new 2015 OCR A level ayes lawn Dremu PEARSONMike O'Neill rR? SCOTS PEARSONPublished by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R ORI. ‘www pearsonschoolsandtecolleges.couk ‘Text © Pearson Education Limited 2015 Ecited by Gillian Lindsey and Gwyneth Drabble Designed by Blizabeth Arnoux and James Handlon for Pearson Education Limited ‘Typeset by Tech Ser Ltd, Gateshead Original illustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2015 Ilustrated by Tech Set Ltd, Gateshead Cover design by Juice Creative Picture research by Cailin Swain (Cover photo/illustration © Science Photo Library Ltd: NASA / ESA / STSCI/ H. Bond ‘The right of Mike O'Neil to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, First edition published 2008 ‘This edition published 2015 1817 16 15 10987654321 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 447 99083 3 Copyright notice All tights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and winether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents ‘Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House. (6-10 Kirby Street, London ECIN 8TS {wwvecla.couk). Applications forthe copyright owner's written permission should be addressed to the publisher Websites Pearson Education Limited isnot responsible for the content of any external internet sites. [tis essential for tutors to preview each website before using tin class so as to ensure thatthe URL. is stil accurate, relevant and appropriate. We suggest that tutors bookmark useful websites and consider enabling students to access them through the school/college intranet. Printed in Slovakia by Neografia ‘This resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification H556 A Level GCE Physics A. In onder to gain OCR endorsement this resource has undergone an independent quality check, OCR has not paid for the production of this resource, nor does OCR receive any royalties from its sale. For more information about the endorsement process please visit the OCR website wwwocrorguAcknowledgements ‘The author and publisher would like to thank Gillian Lindsey for all her help with the development of this book and Chris Curtis, and Keith Bridgeman for their contributions to the Maths skills and Preparing for your exams sections of this book ‘The author and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for permission to reproduce photographs: (Key: b-bottom: c-centre; Heft: right top) Alamy Images: Chris Heller 11, ClassicStock 218, GL. Archive '84, Horizons WWP 106, lowefoto 136t, Pictorial Press Ltd 113; ‘CERN Geneva: 2004 169, 2014 196-7, Corbis: Betimann 34; Getty Images: BSIP / UIG 240. iStock / CBCK-Christine 18b1, iStock / Peter Burnett 18, 18cr, Jupiter Images 69, Mint Images — Frans Lanting 8-9, Tim Hale 244b], Utah-based Photographer yan Houston 148-9; NASA: CXC / M, Weiss 101, ESA, and S. Rodney (JHU) and the FrontierSN team: T. Treu (UCLA), P Kelly (UC Berkeley}, and the GLASS team: J. Lotz (STSel) and the Frontier Fields team; M. Postman (STScI) and the CLASH team; and Z. Levay (STScl) 123, ESA, J.Dalcanton, BF Willams and LC. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, ‘and R. Gendler 95, JPL-Caltech / Cornell Univ / Arizona State Uni 89, NSSDCA / W Liller 97, Redger Thompson, Marcia Rieke, Glenn Schneider, Susan Stolovy (University of Arizona); Edwin Erickson (SETI Institute / Ames Research Center); David ‘Axon (STSel); WEPC2 image: NASA / C, Robert O'Dell, Shui Kwan Wong (Rice University) 99; PhotoDise: Photolink 48; Rex Features: Back Page Images 16, Seience Photo Library Ltd: 177, 208, 2360, Adrian Bicker 71, Alan Dyer / Visuals Unlimited, Inc. 107, ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY 130, Bernard Benoit 24dby, California Institute of Technology 1997 / Mark. Simon 80, CC Studio 243e1, CCI Archives 232, CERN 207. Chris Priest 239br, David Parker 239H, Dr Najeeb Layyous 251), Emilio Segre Visual Archives / American Insitute of Physics 115 Henning Dalhof 76-7, ITER 224, JAMES KING-HOLMES 217, Lionel Bret / Eurelios 124, Living Art enterprises, LLC 2376] 238, Mark Garlick 98, Martyn F Chillmaid 128-9, Miriam Maslo 241, NASA / 2MASS / J, Carpenter TH. Jarrett. Hurt 116br [NASA / Bill Ingalls 1161, PHOTO (C) ESTATE OF FRANCIS BELLO 205, Physics Dept. Imperial College 102, Ria Novosti 185, SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES 1360, Simon Fraser 230-1, Welloome Dept. of Cognitive Neurology 243tl, Zephyr 237d), 25tt! Shutterstock.com: Africa Stucio 17, Balazs Justin 183, DSBoto 189, Goran Djukanowic 10], Hans Vatne Hansen 40-1, Hayati Kayhan 22, lvan Smuk 236tc, karrapavan 1667, MarceiClemens 94-5, Neveshkin Nikolay 24, Ttstudio 54-5, Tupungato 48, xfox01 10x Zacarias Pereira da Mata 1c Wellcome Library, London: 208 All other images © Pearson Education We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material, Figures Figures on page 50 adapted from Space science 2001: some problems with arifical paviy, Plyses Education, 98, 192-201 (Fisher, N 2001), Insitute of Physics, © 1OP Publishing Reproduced with permission, All ights reserved. Text Article on page 36 adapted from Thermal computing is heating. up, New Scientist (Barras, C (2006), htp://wwwwnewscientist.com/ atticle/dn16512-thermal-computing/s-heating-uphtml, © 2009 Reed Business Information - UX. All rights reserved. Distributed, by Tribune Content Ageney: Article on page 50 adapted from Space science 2001: some problems with artificial gravity, Physics Education, 36, 182-201 (Fisher N (2001), Institute of Physics, © IOP Publishing, Reproduced with permission, All rights reserved: Article on page 72 adapted from Fitzpatrick, . and Rdsill Smith, R (2001) Stabilising the London Millennium Bridge, http://www, ingenia orguik/ingenia/issues issue9 Fitzpatrick pa, The Ove ‘Arup Partnership. with permission from Ove Arup and Royal ‘Academy of Engineering; Article on page 90 adapted from General relativity: Gravitational waves, New Scien (Ferreira, P (2010), http//swwwnewscientist com/aticle/mg20727672.300- ‘general relativity-gravitational-waves/. © 2010 Reed Business Information - UK; All rights reserved, Distributed by Tribune Content Agency: Article on page 124 from What are White Holes? (Fraser Cain 2078), with permission from the author; Artile on page 144 adapted from Mire, S (2013) Storage wars — batteries, ‘vs supercapacitors htp://bercberkeley.edu/storage-wars- batteries-vs-supercapacitors/ Energy News Berkeley Energy & Resources Collaborative at the University of California, with permission from the author Santiago Miret; Article on page 162 adapted ftom Swim in an electric reef’ Manmade islands could use low voltage currents to grow coral - and protect coastlines from tsunamis, Daily Mail (Griffiths, § (2014)), Mail Online htp:// ‘wirwcdailymail couk/sciencetech/rticle-2604200/Artificialreef- use electrc-ild-create-corals-Indian-Ocean-protect-coastine- tsunamis htm: Article on page 192 adapted from Wireless charging’ everything you need to know, The Telegraph, 03/03/2015 (Sophie Cunts), The Telegraph 2075: Article on page 226 from Relic neutrinos join the hunt for dark energy, New Scientist, 2561: 17 (Battersby, S (2006), htp./ /wwwinevrscientist.com/article/ ‘mgl9125614.500-relic neutrinos jin-the-hunt-for-dark-energy. htm, © 2006 Reed Business Information - UK; All rights reserved. Distributed by Tribune Content Agency; Article on page 252, fiom Medical X-rays cause thousands of cancers, New Scientist (Penman, 0 (2004), hitp:/ /wwrwnewscientis.com/article/ cin462 1-medical-xrays-cavse-thousandsof-cancershtml, © 2004 Reed Business Information - UX; All rights reserved. Distributed, by Tribune Content Agency.How to use this book Module 5: Newtonian world and astrophysics Chapter 5.1: Thermal physies 5.1.1 Temperature 5.1.2 Solids, liquids and gases 5 internal en 4 Brownian motion 5.1.5 Specific heat capacity Specific latent heat The amount of substance he kinetic theory and pressure of a gas investigating gases 1.10 ‘The ideal gas equation 11 ‘The Boltzmann constant Chapter 5.2: Circular motion 5.21 Kinematics of circular motion Centripetal force apter cillations 3.1. Simple harmonic motion he equations of Graphical analysis of simple harmonic motion nple harmonic motion 5.3.4 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator 5.3.5 Damping 5.3.6 Resonance 6 10 12 4 16 18 ai 24 26 29 31 33 36 38 40 42 46 50 52 54 56 58 60 64 66 68 2 74 Chapter 5.4: 541 542 5.4.3 544 Chapte tational fields Gravitational fields Newton's law of gravitation The motion of planets and satelites Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy, strophysies and cosmology The structure of the universe Star formation and life cycle Electromagnetic radiation from stars Wien's law and Stefan's law Astronomical distances The Doppler effect and red shit The microwave background and the cosmological principle The evolution and expansion of the universe Darke matter and dare energy 76 7B at a4 a7 90 92 94 96 98 102 106 109 112 115 118 120 124 126Module 6: Particles and medical physics (Chapter 6.1: Capacitors 614 6.12 6.13 o1e 6.18 Capacitors Capacitors in series and parallel Energy stored in a capacitor Charging and discharging capacitors Graphical and spreadsheet methods ‘Thinking Bigger: Storage wars Practice questions Chapter 6.2: Electric fields 621 6.2.2 62.3 624 Pleewric fields Coulomb's law Uniform elect flelds Electric potential and electric potential energy ‘Thinking Bigger: Coral architechture Practice questions (Chapter 6.3: Electromagnetism 63.1 6.3.5 636 6.3.7 638 ‘Magnetic fields ‘Magnetic fiux and magnetic fux density Forces on a current-carrying wire ‘Motion of charged particles in magnetic and electric fields Electromagnetic induction araday's law and Lena's law ‘The ac. generator ‘Transformers ‘Thinking Bigger: Developments in wireless charging Practice questions 128 130 132 134 137 141 144 46 48 150 152 155, 159 162 164 166 168 170 172 176 179 192 185 198, 192 194 Chapter 6.4: Nuclear and particle physics ‘The nuclear atom ‘The strong nuclear force Nuclear density Fundamental particles Radioactivity Radioactive decay Radioactive decay equations and half-life Radioactive dating, Mass-energy