communication can be achieved by R<C and for R>C
communication is not possible.

For multiuser case this range needs to be increased say for range (R1, R2).
Which means that both the users can communicate at rates R1 and R2. Capacity region of two-user uplink AWGN
There is trade-off between the communication rates as the users share
same bandwidth.

Fig 1 Uplink two-user The power of the received signal is the sum of the powers of individual
received signals. The receiver will decode the information from both
The symmetric capacity users. While decoding the first user signal it takes user 2 signal as
gaussian noise and vice versa. This is called as successive interface
Csym = R cancellation. The point B can be found if we reverse the order of
cancellation.
The sum capacity is Csum = R1+R2
The above figure 2
The capacity region for AWGN channel is shown
below R2= log (1+ ) – log(1+ )

User 1 can achieve its single-user bound while at the same time user 2 can
get a non-zero rate, in fact as high as its rate at point A above equation. By
time sharing between multiple access the other points between AB can
be found. We can increase both user rates by moving near to point on AB.

Q2) What do you mean by Rayleigh channel in fading?
A2) The Rayleigh fading occurs due to multipath reception. When there
are N number of scattered waves which are received at the mobile
antenna than the power received by the moving antenna is a random
variable. The phasor representation is shown below.
This fading occurs with cluster of reflected waves. The phase of individual
reflected waves is different for one cluster. The envelop of each cluster is
Rayleigh distributed. There can be interference when the bit time of
signal is more than delay time.
The Nakagami model is equivalent to the Rician model. But it is not exactly
same in all cases. This approximation holds good for the body of
probability density function but not for its tail.

Fig 3 Phasor for Rayleigh

Fading
Q4) Explain Reflection and diffraction in channel?
Let Cn be the amplitude of
nth reflected wave. Then the A4) Reflection
transmitted signal is
 Reflections Occurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface.
V(t) = cos(wct+ )  Dimensions of the surface are large relative to l.
 Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings
The signal received will be and walls.
given as

r(t) =
Diffraction
The quadrature phase component can be given as
 Diffraction Occurs
when the path is blocked by an object with large
Q(t) = dimensions relative to l and sharp irregularities (edges).
 Secondary “wavelets” propagate into the shadowed region.
 Diffraction gives rise to bending of waves around the obstacle.

Q3) Explain Nakagami fading?

A3) This model matches the empirical results for short wave ionospheric
propagation. When Rayleigh fading signal combines with k branch
maximum ratio combination the Nakagami fading is found. When there is
large delay time spread for multipath scattering Nakagami fading occurs.
Q5) Explain briefly flat fading and Explain Ocumura and Hata Path
loss??
A5) It is non-frequency selective fading. The channel has constant gain
and its phase response is also linear but has BW greater than the
transmitted signal. The received signal frequency components fluctuate
simultaneously in same proportion. The major flat fading can cause fade The Hata model equation for suburban areas is given by
up to 30dB
LSU = LU – 2(log )2 – 5.4
This model has the information which is graphical based on the Okumara
model. This model is used to predict the path loss in urban areas. This LSU = Path loss in suburban areas in decibels (dB)
mode mainly has the waves which are reflected, diffracted and scattered
LU = Average Path loss in urban areas in decibels (dB)
from the obstacles. The parameters for this model are

f = Frequency of Transmission in megahertz (MHz).

 Frequency Range: 150 MHz to 1500 MHz
 Transmitter Height: 30 m to 200 m
The Hata model for areas with less obstruction is
 Link
distance: 1 km to 20 km
 Mobile Station (MS) height: 1 m to 10 m Lo = LU – 4.78(logf)2 + 18.33logf – 40.94

LO = Path loss in open area. Unit: (dB)

For urban area the model is as below LU = Path loss in urban area. Unit: decibel (dB)

LU = 69.55+26.16 logf – 13.28loghB- CH + (44.9-6.55loghB) logd f = Frequency of transmission. Unit: (MHz)

