1.

Evaluate the view that cultural differences are the main reason for family
diversity. [26] (Mar21 P22 Q5)
The consequent effect of global migration is the bringing together of multiple
cultures each with their own values and norms into one whole multi-cultural
society. As such different ethnicities with their own cultural beliefs have their
own perceptions on family life, the Rapoports deemed this 'multiculturalism’ a
major feature in industrialised societies such as the UK. These societies attract
a high number of migrants that bring their own values and beliefs with them as
they settle down, creating a diverse mix of families.

Each culture and their following ethnicity have different trends in family life
that is part of their norm. For example, Berthoud (2000) found that many Afro-
Caribbean families in the UK had low rates of marriage and a high number of
single parents. Afro-Caribbean children have a higher chance, as compared to
other ethnicities, to not have a father figure living with them. The fathers
would take on a 'visiting partner’ role that entailed them being completely
responsible for financial and other paternal responsibilities while not living
their children. The children are raised by their mothers who may sometimes
receive assistance from maternal grandmother. In contrast, Berthoud found
that in South Asian families (Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi) in the UK there
was a high marriage rate, with a low divorce rate and cohabitation was very
uncommon. These differences can be traced back to differing cultural norms
that both ethnicities have with each other.

Moreover, the spread of secularisation and other wider cultural changes in

contemporary societies has led to a more family diversity as stigma around
many things like divorce, same-sex couples, and cohabitation has reduced.
Single parents are no longer marginalised and are not barred from re-marrying
which is the consequence of religion being much less prevalent in
contemporary societies.

There are also differences between ethnicities in things like family size, for
example many South Asian families are three or more-generation families. The
other difference comes in the matter of marriages, Afro-Caribbean and White
adults are usually given complete freedom in choosing their spouses, which
has led to family diversity as homosexuality is becoming increasingly more
accepted. In contrast, South Asian and Arab cultures have the norm or
arranged marriage and choosing/suggesting spouses for their children.

Ethnic differences also include the division of labour and family roles. An
example can be taken from White couples who may have a more symmetrical
division of conjugal roles. However, South Asian families are more likely to fall
under matriarchal or patriarchal families where there is a clear segregation of
labour and responsibilities.

However, there is also a clear impact of many other things on family diversity.
One of these include the social class diversity which refer to the variations in
family life due to social class and its subsequent benefits or drawbacks. For
example, a family belonging to the high or bourgeoise class will have a
different outtake to children and want the best possible education for them,
even sending them to boarding schools and consequently distancing
themselves from the child. Furthermore, the average age in which women
become mothers is much lower in working-class as compared to the middle-
class, this leads to a development of four or five generation families.

Organisational diversity also can be attributed to bringing about family

diversity as more families are adopting different family structures. The
Rapoports noted that the nuclear family structure is common in industrialised
societies while the more extended (vertical or horizontal) families are more in
common in less industrialised societies. The organisational structure of modern
families can shift to being same-sex couples, single parents, cohabitating
couples, or even re-constituted families.

The New Right perspective sees the increase in family diversity in society as the
consequence of state policies introduced which have diminished the
importance of the traditional nuclear family and allowed the normalization of
other types of families. Examples may include the legalisation of gay marriages
and the acceptance of same-sex couples. The introduction of welfare programs
for poorer families and single parents as led to, in the eyes of New Right
sociologists like Robert Rector (2014), has led to the emergence of a
dependency culture which single parents in particular take advantage of.

Giddens and Beck talk about the individualisation thesis which speaks on
human agency and free will. This ties into family diversity in this way, as
individuals are putting their wants and needs Infront of them more
increasingly, this has led to a change in families in modern societies where the
'self’ and its desires, goals and values are considered much more important.
Individuals choose their family; this can be anything ranging from gay
marriages to single or lone parenting, or even families of choice in which they
consider someone outside of their blood kin to be family, friends, colleagues
etc.