conservation Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion ‘Thinking Bigger: Finding neutrinos Practice questions Attenuation of X-rays Computerised axial tomography (CAT) ‘The gamma camera Posittan emission tomography (PET) scanning Ultrasound Acoustic impedance ‘The Doppler effect ‘Thinking Bigger: X-rays Practice questions Maths skis Preparing for your exams Glossary Index 196 198 201 203 205 208 210 213 217 218 220 223 226 228 230 232 234 237 239 242 244 247 250 252 254 256 260 270 275How to use this book Welcome to your OCR A level Physics A student book In this book you wil find a number of features designed 0 support your learning, Chapter openers Each chapter starts by setting the context for that chapter's learning + Links to other areas of Physics are shown, including previous knowledge that is bullton in the chapter and furute learning that you will caver later in your course + The All the maths you need checklist helps you to know what maths skills will be required. Main content The main part of the chapter covers all of the points from the specification you need to learn. The text is supported by diagrams and photos that will help you understand the concepts Within each topic, you will find the following features: + Learning objectives ai the beginning of each topic highlight what you need to know and understand + Key terms are shown in bold and defined within relevant topic for easy reference. + Worked examples shov you how to work through questions, and how your calculations should be set out + Investigations provide a summary of practical experiments that explore key concepts, + Learning tips help you focus your learaing and. + Did you know? boxes fecture interesting f help you remember the key concepts At the end of each topic, you will find questions that cover what you have just learned. You can use hese questions to help you check whether you have understood what you have just read, and to identify anything that you need to look at again. Answers to all questions in this student book are available at htip:// scolleges.co uk/Secondary/ Aclevel-Science-2015/ urcesaspx, www pearsonschoolsanc Seience/ t6Biology /OCI FreeResources/FreeRThinking Bigger ‘At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity to read and work with real-life research and writing about science. These sections will help you to expand your knowledge and develop your awn research and writing Techniques, The questions and tasks wil help you to apply your knowledge to new contexts and to bring together different aspects of your learning from across the whole course, The timeline atthe bottom of the aaa spread highlights which other chapters of your book the ‘material relates to DEvELoeMeNTs Im WIRELESS ‘These spreads will give you opportunities to: + read real-ife mat + analyse how scientists write + think critically and consider relevant issues ial that’s relevant to your course + develop your own writing + understand how different aspects of your learning piece together Practice questions At the end of each chapter, there are practice questi 10 test how flly you have understood the learning, [Answers to all questions in this student book are available at http://www pearsonschoolsandfecollegesco, ‘uk/Secondary//Science/ 16Biology/OCR-A-level- Science-2015/FreeResources/FreeResources. aspx, Maths Skills, At the end of the book there is a Maths Skills section that focuses on key mathematical concepts to provide fer depth of explanation and enhance your understanding through worked examples. Preparing for your exams The book concludes with a section that offers some practical advice about preparing for your exams, ‘including sample questions and answers that allow you to see where common mistakes are made and how you can improve your responses. Getting the most from your ActiveBook Your ActiveBook is the perfect way to personalise your learning as you progress through your OCR A level Physics course. You can ‘+ access your content online, anytime, anywhere + use the inbuilt highlighting and annotation tools to personalise the content and make it really relevant to you + search the content quickly. Highlight tool Use this to pick out key terms or topies so you are ready and prepared for revision, Annotations tool Use this to add your own notes, for example, links to your wider reading, such as websites or other files. Or make a note to remind yourself about work that you need to do.ean CM. Newtonian world and ET ince) ee} THERMAL PHYSICS water can exist a5 2 soli an be heated to become a The word of thermal physies is interesting, challenging and strange. For liquid and gas at 001 °C absolute zero can never actully be reached fourth state of matter called plasma, Temperature can be described as ‘the outward manifestation of kinetic energy’ At all temperatures above les ofa material vill have kinetic ener; this kinetic eneray is directly related to the material. There is an enormous range of temperatures, om absolute zero (OK = the up to 108 t0 102K in the frst billionth of atillionth ofa tilionth ofa tilionth of energy materials gain or lose during heating or cooling, a 9 this chapter, you will learn about these key aspects of thermal physics ] To unlock the puzzles ofthis chapter you need the following maths: Units of measurement Use of standard form, e.g t0 find the numberof molecules using Avogadta constant Use ofthe symbols «, >>, 0; =, Reaanging equations ta make other quantities the subject of the formula, eg. pY= nr Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units fo physical quantities Substituting one equation into another Direct proportionality Interpreting the gradient and intercept of graphTemperature measurements using the Ceisius Constant temperature during a change of phase Simple kinetic theory of solids iid and gases and changes of state The tems specie latent heat capacity and spec How the motion of the molecules in ag3s Is related tothe temperature and pressure of the gas Absolute ze The kinetic model fr s model of matter ds uring changes of phas Specfclaten The tec heat of materials Internal eneray ofan ideal gas gas in Techniques a The Boltzma Thermal equilibrium fortwo bodies in conta The absolute scale of temperature and temperature measurements in kelvin (K) the Lowest Umit for temperature Intemal energy ofa substance and how intemal energy changes with temperature and Specific eat capacity and the equation peat of fusion and specifi and procedures us The amount of substance in moles and the Avogadro constant The model of kinetic theory ofa gas and assumptions of the model Root mean square (rms) speed and mean square speed ofa gas particle ms of mean square speed, pl nd procedures use to investigate PV = constant (Boyes law) and = constant timation of absolute era from experimental data forthe valation of gas temperature with pressure The equntion ofstate oFan ideal ges. pV=InRT constant. k= R/N, Energy levels of elections in isolated gas atoms Enission line spectra of hot gases The relationship between the surtace temperature ofa star and its peak wavelength The telationship between the surface temperature and luminasiy ofa star Nuclear fusion reactions and temperature snd gases and Brownian motion in terms of de kinetic mae latent heat of vaporisation and the equation E= ta Investigate specific heat capacity and specific latent and pV = KT 3 AT trom pv:EY Temperature By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: thermal equilibrium absolute scale of temperature (Le, the thermodynamic scale) that does not depend on property of any particular substance ‘temperature measurements both in degrees Celsius (°C) and in kelvin (K) TIK) = 80°C) + 273 absolute zero (0K) as the lowest limit for temperature; the temperature at whitch a substance has minimum intemal energy (continued in Topic 5.1.3) ‘An absolute or thermodynamic scale of temperature is indegendent of te properties of any specific substance. Measured in kein, K. “Absolute zero (0K isthe temperature at which a substance has minimum Internal energy; tis is the lowest Limit for temperature. (Objects in contact with each other at the same temperature ae in thermal equilibrium: this means that there 1 na net heat flow between them. Temperature Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. This may sound obvious. butt becomes complicated when we try and distinguish between the temperature end the total energy of an abject {As we shall seein Topic 5.1.3, temperature measures only the Kinetic energy component of an abject’ total internal energy. However, the greater the Kinetic energy of the particis in the material, the higher its temperanure will be. ‘An object may start cut with a high temperature without necessarily storing a large amount of thermal energy. Similarly, an object may start with a large amount of thermal energy but a low temperature, Finally,an object may have a high temperature and be able to transfer a large ammount of thermal energy Figure 4 A litspuklor has a high Figure 2 the waterin the North Sea Figure 3 The Sun as asurace rerperstue butcan orsferoniya ‘isco. thas alow temperature. _tomporature of 000°C and an ssmallamountc thermal enemy The However the ocean stores much enormous mass of2 x 10°kg ~ it particles inthe spurklr each Fave lot mare thermal energy than the has a high temperature and can ofenergy tutthere sre few parles sparkler due tots enormous mass __vansfera large amount of thermal present the tal enery om (umber of panicles energy Absolute scale of temperature We encounter different scales of temperature in our everyday lives. The weather forecasts on TV and radio often refer to the Celsius or Fahrenheit scales. These scales were developed based (on measurements related to the properties of a particular substance. Far example, the zero of 1g oF melting point of water and the 109 deg: the Celsius scale is based on the fre corresponds to the boiling paint 10‘The absolute scale of temperature proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1847 is not dependent on any paysical property of matter The absolute scale we now use starts at absolute zero ~ the temperature at which the particles of matter have minimum internal