The area for which antenna height is >10m

CH = 0.8 + (1.1 logf – 0.7) hM – 1.56logf Q6) explain scattering in channel transmission and What do mean by
Stochastic?
For Large Cities
A6) Scattering
CH = 8.29(log(1.54hM))2 – 1.1 for 150MHz<f<200MHz
 ScatteringOccurs when a wave impinges upon an object with
= 3.2(log(11.75hM))2 – 4.97 for 200MHz<f<1500MHz
dimensions on the order of l or less, causing the reflected energy
LU= Path loss in Urban Areas to spread out or “scatter” in many directions.
 Small objects such as street lights, signs, & leaves cause scattering
hB= Height of base station antenna in meters (m)
The main purpose of a stochastic model for large-scale variations is to aid
hM= Height of mobile station antenna in meters (m) the design of the power and rate control algorithms, feedback schemes,
admission control, and other functions in the upper layers of the standard
f= Frequency of Transmission in megahertz (MHz).
network stack. A stochastic description of small-scale fading is an
CH= Antenna height correction factor approach well suited to model many types of fading channels in the sense
that it correctly predicts the significant difference between the rates
achievable over a fading channel in comparison with the capacity of a
channel that is only affected by AWGN.
Q7) Explain Rician fading model?
A7) There is a dominant component present in this model. The component
which is dominant can be a LoS (line of sight). The antenna also receives
many reflected and scattered waves. The phasor sum of two or more
dominant signals can also be LoS. The phasor for this is shown below.
Fig 4 Phasor for Rician
Fading Signal
A sinusoidal transmitted
carrier is taken with
narrowband
propagation channel
S(t) = cos wct
The received signal
from Rician path is given
by
V(t) = C cos wct+
Where C= amplitude of LoS
= amplitude of nth reflected wave
= phase of nth reflected wave
The ratio of signal power in dominant component to the scattered power
is called as Rician factor denoted by k.
Q8) Compare Rician Fading and Rayleigh Fading?
A8) Rician Fading vs. Rayleigh Fading:
There is a variation of fading loss during sampling a radio wave in various
spatial locations. If there are enough scatters in a dense multipath
environment, the complex amplitude is well modeled by a Gaussian
distribution. If there is a line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path in between
transmitter and receiver, then the mean Gaussian distribution is non-zero
[2]. It leads to attenuation with absolute value of complex amplitude which
is Ricean distribution and it terms as Rician fading. The signal variation
follows Rice probability density function (PDF) in channel here.
If there is a line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path in a dense urban
environment, then there is a zero mean Gaussian distribution which is
leading to a Rayleigh distributed attenuation and the channels is called
Rayleigh fading channel. The envelope fluctuations of the signal follow
the Rayleigh PDF in Rayleigh fading channel and the signal comes from
almost the directions with the same average power. The Rayleigh fading
is predominant and worst case in typical land mobile communication
systems. Multipath fading phenomena occurs in three situations. If the
mobile unit and the nearby scattering objects all moving, If the mobile
unit is standing but the nearby scattering objects are moving and if the
mobile unit and the nearby scattering objects all standing
Q9) What is bit error rate? Explain its effect on the fading channels?
A9) Bit error rate is a key parameter that is used in assessing systems that
transmit digital data from one location to another. BER is applicable to
radio data links, Ethernet, as well as fibre optic data systems. When data
is transmitted over a data link, there is a possibility of errors being
introduced into the system. If this is so, the integrity of the system may be
compromised. As a result, it is necessary to assess the performance of the
system, and BER provides an ideal way in which this can be achieved. BER
assesses the full end to end performance of a system including the
transmitter, receiver and the medium between the two.
BER is defined as the rate at which errors occur in a transmission system.
In simple form,
BER expression is given by Rappaport (2002) as
Where Pb(E/r) = the conditional error probability P(r) = the pdf of the
SNR
Q10) What is fast fading in wireless channel modelling explain in