2. Evaluate the view that increased social opportunities for women are the
main reason for the rise in divorce rates. [26] (MJ21 P23 Q4)
The introduction of new social policies has undoubtedly brought about a
change in attitude amongst women regarding marriage. As times are
progressing, traditional gender socialisation has significantly weakened which
in turn has led to women having more expectations in marriage life. There is a
demand of better and improved marital behaviour from the partners and if the
expectations put onto the partners are not met, there may be tension between
the couple leading to divorce. Functionalists speak of how today marriage is
much more valued with how many partners one is willing to go through to find
the most compatible companion. People are no longer willing to endure
empty-shell marriages or stay in unhappy marriages, they no longer find it hard
to divorce and move on.
In older times, women were more often trapped in un-happy or empty shell
marriages because they were dependent on the male partner. However,
women are now given easy access to education which allows them to follow
their own career path. They can pursue their own goals and achieve financial
stability by themselves. This gives them financial independence as they no
longer need to depend on their partner. As such, working women are even
more likely to get a divorce in the case where they are not happy in the
marriage.

Continuing the idea of women now being part of the workforce, this has also
led to women taking on the traditional breadwinner role in some families
where, for example, the man may be unemployed. Especially after the
introduction of laws such as the Equal Pay Act in the UK, women are now
increasingly becoming a part of the same workforce level as men. This may
create tension between the two spouses as the man may feel his masculinity is
being undermined, the man could then react with violence, but modern
women are no longer tolerant to domestic violence and are more likely to
petition for a divorce and legally separate themselves from their husband.

Furthermore, women who are full time employees may find themselves
burdened with what Marxist feminist referred to as a dual burden/shift or as
Duncombe and Marsden (1993) also call it, the triple shift. This refers to the
paid work a woman does in her workplace alongside the un-paid domestic
work at home, all the while acting as an emotional support for the family
members. This may lead to build up of frustration in women who may then
resort to a divorce in response to the injustice they are facing. Nicky Hart
(1976) notes the main reason for this being the improper distribution of
housework and childcare between the man and the woman.

On the other hand, there is considerable evidence suggesting that many other
changes have brought the divorce rates higher. One main change is the spread
of secularisation in many western societies. This has led to a decrease in stigma
and shame surrounding divorce allowing people to get one without facing
much social pressure or sanctions from their families. As people are becoming
more secular, there is less pressure on the newer generation to remain
married instead it is more advisable to get a divorce and separate each partner
rather than them enduring a dysfunctional family.

In addition to secularisation, the process of getting a divorce is much easier

and cheaper. New laws and acts such as the Divorce Reform Act (1969) in the
UK have made the attainment of a divorce easier. Before, a partner must have
committed a significant mistake/fault like adultery or the like for the other
partner to file for a divorce, but now most contemporary societies (like the UK)
have introduced the idea of irretrievable breakdown of marriage allowing that
to be the only reason needed to file for a divorce.

Ulrich Beck (1995) talks about how individualism is the reason for the increase
in divorce rates. Traditional collective goals set by members of the extended
family, religion or culture are no longer seen as compulsory to adhere to.
Instead, the individual is free to pursue his/her own personal goals without
being influenced by other institutions or people. This selfish nature of
individualism comes in conflict with the selflessness required in marriage
where partners may be coming into the marriage with different wants/goals.
For example, one partner may want to focus on their career first while the
other may want to start a family with their own kids. This conflict, which Beck
termed as ''chaos of love'', leads to marriage turning into a battle of self-
interests and self-sacrifice.

Another change that brought divorce rates higher was also the change in social
attitudes regarding divorce. In older times, and in traditional societies
nowadays, getting a divorce was considered as brining shame to the family
name. As such conflicting couples had the choice of either enduring their
empty-shell marriage or facing persecution from their kin in the case they got a
divorce. Now there is much less stigma surrounding divorce in contemporary
societies, there may even be support from close kin during the process of
getting a divorce. This has allowed people to easily resort to a divorce when
their marriage breakdowns and not worry about being ostracized by their kin.