energy, It's not possible fora body to reach ‘a temperature as low as absolute zero, but scientists have come close to achieving this in experiments, Temperatures in scientific experiments are usually measured and stated in kelvin (K) and not degrees Celsius (°C). The value of absolute zero (0K) corresponds toa temperature of ~273.16°C. For convenience, we usually round this to ~273, so an the thermodynamic scale, temperature Tis related to a temperature in Celsius, 0, by: Tk) = O00) +273 ‘The unit intorval inthe Kelvin seale of temperature, the alvin, is 1 an SI unit that is defined as faction (52-5) ofthe temperature difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water (the point at which soli, liquid and gaseous water exist simultaneously, defined to be exactly 273.16 K). This means the scale is independent of the properties of any substance and how they are ‘measured. As we shall see in Topic 5.1.9, the absolute scale of ‘temperature can also be defined tnermodynamically n relation to the behaviour of an idea! gas, ars Eres Absolute zero ok -273.16°C Triple point of water 273.16K oie Typical room temperature 293K 20°C Steam point 373.15K 100.00°C Table 1 Comparison of temperatures onthe Kelvin and Celsus scales Figure 4 Lord Kelvin Wiliam Thomson) devised the absolute scale of ‘omperatre that boas his name “Thermal energy is always transferred from regions of higher to regions of lower temperature. For example if the door of an oven is opened, thermal energy is transferred from the hotter oven to the cooler kitchen. Conversely, opening the door of a freezer will result in thermal energy being transferted from the warmer surroundings of the kitchen into the much cooler freezer Suppose we have three blocks of material: A, B and C. Block ‘Anas been left in a warm room, block B has been placed in a ‘idge and block C has been placed in a frcezer If we place these three blocks together, as showm in Figure 5, thermal energy is ‘transferred from block A to block B and from block B to Bleck C, unl there is no temperature difference. AC this point the three blocks willbe in thermal equilibrium and will ll beat the same temperature Figure $ Thice blocs, originally at diffrent tmperatures, n contact. tora ‘ume they wil each thermal equim and al be atthe same temperstte © inte nisngvatusn he ltelw: oe ‘Surface temperature of 5700K © oc paes 3 mercy as hemo und the tne arta eGamty a cia rain ta {ning the temperate eg Corie aed tcp of tn ad homage ae {aan what s maar by thera oulbu, {bth rtrence to the molcls ne to aul, xl ha themal elim ached © sean ecko aac hat as nal ampere of 75°C tS plotd a beth We flo unt irl rp fC tet ete eet et ee an alums wn the each Cel elie, (bea uy tas sabe the ae {os happens obo ei rsa bie cation poset areca oat etThe state and phase of matter don't mean quite the same thing, Materials can exist ‘simultaneously in two or three pihasesat ones For example, at ‘oom temperature and pressure, ‘the state (physical conition) of 2 iece of cry ie (carbon donde) is In both the solid and gas phases. 2 Solids, liquids and gases By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: solids, liquids and gases in terms of the spacing, ordering and motion of atoms or molecules simple kinetic model for solids, liquids and gases Inthe kinetic model of matter all matter is made up of very smal prtcis atoms, molecules or ions) which ae in constant motion. The model allows us to explain the properties of matter and changes of phase in terms of the arangement ofthe particles. he motion of the particles and the attractive forces between them. Kinetic model of matter Matter can exist in three phases ~ solid, liquid or gas. A simple kinetic model of matter can explain, how particles in the three phases of matter behave. In solids, the particles are close together and vibrate about their individual fixed positions in the lattice. Due to the close proximity of the particles, they are held together by strong forces of attraction, Solids generally have a high density and a definite shape. The particles in liquids cannot move much but they can slide past one another. Their mean separation is greater than that in solids and the attractive forces between them, although still present, are weaker. Liquids generally have slightly lower densities than solids, can flow and can be poured. Gases contain particles which are free to move around, very quickly, in random directions, ‘The forces of attraction between the individual gas particles are very weak due to their high separation. Gases ‘have much lower densities than solids or liquids and can be compressed relatively easily. Figure 1 Paniciesina soliiare held Figure 2 Particles ina liquid ae fee Figure 3. Gases are composed in place by stong interatomic fores. to move past one another Liquids can of paticles that ae free to move Solis have adefinite shape and a flow and can be poured randomly in all declan. high densi. Density ‘We can think about the spacing of particles indifferent materials based on their respective densities Density willbe greatest in solids, were there are many atoms packed into a volume, and lowest in ‘gases, where there are far fewer atoms or molecules present per unit volume. Eman Gn eee helium gas 018 onygen 938 13 water Liquid 1000 mercury Liquid 33600 gold solid 39300 osmium solid 22500 Table 1 Density values fora variety of mans‘As Tale 1 shows, liquids and solids are of the order of thousands of times denser than gases. Mercury is an unusual example of a very dense liquid, since itis a metal that i liquid at room temperature. The densities of solids and liquids tend not to change under different conditions of temperature and pressure, but this is not the case for gases. The values stated for gases are usually given at STP ~ standard temperature and pressure (0°C and {aim}, Atomic or molecular spacing ‘We ell consider water as an example, so-we will eferto water ‘molecules, Te analysis also applies wien atoms are the paricles to consider. ‘The density of any substance in kilograms per cubic metre is sven by the following equation: sy _ Tass of one | numberof molecules density (KI) = prolecule (kg) “per cubic mete ‘The mass of one molecule of waters the same forall three phases (ice, water and steam), so the density is directly proportional to che ruber of molecules per cubic mewe, The ‘mass of one water molecule = 3.0 x 10" kg, This gives: 1 cubic metre of ice contains ake __ 3.1 x 10% molecules 30% 10 kg 4 cubic mete of water contains 1000kga7 si Foe pnyg 7 29% 1M molecules J cubic metre of steam at 100°C contains 099kgm . Foe yg” 20% 10% molecules Assume thatthe moles sta ike smal spheres Now tagi pain hs tty ae a at oa ing wk td Lnhigh Hf he datansebenveen one moeele an the nents he uber alorg en ee of the bon = ad so (2) ‘ot miner of mate a Sao mforice 31 10° mfor water 20 10¢m or wow 100°C ‘This strates the idea that molecules in a gas are of the order of ten times further apart than they are in a solidor a liquid. Note ‘that ten times further apart means thatthe density of the ges is a thousandth that of the corresponding solid or iquie Change of phase ‘Changing phase requires either an input of energy or a removal of energy, Heating a solid will cause itto melt and become a liquid. Further hheating of the liquid will cause itto evaporate and become a gas. ‘This is due to the energy of the particles increasing as energy is supplied. The extra energy results in the particles moving further and further apart until they have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction to their adjacent panicles, Conversely, removing thermal energy from a system will reduce the energy of the particles causing them to move closer together, leading to condensation and eventually freezing | liz nef J tess (aay) Figure 4 When energy transfered 10 solé by heating vl fst mele and then boil Conversely if eneray i removes rom a gas by cooling, it wil fist ‘condense toa liquid and then freeze and retun oa sold phase © 40 Fone cosas 02 «30% toms of app: Conperasa Sst of 050 ror om tarps Fra sift, Patent ieoeeteetemet ter oes (8 he ube cpr ms presen of cope ites energy enesy decrees © X29 c:.ta5phy shows at copper atoms tae a ameter of 258 10m, hat isthe percentage ern your estate in answer tet © 07ers ot ayo at sac temperate and resi cecipes 2243 «10S 2243 a) We wise is sztenet es ae aor acer ae Ioginetha coca fhe gs atest nthe mien Ideal box {a Whats the war of oe ba {Wats th length we ide fone bat fefotte ateae teater seat titeetretet rend tet sanded ecnperure and preset © osru as an tore mass hat sated 580280089. t5e ‘astro er mation spp ete, ‘sd dar one esa os tha cB esa ee ar tee ea cic Eeunderstanding of: Internal energy By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and internal energy as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules of a system absolute zero (0K) as the lowest limit for temperature; the temperature at which a substance has ‘minimum internal energy increase in the intemal eneray of a body as its temperature rises ‘changes in the internal energy of a substance during change of phase; constant temperature during change of phase (continued in Topic 5.1.6) Internal energy i defined asthe sur ofthe randomly distributed Kinetic and potential energies ofall the atoms o molecules within a system. In the kinetic model for solids, liquid and gases, we described the energy associated with the particles within a system. This energy is called internal energy and is he sum of the total amounts of kinetic energy and potential energy within the system. The kinetic energy of the system is due to the mevement oF the particles ‘within the system ~ the greater the mass and velocity af the particles, the more kinetic energy they will possess. The potential energy of the system is stored in the bonds and intermolecular forces that exist between the particles. This stored energy will bbe released when the attractive forces between particles are ‘overcome, such as during melting or evaporating ‘The internal energy of a substance is minimum ar absolute zero, ‘We shall see in Topic 5.1.1 that the mean translational kinetic energy of the particles in a system is