detail?
A10) Fading in a channel is the propagation losses by radio signal on both
forward and reverse links. This impairment is a major problem of wireless
communication channel. Fading introduce for the combined effect of
multiple propagation paths, high speed of mobile units and reflectors.
Multiple paths fading has a small-scale effect. In a multi-path propagation,
received signal by a mobile terminal comes from a large number of
propagation paths. Reflection, diffraction, scattering in radio wave in
natural structure and human made structure like building, bridge is
responsible for the creation of multi-path propagation.
Received signal suffers variation in magnitude and phase due to the
multiple propagation paths and it interfere each other in both
constructively and destructively which depends on the spatial position of
the receiver. This variation in the received signal is called multipath
fading and this fading is depends on the rate of speed of the receiver
motion and the objects around the receiver. The performance of a
wireless communication system in term of probability error can be
severely degraded by fading. In mobile communication, there is not only
multipath propagation exists but also its time varying. The phenomena
results, a time-varying fading channel.
It’s very difficult to communicate through this kind of fading channel in
communication systems. But there is some special technique may be
taken to achieve satisfactory performance. In wireless communication,
the received signal comes from both direct part and the path of scattering,
reflections and diffractions. Because of the propagation loss, the effect of
the terrain configuration implements small-scale long term fading which
is also called shadowing fading and it changes with the atmosphere and
electrical constants. Natural and man-made structures such as buildings,
traffic, motion, trees, hills and the other nearby environment would cause
the multi-path fading on the received signal called short-term fading.
If there is a long term shadowing effect of buildings or natural objects in
terrain then slow fading occur in a channel. The local mean is influenced
by the environment types. Therefore, it is really difficult to make a
prediction. However, if it is plotted the signal fluctuation in a logarithmic
scale, the fluctuation approaches a normal distribution. This kind of
distribution is called log-normal. The typical value of the standard
deviation of shadowing distribution is 8 in Decibel. When the symbol
duration is ( c) small comparing to coherent time, then the channel is
called slow fading channel.
This type of channel often modeled as time invariant channels over a
number of symbol intervals. Moreover, slow varying channel parameters
can be estimated by different types of estimation techniques. Multipath
propagation characteristics of a radio signal results path signals to add up
to random phases in both ways constructively or destructively at the
receiver end. These phases can vary extremely rapid way along with the
receiver end and can be determined by the path length, and the carrier
frequencies.
The time duration at which the The time duration at which the
If we consider a large number of scattered wave fronts which has random channel behaves is a correlated channel behaves is a correlated
amplitude and angles and if we consider that it arrives at the receiver end manner is short compared with the manner is long compared with the
with uniformly distributed phases [0, 2], then in-phase and quadrature- time duration of the symbol. time duration of the symbol
phases components of the vertical electrical field Ez can described
Gaussian process. The presence of a direct path in space, it will no longer
be a Rayleigh distribution. Then it becomes a Ricean distribution. When The fading character of the The channel state virtually
there is a close or smaller coherent time to/than symbol duration, the channel will change several time remain unchanged during the
channels are fast fading or time-selective fading. It is still a difficult during the time span of a symbol. time in which a symbol is
phenomenon to estimate the parameters of the channel in a fast-fading transmitted
channel
Fast fading can cause the
baseband pulse to be distorted The propagation symbols will
Q11) Compare slow and fast fading of wireless systems? likely not suffer from pulse
distortion.
ISI.
A11)