proportional to the absolute temperature, so the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules is zero at absolute zero. There wil, however, be some potential energy, due ta tie bonds between molecules or between atoms in a molecule. Internal energies for solids and liquids In solids, the particles’ kinetic energy is usually inthe form of vibrational motion, with the particles oscillating about a fixed ppoint or equilbriurn separation. This gives a varying kinetic energy. In addition, the particles are held together by forces or ‘bonds that store potential energy. The total internal energy is in the form of both potential and kinetic energies. The total internal energy of the solid will be the surn of the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles, us egy: melee or interatomic Sera o snd Figure 1. The incarnal onary of a solidi partly duo wo de kinaic energy of the partis a thoy vibrate and party due to the potential anergy stored inthe bonds or forces between the atoms or molecules The foress ean be modes as iny springs which are compressed and extend by the vibrations If we consider a solid such as sulfur as an example, we wil refer to atoms, However, the particles that make up a liquid or solid could also be molecules or ions. Two uncharged atoms exert forces con each other due to the repulsive forces between their electron ‘louds and the attraction between the protons of one atom and the electrons of the other atom Figure 2(a) shows that atthe equilibrium separation, x. the attractive and repulsive forces are exactly in balance (the solid line sows the total or resultant foree), For spacings eloser than the ‘equilibrium spacing, atoms repel one another ~ this is way solids and liquids are very difficult to compress. For spacings greater than equilibrium, atoms attract one another ~ this causes the attractive forces that hold particles of a solid or liquid together Interms of the atoms’ potential energy (Figure 20), the ‘equilibrium position represents a position of minimum potential ‘energy ~ this is the preferred separation forthe solid. As the pair of atoms oscilates about its equilibrium separation the Cisplacement either increases or decreases, but both motions ‘cause potential energy to increase. This is comparable to the ‘way that stretching or compressing a spring increases the stored potential energy since work must be done on the spring. ‘As the temperature of a solid or liquid increases, the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules present within the system increases as the vibrations increase in amplitude, Potential energy vil also increase slightly as the mean separation between the ators increases slightly, although the values will vary randomly as the amplitude of vibration varies randomly.emery Force Paxent ‘Figure 2a) octatomic fore an (potential ergy against atomic separation fortwo atoms, Internal energy for a gas In gases, where particles are able to move freely, the particles’ Jnetic energy takes the form of translational motion (movernent that changes the position, rather than vibrational movement about 2 fixed position). The particles move randomly with different speeds and directions inside their confined space, bouncing off each other and the walls of their container as they do so, “The motion of the atoms or molecules gives them enough ‘Kinetic energy for them to move far apart. igure 2 shows that as separations increase, the force between two atoms oF two molecules decreases. For particles in a gas, the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or as we shall se later, zero for an ‘deal gas). This means thet the potential energy component of the internal energy of a gas is very small In any system of gas particles at a fixed temperature, there will be 1a distribution of kinetic energies among the molecules because there is a wide range of different translational speeds. The curves in Figure 3 are called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, ‘named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann who used a statistical model to find the probability of a particular gas panicle having speed v. The peak of the curve shows the mast probable speed (the speed most particles have). The distribution of speeds changes with temperature and the most probable speed, and hence the most probable kinetic energy. increases with temperature. vith Dis speed hightemperstore Numberof molecules ¥ Molecular speed Figure 3 These curves show the gistibution ofthe speed of gas molecules at ferent temperatures. As the absolute temperature of the gs increases. the ‘most probable speed’ ofthe particles increases Internal energy during change of phase ‘As we shall see in Topic 5.1.6, when a material changes phase, it does not undergo any change in temperature, Therefore the kinetic energy component of the internal energy does not change. However the potential energy can change. For example, the energy supplied to a block of ice by heating will turn it into ‘water by evercoming the intermolecclar forces holding the water ‘molecules in the solid structure, but will not increase the speed of ‘the molecules Similarly, iquid water changes into steam when it boils. Each of ‘the water molecules in boling water at 100°C will have the same average of the random kinetic energies as the molecules in steam at 100°C. However, there will be much more potential energy in each molecule of steam compared with the molecules of water in the boiling liquid. Ths is because energy has been supplied to overcome the attraction of the intermolecular forces, and the large increase in mean separation of the molecules means a large change of potential energy. Explain. in tems of intemal energy. why 2 liquid cols when It ‘evaporates, 2g. layer of ether or ethanol on the skin feos cod © v0 on eyecare ta sition whee: (a external energy is converte ina tral energy {oy ntmal energy converted in exe enery ‘Which is more dangerous ~ your skin being exposed to boiling water at 100°C ox steam at 100°C Explain your answer © coah wie ech ofthe flowing charges wl lad toa change tanned Cra eer oct ee ea thekienc and penal eomponents fhe ema eney. ere eden etere ea tere eee a poe ey eee eeiae ete st eee ere reeeM agree a reeeel eateries arn Fay eae te Westin amet odin Bunsen fare.L> Brownian motion By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: Brownian motion in terms of the kinetic model of matter and a simple demonstration using ‘smoke particles suspended in alr Ley DEEN TION Brownian motion is the random movement of small visible particles suspended in fluid (eg. smoke particles in ain due to collisions with ‘much smaller, randomiy moving atoms or molecules of the fluid. Imagine the motion of inflatable balls that have been released into the crowd ata busy music festival, open-air concert or football match. The revelers will ump up and hit the balls, causing them to move in a series of random directions, The harder the inflatable balls are struck, the more kinetic energy they will gain and the further they will go before being hit again by another person, The inflatable ball is lkely to be hit ina variety of random directions, covering small distances ata time. It wil be impossible to predict the path taken by ane ball ever any length of time. Figure 1 The andom movement of ifatblebals thot ave been release into the crowd ata football match i one way of thinking about how Brownian This is similar to the way that smoke particles in air behave when they are continually jostled by the constant random motion of ‘much smaller air particles. IF we inspect the motion of smoke particles under a microscope, we notice that the smoke particles move in a zig-zag path, The motion is a series of random Brownian motion This motion, knowa as Brownian motion, was first cbserved in 1827 by Robert Brovin when he used a microscope to examine the particles inside pollen grains. He noticed that when they were in water the pollen particles were not still but moved around jerk, Albert Einstein later explained that this was due to repeated ‘bombardment by molecules of water. Brownian motion was the first direct evidence that atoms or molecules of a liquid or gas are constantly moving. 16 ‘Specks of smoke move due to collisions with the randomly moving ‘molecules of air around them. The air molecules do not hit a speck Cf smoke equally from al directions 0 the net impulse gained by an individual smoke particle rom a series collisions is not zero, When you look at smoke eserihed below, you should he able to see this jerky movernent. If the particles of smoke used are too large, the increased mass cf each smoke particle means it changes its velocity less for each impulse and the movernent will be harder to see. smictascope fan lop smoke cell Figure 2. The experimental arangerment for observing the random mation of smoke particles being jostled by fast-moving air molecules. Te arrangement for observing Brownian motion is shown in Figure 2, The microscope should be focused on the smoke, waich you will see as tiny dots of light (If you are using a microscope ‘with a mirror, make sure sunlight cannot reflect from the mirror into your eyes) IF you cannot see anything, it s probably because the microscope is not focused in the place where the illumination is strong or, more likely, because you were expecting ta see something much larger than the reality The dots will only just be visible. in accordance with the kinetic model of matter all particles above absolute 2070 of temperature are in constant motion. We cannot, however, accurately predict the motion of any single smoke partide, since there are so many air molecules moving around, bombarding and jostling the smoke particles as well as themselv and the walls of the container Figure 3 the smoke parle i being constanty bombarded an josted by the many smaller but fast-moving ar molecules (tbo sal tobe een) that sufound it This ead to the random zig-zag motion of the smioke partiePattern of movement in solids, liquids and gases compared When a sold is heated it will eyperience a rie in temperature, and the kinetic energy of its particles wil increase. However because the material i solid the postion of each atom, in or molecule ‘ll not change, since these panicles ae held in place by interatomic or intermolecular forces. The ‘nerease in netic energy wil esuln greater vibration ofthe particles inte solid arcund theic respective equilibrium postions, Ina liquid the same effect takes place. Tais time, however, a small amount of translational Kinesic ‘energy wil be added to the increase in vibrational kinetic energy, since the molecules are now able to ‘move past one another from place to place. ‘Things are very different in a gas. Here, almost all of the kinetic energy is translational ~ that i, in the form of linear motion ~ as the particles move from place to place, colliding with anything in their way Figures 4(a),4(b) and 4(c) summarise the pattern of movement and the postion of molecules inthe three phases. es 2 RE IG. 3 ne CER EOR saske eeeane Looe er eaeaes ages VV Figure 4 The random motion of particles in a sald (aiid and ca ga. - ‘The smell of periume or air freshener quickly spreads across a room, This movernent, called diffusion, is often associated with Brownian motion, but the scent is more likely to be transferred. quickly through the process of convection rather than via Brownian motion, Figure 5 Once saved the scent partes will fuse to other parts Of the rom. The particles spread out from areas of higher concentration to teas of loworconcentatien, but the process s nat driven by Brownian ‘motion, as soften believed reece eee enter ape iad cer Caste aca epee epee Sere eee Eee ee eee ee eee eee) Ese ose ase el eT Teta ec es ge Sn © + v0 ss00 ofan a laut atom tng 50 ms". When an ar ester ra se thescont gral ls te ony he mor masse set molec toe ou 0 Ne ia How long weld tke ascent molec total SO macs oom thre were na aber molecules one to inci ate at ast 100 tne ngs xh wy. (c) Suggest how the rate of dfusion of soant molecules through the room compares with that of the ar molecules. eos mse of dtsin stn by teapots al ste octunderstanding of: 5 Specific heat capacity By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and specific heat capacity of a substance: the equation E= mcA9 an electrical experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal or aliquid techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific heat capacity ‘of a metal block anda liquid UE DEIN TON The specific heat capacity, cof a sustance isthe amount of energy needed to ras the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1K. The units are kg Specific heat capacity When you supply energy to a body of mass my heating, the kinetic energy ofits particles wil ncrease and its temperate wil "se, Similan, when energy is removed! fiom a body, the average Jrnetic energy ofthe particles wil decrease anc the body's temperature wil fall “The amount that che temperature increases or decreases is Gependent on a numberof factors, and is summarised bythe equation = mead shore: + Eis the change in thermal energy in J «mis the mass ofthe body inks + cis the specific heat capacity othe body in J ke" K” + Adis the change in temperature in Kor °C Figure 1 Soup being heated ina pan. The change in remperaure ofthe soup ‘ill depend on the amount of thermal energy being suppliee, the mas of the ‘soup and its specie neat capacity. The specific heat capacity of soup wil be similar to that of wate, 18 Calculating energy changes Lotus imagine that ve have rvo solid, both of mass 1 kg, They are both going tobe hested by identical heeters, We wil start the heating process for both solids atthe same tme. ‘The first solids a1 kg cube of copper andthe second solids Lig cube of aluminum Figure 2 Copper and aluminium cubes. ‘The specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900 Jig K-! and the specific heat capacity of copper is 385 Jkg!K How much energy will be needed to raise the temperature of the ‘two metal blocks from 10°C (283 K) to 60°C (323K)? For both metal blocks, we use the equation B= mcAo Inboth cases, the mass is 1kg and the value for the change in temperature, Ad, is 40K. The only difference is the values for the specific heat capacities of the materials ‘Therefore, the energy required to change the temperature of aluminium by 40K is found by: B= 1kg x 900Jkg"K £= 36000 J x 40K ‘The energy required to change the temperature of copper by 40K: B= 1kg x 385 JkgtK™ x 40K E= 15400, (or 16000J 10 2sf) Mach less energy is required to bring about the same change in temperature for copper compared with an equal mass of aluminium. Another way of looking at this is that copper will change its temperature ata faster rate compared to aluriniurn ‘when heated under identical conditions.cs ‘A sample of material is heated from 12° to 58°C. The material has a mass of 3409 and a specific heat capacty of 780,Jkg*K-4. How much energy fs required for this to happen? Give your answer to 2 si Solution = mcdo B= 034 kg x 780Jkg-*K +x (58-12) °C = 0.34 kg 78049" K-* x 46°C = 12000 41024 ‘gas hob supplies 240 to 750g of water. The waters heated from its orginal temperature of 14.0°C to its final temperature. Given that, the specfic heat capacity of water is 4200 kg? K". find the final temperature of the water. Solution = mcAo hich leads to: 240000 = 075 « 4200 x As Rearanging to find Ad, we obtain ‘9 = 280000 + (0.75 x 4200) = 760°C This gives a final temperature of 140°C + 760°C = 900°C DO el ‘An electric heater used to change the temperature of 4809 of water from 17.0°C to 760°C. The cunent inthe heaters 12 and the pd, ‘across I's 60. The heater is used for 2 minutes, Calculate a value fr the specific heat capacity of wate rom this data Give your answer to 2 sf Solution The electrical energy supplied, E= VIA The change in temperature. Ad = 760°C - 170°C = 590°C. We assume thatthe electrical energy supplied, is equa to the thermal energy gained by the water Rearranging the equation E= mcd to make cthe subject ofthe Formula, we get Substituting our values we get 129600 (08x59) This gives a value for cof 4600 Jkg +k Te ue valu forthe speci eat capacty of water is 420g *K*. The ‘ale obtained here is greater than the tue value since, even wth insulation anda id not al ofthe energy transferred electrically wil have been used to heat the water ~ some may have been lost othe surroundings Other sources of uncertainty in the calculated value for care that different pats of te liquid may be a different temperatures or that the temperature continues 10 rise after the heater i turned of, These Uncertainties cn be minimised by sting the liquid. and by taking the highest temperature reaina, Determining the value of the specific heat capacity of a material, Itis possible to determine a value for the specific heat capacity of a etal block ora liquid in the laboratory by using electrical apparatus. rm) chermometer sold ‘lock ~tageing a thermometer lid heater calorimeter shield —_ ster Figure 3 Apparatus used to determine the spciic beat capaciy ofa) a metal black and ba qui, Method 1 Insulate the matoil being heated and use ald for guid to ensure that as much as posible ofthe thermal energy being supplied tothe system fs used to nerease the temperature of the material and not lost, to the surouncings. Te temperature rise shuld be as high as possible ~ at least 20K ~ so that te percentage uncertainty in te temperature change is reduced and a more accurate value of ccan be determined. 2 Use an ammeter and a voltmeter in the heating citeut to obtain curate values forthe curent flowing in te ctcut and the potential difference across the heater. Multiply the value forthe current, by the potential diference, U7 to find the power, P, since P = V. Energy = power «time, so multiply te value you have obtained for the powerby the time, in seconds, that you have been heating the raters. Ths wil give you a value forthe electrical enerey supplied, {rom the equation E= Vit The energy transfered is therefore E= VIA 4 Assuming tata of Ue energy transfered electrically used to eat the materi use the principle of conservation of energy to give E= mcA0, ‘tom which you can workout the value of the specie heat capaci, Note Do not handle power supplies. plugs or switches with wet hands Immersion heaters must never be submerged fully or water may enter the ‘casing. Be aware thatthe heater may become hot enough to bum you.20 Eee ee water 200 copper 385 ‘aluminium 913 steel 420 concrete 3350 ait 993 Table 1 Values of secic eat capacties for some selected materials. © Fivinemeo2p5 nse aie bei Gono m cn me oe ee Change in Caras eee 28 900 80 500000 450 4200 89 x 10° 3x10 24 43x10 913 iT) (© botany tis foes hg 0% hg hen psn alates iin spec at ere eed IeNPh ope cies cee Tater aes TOT © ove metodo heating wae called sve slr eating ee ae Fora particular arangerent on a particular day, 8201 of solar energy are absorbed each second by the water, which i lowing at 0015 kgs through the tube. Calculate the maximum possible increase in temperate of the water. to place a tube canying the water atthe (© + tyrone cup cotaling soup of mas 4009 1 placed na icowave oer ted at 650 {Clee the moxmumpessble naease interpre ofthe soup ater ang heated fr 2 mrs. Ase that the soups he sae hal popes 8 wat 0) Te person esting he soup uses tht ton topo the cup rater thn one wit halen reer eee ete toa ener eee et lunges and exhain vy te couse te pressions, © Treat 2 te somo mensions 550x450 +2. m these bya conecn heater of power SK Eatin ee oe oa rpc haa em fr 10°C 18°C The deny oa 24g Comment on our answer. The quantity of hot water requlted fr one part ofthe cycle ina dishwasher is 4.5 Utes. The inlet tomperature of te water on a cold day is only 5°C ands required inte machine at a temperature of 165°C. The time allowed for heating the water is 15 minutes. What power of heater is required? Data avaiable: specific heat capacity of water = 4200 kg *K lire of water has a mass of 1k.By the end of this to understanding of: during change of phase specific Latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation; Specific latent heat you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and ‘changes in the intemal energy of a substance during change of phase; constant temperature =m an electrical experiment to determine