Q12) Explain multipath diversity techniques?

A12) Diversity technique is used to decreased the fading effect and

Fast Fading
improve system performance in fading channels. In this method, we
obtain L copies of desired signal through M different channels instead of
Slow fading
transmitting and receiving the desired signal through one channel. The
main idea here is that some the signal may undergo fading channel but
some other signal may not. While some signal might undergo deep fade,
we may still be able to obtain enough energy to make right decision on
the transmitted symbol from other signals. There is a number of different
diversities, which is commonly employed in wireless communication
systems.
Multipath or Frequency Diversity:
In a channel, Transmitted signals with different frequencies are affected
different way in frequency domain. The fact is an advantage in frequency
diversity technique. Multiple replicas of information signal are sent over
several affected frequency band in this diversity. There should be a
distance more than coherent bandwidth between the frequency bands
and achieve small-scale fading according to following equation.
c= 1/fd
Frequency diversity can also be implied as in the case of multipath
diversity. Transmission of a wideband signal is given by the following
equation where the bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth of
the previously used channel and this results a frequency selective fading
c= 1/tm
In a sufficient wide signal bandwidth, multipath components can resolve.
In the result, it is possible to obtain different independently fading signal.
The number of resolvable multipath given by the following equation is
used to approximate the maximum achievable diversity order for
multipath diversity:
L= [Tm + W] +1
Channel equalization is another approach to achieve multipath diversity.
A filter is used at receiver to make channel equalization to compensate
the channel impairments. This process combines the multipath of signals
and reduces inter-symbol-interference (ISI) and produce diversity.
Fig 5 Frequency Diversity
In general, the information signals are modulated through different
carriers M in frequency diversity scheme. It is important that different
signals undergo independent fading. The carriers should be separated
by at least coherent bandwidth from each other. L copies of signals are
optimally combined at the receiver to make a statistic decision. The
maximum ratio combiner is the optimal combiner.
Q13) Explain spatial diversity techniques used in wireless systems?
A13) Spatial/Space Diversity:
Multiple antennas are used to transmit signals with carrying information
at the transmitter and/or receiver to provide multiple independent fading
paths in space diversity. This technique is used to provide significant
performance gain with not sacrificing any valuable bandwidth on the
transmitted power resources. Spatial diversity is widely used because it
is easy to implement and it’s cost effective and very simple. This
technique has a single transmitting but multiple receiving antennas. The
receiving antennas should be at enough distance for that the multiple
fading in the diversity will be uncorrelated. There should be a balanced
average power between channels and the correlation coefficient should
be very low to achieve a good diversity gain.
While wide distance is required between antennas for obtaining low
correlation between channels but close distance is also required to
synthesize to make a narrow beam not generating grating lobes which
prevent introducing interference. Only one or two co-channel interfering
signals are used in time division multiple access (TDMA) systems.
However, the number of signals is more in code division multiple access
(CDMA) the maximal ratio combining (MRC) is better than the
performance of optimum adapting processing. It is suggested that if we
increase antenna element separation as much as feasible the then high
space diversity gain can be achieved with maximal ratio combining in a
CDMA system. Most of the cellular communication system has only one
transmitting antenna at the base station and two receiving antennas those
are widely separated per sector in a space diversity system. In general,
if we want to receive M copies of transmitted signals then we need M
number of antennas in a space diversity system.
It is very important to keep enough space between the antennas so that
the received signals undergo independent fading. Space diversity is
different than frequency and temporal diversity. Unlike those spaces
diversity needs no additional work at the transmission end and no
additional bandwidth is required on the transmission time.
On the other hand, physical complexity restricts its application widely.
Like several receiving antennas use in space diversity, several
transmission antennas also can be used to send several copies of
transmitted signals. This kind of diversity can be employed combating
frequency and time selective fading both. There are two types of spatial
diversity techniques such as receive diversity and transmit diversity.
Q14) Explain how the time diversity technique utilises coding of
channels and interleaving to mitigate channel fading?
A14)
Time / Temporal Diversity: Interleaving and coding, over symbols
across different coherent time periods, is used to obtain time or temporal
diversity. This technique utilizes coding of channel and interleaving to
mitigate channel fading at a cost of added delay and loss of bandwidth
efficiency. It is uses on slow fading channels and on the channels which is
delay sensitive. Intentional redundancy is introduced into the transmitted
signal to achieve time diversity in the temporal domain. Redundancy can
be done by repetition of channel coding. To make repetition coding,