the specific Latent heat of fusion and vaporisation techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific latent heat of a solid and a liquid Hey DEFINITIONS The specific latent heat of fusion) the amount fener equ to change the pase of 1g of substan foal ali The specitic latent heat of vaporsation |) the amount of enerey requted to change the phase of tha ofasutstance fom aud toa gas Changing phase In order for @ material to change phase from a solid toa iui or fom aliquid to a gas. forces of attraction between atoms ‘molecules or ions inthe material must be overcome. These forces are responsible for holding the partcies in place. In order to separate the particles, energy must be suoplied to (work dane a) the material When « material changes phase froma gas toa liquid, or from a liquid toa solid. energy is taken ftom the material and released to the surroundings. The energy required to cause a change of phase i called the latent (hidden) heat + When we change the phase from a solid toa liquid we refer to the latent heat of fusion. + When we change the phase from a liquid to a gaa, we call it the latent heat of vaporisation. ‘The greater the mass of the body, the greater the quantity of latent heat that will be required to change the material’ phase. To ‘make calculations more straightforward, we refer to the specific Jatent heat, which refers to the energy required to change the phase of 1 kg of a particular material Changes in temperature during phase changes Experiments show that if you heat a solid substance such as ice at a steady rate and plot a graph of the temperarure against time (Figure 1), there is no change in temperature for some time at both the melting point and at the boiling point, even though thermal energy is being supplied thermometer 109) meting point vain ofice Temperatte/*C loemets [Zoes heats wo Time ofheathe, 0 Figure 1 When water melts, reazes, bil © condenses, it does so without any ‘change in temperature, Changes in internal energy during phase changes When a substance changes phase the temperature remains constant so there is no inerease in the kinetic energy of the ators for molecules. However this does not mean that the internal energy does not change. This is because a change in the forces ‘between molecules during a change of phase produces a change in their potential energy, so the internal energy can change even though the kinetic energy stays the same. Specific latent heat of fusion When a substance ig at its melting point, the energy required to change the phase of 1 kg of the substance from a solid to a liquid (melting), or a liquid to a solid (teezing) is called the specific latent heat of fusion (L). The energy is taken in by the substance when it melts and given out by the substance when it freezes, ‘The term ‘specific’ relates to 1 kg of mass, If we know the value of a specific latent heat then we can work out the latent heat for any mass by multiplying by the mass in kg. Energy. E, needed to change the phase of a mass, m, can be calculated using the forrmul: E> mi® Figure 2 A melting ie lolly wil change from sold ce to qua water at 273. without any change in temperature. RS How much energy is equited to convert 50g of ce into liquid water? Solution E=m. mass of water specific latent heat of fusion of water 450 kg x 3350000 J kg * 1507500001 or 151 MI (~1.5 « 108) Determining the specific latent heat of fusion ‘The specific latent heat of fusion can be determined using the arrangement shown in gure 3 wv as supply DA electric ia \callepy SAY cuter ie NS to ae ~ 4 B Figure 3 Apparatus used to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of 2 materi ‘Aknawn mass of ce is placed into tw funnels. And B, as shown, The heater in arrangement A is connected to 2 power supply of knawn power, . This is either stated in watts or can be determined from ammetet and voltmeter readings using the equation P= 1. The control is not ‘connected to a power supply. ‘when water stats to crip from the funnels into the beakers, the heater is switched on in rangement A. After 15 minutes, the heater Is switched ‘off and the mass ofthe water in toth beakers Is measured The mass ‘ofthe water in beaker A wil be areater than the mass of the water in beaker B. The diference in masses between the beakers s equal tothe ‘mass of water that has been melted de tothe electrical energy input. is then possible to determine the speci latent heat of wate, using the ‘equation a= oo an é ‘mass of water in beaker A ~ mass of water in beaker 8 22 For the arrangement shown in Figure 3. the folowing data was obtained: Mass of beaker A = Ml, = 105 Mass of beaker B= Mt, = 108 g ‘Mass of beaker A and water after 15 minutes = M, = 2569 ‘Mass of beaker Band water after 15 minutes = M, = 1469 Potential ference of heater= 36 ‘Curent in heater = 128, Use this data to determine a value fr the specific latent heat of fusion of water. Solution ‘Mass of ice med into water by the action of the electric heater: My ~ M,) = Uy = My) = (256 6 ~ 1069) ~ (1469 ~ 1084) 129 or O112Kg “The energy supplied to the heater in 15 minutes isglven by E= Vi Pe At ‘When a substance boils or condenses, the specific latent heat of vvaporisation (,) is the amount of energy required to change the phase of 1kg of a substance from a liquid to a gas. The energy is supplied to the substance to make it boil and is given out by the substance to the surroundings when it condenses, How much energy i required to convert 450 kg of water at 100°C to Solution E= mL ass of water x specific Latent heat of vaporisation of water 50 kg x 2272000 Jkg"? = 1022 400000 Jor ~1 G1 ~10") Determining the specific latent heat of vaporisation The specific latent heat of vaporsation of aliquid can be determined Using the arangement shown in Figure & —~ electrical connections ence element i condensed liquid Figure 4 Apparatus to determine the specific latent heat of vaprsaton of 3 ‘material Take care uth fragile glass tems.The liquid whose spectc latent heat of vaporsation is to be determined isheated to boiling pont. The vapour that is produced passes through the holes and into the condenser. The vapours collected for atime, ¢and its ‘mass mis determined, At this point. the curent in the circuit is and the potential dterence across te heating col is Vs By equating electrical energy supplied to thermal eneray transferred we Vikt= mb + @ Uhete Q's the thermal energy transfered tothe surroundings in time ¢ The potential difference across the heater and the current flawing| through the heater are now changed to new values V5 and is espectvey The mass of water vapour thats produced inthe same time, ¢ as before isnoted and called This leads us to a new equation: Vilt= mala + @ The value of Qwill be the same in each case, since the temperature of the apparatus, which determines how much thermal enesy is transferred to the suroundings, has not changed Subtracting the two equations. we can eliminate @. leaving us wit (gl ~ Vakne= ts md, Since we know al ofthe values in the equation above. par from the ‘ale of L, we can calculate the value fr the specific latent heat of \aporsation forthe liuid under investigation Paes For the arrangement in Figure , the following data was obtained! Potential diference Vs = 20 Potential diference Ws = 28 Curent 1, =158 Curent , =2.4 Mass m, = 248 Mass m= 5529 The time. t over which the experiment was conducted was 2 hours Find the value for the specific latent heat of vaporisation (and suggest atthe liquid might be Solution Substituting into (Vly ~ Vh)t= (mm ~ m)L ives us: (28% 24 20% 15) «7200 = (0552 - 0.24801, 267840 = 03081, Theretore: 167840 + 0308 1, = 881K) kg (or B80KI kg *to2sf) This s dose tothe expected value fora liquid such as alcohol as shown In Table. ‘water 335000 2272 000 alcohol 108000 855000 oxygen 314000 213 000 lead 23000 859000 silver 111000 2356 000 Table 1 Values a specific latent heat for selected mares cs By refering to Table 1, calculate the quantity of energy requted to: {a) melt 40 kg of lead (by bolt 25kg of alcohol {) malt 20 x 10g of ice (6) convert 3049 of Uquid silver toa gas, © 4040" ctecrichete conan ating wat. ts bole or 2.00 mits sting ontop par ble. The edn {487 andthe ol eng 136348, i tecatee es ates eters reer retin eras) 1o0kg fut © ' re costar datrnne he pectic aan hat of tse ea Wo oat eae Tre as aes eaten an ree uaa oct a rece inthe mass fu Rae been? @ itreecermenttdetine he specie atent heat of son of ie {a expan te pupose fhe conto eke 8) (b) suggest one further improvement to this experiment, to reduce the effect of systematic erors (©) explain winy the instructions say to wait unt the ice has begun to-mele before turning onthe power and stating the clock © 75s tn phot cotrg ce ota substan bien 250'Can won tamper OV cso often (thera eet ofthe sutstnce eee (the andom Knee of ce molec les erst 1 te fom prev eoleles elnos cnsand so 10001500) avo 2500 Time/s‘One mole of any substances the amount of substance that contains ‘as many paticles as exactly 1209 ‘of carbon-12. One mole of substance will contain 602 « 10% particles. This number is known as ‘the Avogadro constant and nas the symbol N= 602x 10 mol», Figure 1 Amsden Avognro Pn ‘Amedeo Avogadro ved and \wotked in Tutn forthe majority of his Uf. In 1811, he developed the hypothesis that equal volumes of ‘asa the same temperature and pressure will contain the same umber of molecules. He also ‘suggested that simple gases were not composed of atoms, but of ‘molecules — two or more atoms bonded together. Avogado would not have used the word atom, Instead he would have refered to them as ‘elementary molecules His work became prominent after his death, once people Lundetstood its significance, and the Avogadro constant named after him is stil used today. 28 The amount of substance By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: amount of substance in moles: Avogadro constant Ny = 6.02 x 102 mol* Moles Rather than count the actual number of molecules in any mass or volume of a gas itis more useful to use the S] unit for amount of substance, the mole. One mole of any substance is the amount o substance that contains as many particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in exactly 12.0g of carbon-12. 