information bearing signals are transmitted in several time slots. But the
separation between time slots should be more or equal than the coherent
time of the channel to obtain independent faded signals which helps to
gain full diversity advantages. Moreover, it is possible to obtain repetition
coding by spreading in direct-sequence code division multiple access
(DS-CDMA).
Fig 6 Time Diversity
In general, a desired signal is transmitted in M different periods of time
in time diversity. For example, every symbol is transmitted M times. As it
is mentioned earlier that intervals between the transmitted symbols
should be at least coherence time to make ensure that different copies of
the same symbol undergo independent fading. Maximum ratio combiner
can be used to obtain optimal combiner. If we send the same symbol M
times then it applies the (M, I) repetition code. We can also use non-trivial
coding. Error control coding and interleaving is an effective way to
combat time selective or fast fading.
Polarization Diversity: In polarization diversity, transmitted signals have
uncorrelated fading statistics in VHF and VHF land mobile radio system
when signals should be transmitted through two orthogonally
propagations path. Spatial diversity may achieve by using multiple
antennas with independent polarizations in the same location instead of
multiple antennas in use in different locations. This is the method of
polarization diversity. If an implementation of spatial diversity with small
dimensions is desired, this is very attractive process. Normally two
orthogonally polarized antennas are used on horizontal and vertical
planes or with a slope of 150 to employ polarization diversity.
Experiments show that polarization diversity may obtain in dense
scattering environments when there is line of sight (LOS) and non-line of
sight (non-LOS) situations.
Q15) Explain the diversity technique used in dense urban areas and
is very effective?
A15) Angle Diversity/ Pattern Diversity / Direction Diversity:
Equal data traffic is used on the both uplink (reverse link) and downlink
(forward link) in digital cellular communication but the system requires
better reverse link performance because of the limitation of mobile
terminal transmit power. There is uplink capacity deployed in CDMA
system due to synchronize operation on forward link and asynchronies
operation on reverse link. If we need to achieve better uplink reliability
then we can use space diversity or polarization diversity. On the other
hand, there is a huge demand of data applications on downlink capacity
comparing to the uplink capacity. Improvement of reliability or downlink
capacity is a major issue in three generation mobile system and the other
generation mobile communication systems in future. One promising
solution to improve downlink capacity is forming beam on downlink. It
can also be implemented by forming multiple fixed narrow beams or by
steering a beam toward a user in the system.
Additional protection which the angle diversity provides is protection
from deep multipath fading in multiple beam systems. It is experimentally
proved that the angle diversity is equally effective as conventional space
diversity in dense urban area and it provides approximately 8 dB
diversity gain at reliability level with selection combining. A multiple
fixed narrow-beam antenna or an array antenna, which is fully adaptive,
transmits and receives much more energy between the mobile terminal
and base station comparing to a wide beam antenna system. On the other
hand, a beam forming system using multiple antennas may experiences
multipath fading sometimes when the multipath components are applied
from very close angles.
The base station antenna system in a dense urban environment
experiences antenna gain reduction and the multipath components will
spread in wider angles. In this case, it is wise to use angle diversity to
avoid deep multipath fading by choosing the best beam to collect energy.
The size of the angle diversity is very smaller comparing to the space
diversity system where we need the wide separation between the
receiving antennas.
Multipath components in a cluster those have individual arrival angles
travel through different paths and employ different fading. Very basic
procedure to obtain angle diversity is to fix antennas with narrow beam
widths different sector in the system. Then the arriving multipaths from
the different beam directions are resolved and combined
advantageously. This procedure not only creates diversity but also
increases the antenna gain and reduces interference by providing
angular discrimination. It is mentioned earlier that one more method of
achieving diversity is to use antenna array with adaptive beam forming
which termed as path diversity sometimes.
Q16) How antenna diversity is used to improve the performance in
wireless communication systems explain?
A16) Antenna Diversity:

Antenna diversity is a popular and extensively used technique to improve

performance in wireless communication systems. The technique reduces
fast fading and inter-channel interference effects in the wireless network
system. In an antenna diversity system, two or more antennas are used
and fixed in positions which will provide uncorrelated signals with the
same power level. Then the signals are combined and created an
improved signal. The basic method of antenna diversity is that the
antennas experience different kind of signals because of individual
channel conditions and the signals are correlated partially. Then we can
expect that if one signal from one antenna is highly faded, other signals
from other antennas are not faded such way and these signals are our
expected quality signals. In a multipath propagation environment, each
receiving signal experiences individual fading characteristic.