120 gis the relative atomic mass of carbon-12, The mass of one male of substance is called the molar mass. The molar mass of a substance in g is determined by its relative atomic mass (from the periodic table, see Figure 2} or the molecular mass. For example. one water molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one cxygen atom. Since hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of 1 and coxygen has a relative atomic mass of 16, the mass of one mole of water will be 18 g Therefore, 18g of water will contain 6.02 * 10# molecules of water 230; uNa Figure The element sodium asa elatve toc mas of 22.0 This mean that 23.090 sodium wl oan 6.02% 10" atoms oF 0d Molar mass for monatomic gases Some gases are monatomic, meaning that they are composed of single atoms. An example of this is helium gas, one of the noble gases. The mass of one mole of these atoms is equal to its relative atomic mass. For example, 40 g of helium is the mass of one mole of helium gas. Therefore, 40g of helium gas will contain 6.02 x 10® atoms of helium, Molar mass for diatomic gases Nitrogen and oxygen, wich make up virtually all of the atmosphere, are diatomic. This means that nitrogen and oxygen gas exist as molecules, each containing two atoms, rather than as single atoms, Nitrogen has a relative atomic mass of 140 and oxygen has a relative atornic mass of 1600. Since they are diatomic, a mole of nitrogen gas (N,) will have 2 mass of 28.0 and a mole of oxygen gas (O,) will have a mass of 32.08 atmospheric gas molecules Tue ayer carbon onde ware Tone Tae WN, 3, CH, TO, Or a 3) ( Peli o 70 2 = opal Ie aground eve Gy atmosphere percentages (Goes nacincude wate) Figure 3 Most atmospheric gases, such as nizogen, oxygen and carbon doxde, are composed of molgclos containing two or more atoms. The mass in grams that corresponds to their molecular 35s will contain 602 x 10 molecules ct that gasThe relationship between Avogadro's number (N,), the number of moles (n) and the number of particles (N) (One mole ofa substance wll contain N particles. ‘Two moles ofa substance vill contain 2, particles. nimoles of a substance will contain ni, particles SoN= nN, ‘The number of particles present in a gas is equal to the number of moles multiplied by Avogadro's number Pe Calculate: (a) the number of atoms in 3 moles of copper (bj the mass of 3 moles of conper [c) the number of atoms in 5 moles of neon gas {dl the number of molecules in 5 moles of oxygen gas {e} the number af atams in 5 moles of oxygen gas. Solution {a} One mole contains Ny atoms, so 3 moles contains 3602» 10 = 18x 10" atoms (by Mass of 1 mole in g is the element’ relative atomic mass, which is 635. So mass of 3 moles = 3x 635 = 1909, {c) One mole contains M, atoms, so 5 moles contains 5x 6.02 x 10° = 3.01 x 10% atoms. {d) One mole contains W, molecules, 0 5 moles contains 5 x 602 x 10% = 3.01 x 10%*molecules. [e} The formula of xygen is 0,50 ane molecule of oxygen contains two oxygen atoms, So there are 2» 301 x 10" = 6.02 x 10° atoms in 5 moles of cxygen gas. oC © ete ising sasin teal below. The et ow hasbeen alte frou rere eT 5 helium monatomicgas| 40 3 2 2Ne itu metal 35 | argon | monatomic gas | 400 035 | © irr onan 0.0164 of nyen gs cle (the number of mols of o9gen toms tht resent (he mer of aes fongen molecules hat apes (0 the miner of ngen atoms that are present (he mero gen molec tte present inthe er Ctenermeneimenitcte oe ae ate eae et eae eee (9 bgt nirgent © wary ote of melee thee (add ofan 0) 229 olen dade? FS The word ‘particle Is used to describe both atoms and ‘molecules. Be careful over the distinction between particles, atoms and molecules, For example: + -L-mole of hydrogen atoms is 6.02 x 10 hydrogen atoms + -L.mote of hydrogen molecules 1 602 x 10 hyérogen molecules + -L:mote of nydrogen molecules has the same mass as 2 moles of hydrogen atoms since each hnydrogen molecule comaises two hydrogen atoms Most gases are molecular rather than atomic, for example Hy. O., 1, and C0,. Helium is an exception: each of Its paticles comprises just one atom of helium,understanding of: 8 The kinetic theory and pressure of a gas By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and model of kinetic theary of gases pressure in terms of this model intemal energy of an ideal gas the equation p\ is the mean square speed 4 nme?, where Mis the number of particles (atoms or molecules) and root mean square (r:m.s. speed; mean square speed Dt ‘an eal gas isa gas that has intemal energy only in the form of random kinetic energy. ‘Mean square speed, c*, is the mean value of the square of velocity cfor 2 large number of gas patictes atoms o* molecules) moving randomly In 2 gas. The bar indicates an average. Root mean square (r.m.s.) spe speed. Is the square root ofthe mean square Kinetic theory “The kinetic model of matter is concerned withthe motion of particles. When physicists study the kinetic theory of gases they model the gas particles as tiny particles wit high speeds that are moving randomly in all directions, ‘The kinetic theory of gases uses this model and Newton's laws of motion o explain ‘the macroscopic properties of a ges ~ its pressure, volume and ‘temperature - in terms of the movement of particles in the gas. “The mode! has several assumptions which simplify calculations. Figure 1 The arows show the size and direction of the invcual velocities of ‘the paricles in the gas. Tere is a random distiution of velocities and kinetic ‘energies, so we often talk about the mean values Assumptions of the kinetic model of a gas .¢ assumptions that scientists make when trying to model the behaviour of an ideal gas are: 1. ‘The gas contains a large number of panicles (atoms or molecules), 2. The particles move rapidly and randomly. 3. All collisions are perfectly elastic (kinetic energy is conserved), 26 4, There are negligible attractive forces between particles except uring collisions, ‘The time fora collision to happen is negligible compared to the time between collisions 6, Particles have a negligible volume compared with the volume of ges in the container Ideal and real gases If the atoms or molecules of a gas do not exert forces on ‘each other, then condition 4 is satisfied. In realy, the forces between atoms or molecules in the gas are not negligible so this assumption is not valid, but we can define an ideal gas as having no attraction between the molecules or atoms, Real gases vill behave like an ideal ges if they are at low pressure and a temperature significantly above their boiling point ‘The internal energy of an ideal ges is composed entirely of the kinetic energy of its fast-moving molecules, since we assume that there are no intermolecular forces that could lead to adeitional potential energy in the system. Pressure of gases ‘Agasina container exerts presure on the container walls due toeellision of gas molecules with the container walle Prseure isa vector quantity since ichasboth a size fa magnitude) and a direction. Pressure is defined asthe force, Facing perpen toan area, A. Ithas units of newtons per metre squared. Ni pascal Pa svesgure = 2*02(ND area (m') re Tikely to have large numerical values of pressure. Gas les in the air may be travelling at speeds of 500 ms". With ppethaps 10 gas molecules hitting the surface area of your skin (around 1 square melze) every second itis not surprising that the pressure on you is large even if each molecule has an individual mass of only 10-+*kg: Aunespherie pressure has a value close to 100000 Pa. The reason you are not crushed by this pressure is that there is an equal and opposite pressure inside your bady, acting ‘outwards, so the forces are balanced.Using the kinetic theory to obtain an equation for the pressure of an ideal gas If we apply the assumptions of the kinetic theory model of gases, as stated above, we can derive an equation for the pressure exerted by an ideal gas. Figure 2 shows three melecules moving in a cubic box of side length £. The molecules each have mass m and are travelling at speed v ‘Figure 2. An|maginaty situation in which cubic container has jst vee molecules moving inside ic The molecules are travelling parallel rhe x.y and zanes respectively, ‘+ Molecule A is travelling in the horizontal plane from right to left {parallel to the y-axis). ‘+ Molecule B is travelling in the vertical plane from bottom to top {parallel to the z-axis) + Molecule C is travelling in the horizontal plane from front to back (parallel to the x-axis), Let us, at this point, consider only molecule C and one wall of the box When molecule C hits the wal. it will rebound with velocity v since we are assurning that all collisions with the wall ae perfectly elastic (Figure 3). Initially the momentum of molecule C is ~my Having collided ‘with the wall and rebounded, its momentum will become mu, since ‘momentum is a veetar quantity and a change in direction will lead 1to.a change in its sign from negative to positive. The toral change in momentum for this molecule, therefore, will be my ~(—my) which isa change in momentum of 2mv. before collision -o after calision eo postive decton Figure 3 A molecule of mass m vavellingatvelocy ywill undergo a change inmarertum of 2mv ater rebounding tom a wall o the container. Molecule C will collide with the wall again ater it has travelled a distance of 21, ie, across the box and back again to the same wal Since the time it takes to do this is calculated using distance 28 yy oq toad of time = + By Newton's second law of motion, the force, F, exerted on molecule C by the wall will be equal cathe rate of change of Ae amv Br ary the molecule's momentum, 50 T + From Newton's third law of motion, molecule C exerts an equal and opposite force on the wall simplifies to F: + Since pressure = force + area, and the area of the walls J the pressure exerted onthe wal by malecle Cis gen by = + Since the box fs @ cube, we can replace the rerm £° with the term Vshich we wll use to denote the volume of the bo, s0 v If there are W gas molecules inthe bos the total pressure exerted on the shaced all wll be gen by the sum of the nv forces acting onthe area ofthat wal In realty molecules ina gas rove randomiy in all directions. notin one direction only as hes bbeen modelled here. Only changes of momentum in the direction perpendicular tothe wall cause an impact foree on the wall + For W molecules all traveling inthe x direction, the pressure exerted on the wall perpendicular to this direction will be given dy PT Oat Hat Ho Maat) + This can be related to the mean value of the square of the component of speed inthe x direction, , WS (id + thd +E +. ANE + So for the pressure on one wall, p= Nmi2/V We need to consider the motion of all the molecules that have components of velocity in the y and z directions also, IF the velocity of a gas molecule is ¢ which can be resolved into components x, ¥, and, ican be shown that c?= v2 + 42+ m2 and also that the mean square speed, c= ui + ¥ + 12 + From the assumptions of Kinetic theory, the velocity isin a random direction so the mean velocity component will be the same in every direction and y,2 = v,é = v2. Hence itis possible to say that y= 4/3, + So the total pressure, p= ENnc?/¥ which can also be writen as: pv=tNme + Alternatively since the total mass ofthe gas is Nm and since the density. of the gas is Nm/ V, we ebtain an expression for the pressure of an ideal gas as p28 The root mean square (r.m.s.) speed + You saw in opic 5.1.3 that there sa random distribution of speeds in a gas, called the Maxwel Boltzmann cstribution. We can calculate both the mean speed, an the square root of which is called the root mean square (rm.s.) speed, These are not the same and itis important to use the rm speed in kinetic models, rather than the mean speed RR ‘Acinder has a volume of 500m’. Is filled with gas of density 1. m~, and the pressure inthe eyinderis 25 x 10°Pa, Using the equation = ¥ pc¥ calculate: (@) the mean square speed of ll the molecules (bythe square root ofthe mean square speed of all the molecules (© the kinetic energy fal the molecules. Solution (2 Using the equation 2=& pe? ves F=3p/p= 325 107/14 = 536 «10° ms? (bythe root mean square tm. speed is simply the square root ofa that s,732ms™ (or 730ms+ to 254 (6) What is wanted hee is Suz Smge-+ Sma + Emu + +S. where ‘ual be some vast ruber equal othe total numberof molecules, and the mass of one molecule. +The equation canbe revit as Imi uP-+ue +02 ++ WA) +The tem in the brackets s now easy to find, since its the mean square speed of al the molecules x the ruber of molecules: tats, the answer to (a the numberof molecules = 5:36 x 10 This oves the Kinetic energy of all the molecules a $m 5.36 10" N Since Nis the total mas of gas this is velume x density = 500 x 10-m? x .¢gr? = 7.0 10-tkg The total kinetic enecay is 05 = 7.0 10-* 5.36 « 10° = 190) to2 st. © oe mote of metogen has a mass of 20% 10g, 80°C ad one atmosphere presse 1.0% 10872. ‘occupies a volume of 0.022 m? Using the equation p= +c! calculate: Ga) thers. speed ofa hyctogen molecule (the kinetic energy of ne moe the ge, © Bre vo1me oF one mote of gas te same foal gates at he sme temperature and press. he heaviest sis alactive tad wth molt mass of 22g mot. Caeuatethe ems, speedo this gs a 0"C and one atmosphere pressure Remember that the volume ofthe gus sth same as Ban Auestion 1 The mean kinetic energy of 2 molecule of any gas isthe same a a given temperature. Using the fact that ‘1 mole of gas contains 6.02 » 10° particles, find the value ofthe mean kinetic energy using the data from question 1. Check thatthe value isthe same for radon (see question 2 © /2o9en motets amass of 67» 20-*hg. Six itogen laste ina sample oa hae Velocities 300, 450 and 500 ms tothe let, and 350, 400 and 550ms" tothe right. For these six molecules, calculate (2) the mean speed (b) the mean velocity (oi the rms, speed (@) the mean momentum (6) the mean kinetic energy) Investigating gases By the end of this topi you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of. techies rd proces ese inet p= ost y's a cntane (continued in Topic 5.1.10) {an estimation of absolute zero using variation of gas temperature with pressure Do et Boyle's law is stated as: the volume ofa fixed mass of eas is inversely proportional tothe pressure exerted on the gas, under conditions of constant temperature. {In equation form, Boyie's law is stated as: ‘pV= constant under conditions ef constant temperature. I we have a oas ata pressure , and a volume Vand we change the conditions so that it has a new pressure p» and a new volume ¥, then we can say that p,¥;= BV Boyle’s law Robert Boyle was an rsh scientist who lived from 1627 to 1691 andis regarded as the founder of modem chemistry. He was the first person to show, via experiment, the relationship between the volume of a gas andthe pressure exerted on it. Boyle knew nothing about the particle nature of matter or the random, fast movement of gas molecules (the kinetic model), Today, we se Boyle's law, named in his honour, to describe the relationship between pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas ata constant temperature Investigating pV= constant (Boyle's law) Boyle's law can be demonstrated with the apparatus shown in Figure 1. The volume of the gas inthe air column ean be measured at efferent pressures and the values of pressure, p plotted against volume. V. The apparatus needed to vail Boyle's law consists of along tube, closed at one end and containing ar above some oil The pressure on the oll can be increased by means of a foot ump. andthe pressure exerted onthe airby the ols indicated by a pressure gauge. The volume ofthe air in the tube can be measured from a scale behind the tube, pressure ge valve to foot pur Figure 1 Apparatus used to demonstrate the relationship between pressure and volume, Typical results are shown in Table 1. eT 40 7a 0130 | 308 35 90 on | 315 | 30 105 o0s2 | 35 | 25 125 00800 | 320 | 20 355 0055 | 310 | 15 210 cows | 315 | 10 3S oon17 | 35 | Table 4 Typical results of an experiment to verity Boyle's law. ‘A few points to note about this experiment: ‘+ Startwith the valve open, then pump up the apparatus to a high pressure and close the valve. Wat a couple of minutes before taking the readings since compressing the air causes i to warm up slihtly (pushing the piston transfers eneray into the system, rising its Intemal energy so the gas has ta cool ro room temperature before ‘measurements are taken + Release the valve slow to reach the next data point fr pressure, so thatthe temperature remains constant at room temperature. A gas Cools 3s t expands it does work on its surroundings and time must be allowed for the temperature ofthe gas to stabilise. ‘The unit given for pVs comect a5 Nm (or). To get the value In Nm, the volume must bein m? and the pressure in Pa. The fist line will be 40108 Pax 7.7 x 10-*m’ = 308Nm) + Its very dificult to check f the shape ofa graph shows the inverse proportionality of pand V although pats of values canbe muldplid to check pV= constant (Figure 2). However, fps plotted against 1/¥, then if pis proportional to 1/V the graph isa straight lin passing through the origin. ‘+ Wear eve protection, do not exceed the maximum pressure, and watch for any lesks that may eject ol Y= constant T= constant Figure 2 Graph showing the relationship between pressure and volume at constant ceriperature. Fora gas whic oboys Boylos law the products ‘of coresponding values of pressure and volume are always equal under Conditions of constant tem perature. In this example, pV; = plating 2 ‘tap of against 1/ Vmakes i asi to vty Boyle's law.The pressure-temperature law “The pressure-temperature law describes the relationship between pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of gas under conditions of constant volume. Experiments show that a graph of pressure against temperature isa straight line and all gases, atleast for low ‘pressures far from their boing point, intercept the temperature axis at the same point, which is ~273.16°C. In equation form, the pressure law is stated as péT= constant or pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature Se Investigating pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume ‘fixed mass of gs heated ina sealed flask at constant volume. The flasks placed in a water bath whichis heated to different temperatures {Figure 3) and the pressure a the gas a ditterent temperatures between ‘0°Cand 100°C is recorded Here we plot a graph of pressure against temperature in °C figure 4). ‘The graphs linear and extrapolating the line back tothe temperature ‘ads wil give us an estimated value for absolute zero. Plotting pressure against absolute temperature would aso result in a stiaight line through the origin. pressure gauge ‘hermomese Figure 3 Pressure law apparatus. A fives volume of gas is heated. The pressure of the gs is recorded along with the temperature cf the gas. 30 = orc sbsoluteze 273K Figure 4 A graph of pressure against temperature wil prducea straight lin. Extraplatng this ine to the a-axis will enable us to obtain a value for absolute zoo, ‘few points to note about this experiment: ‘+ Make sure thatthe flask does not touch the bottom of the beaker and the water covers the entre flask. ‘+ Make sure that the thermometer doesnot touch the container. + Wear eye protection and place the apparatus behind a safety screen In case the flask shatters. + Possible sources of error are leaks through the flask. the valve. or the pressure gauge). @ F110 rssing valves ling to y's aw in the tbe “TumperaueyK below. ax10¢ra | 7am Bx 10'Pa 25am ast ost B01 | Sx10'Nm? | _250em* 15 = 10°Pa 96h | 32x 101m @ A rv0t of vce 3.2m? released by ash nthe Se, bere the pressures Gasom, nt il the vlume ofthe buble be i reaches the sutace othe sevatar ‘Agas is compressed slouly fom a volume of 1200¢m? toa volume of 340 en the initial pressure acting onthe gas was 4L2atm, what wil tbe after the compression, assuming that there has been no change in temperature? ‘iter canying out an experiment o investigate the variation of gas temperature with pressure, a student estimated a value of absolute 2270 of ~286'5°C from thelr graph, Calculate the percentage diference in this value from the accepted value. © cose wy er wide an ncarany nt measurement temperouré and pres nthe experiment weston &