Chapter 1

21st CENTURY ASSESSSMENT

TOPICS
1. Characteristics of 21st Century Assessment
2. Instructional Decision in Assessment
3. Outcome-based Assessment
4. Types of Assessment

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Use appropriate assessment tools and techniques as applied in
instructional decision.
2. Relate learning outcomes and assessment
3. Distinguish different types of assessment, and relate it to learning
outcomes.

Inevitably the 21st century is here, demanding a lot of changes, development,

and re-engineering of systems in different fields for this generation to thrive. In the
field of education, most of the changes have focused on teaching and learning.
Preparing and equipping the teachers to cater to the needs of the 21st century learners
are part of the adjustments being done in the education system. Curricula are updated
to address the needs of the community in relation to the demands of the 21st century.
This aspect of teaching and learning has been given its share of focus, the various
components/factors analyzed and updated to ensure that students’ learning will be at
par with the demands of the 21st century. Although a lot of changes has been made on
the different facets of education, there are some members o f the educational
assessment. Viewing educational assessment as agent of educational change is of great
importance. This belief, coupled with the traditional focus on teaching and learning,
will produce a strong and emerging imperative to alter our long-held conceptions of
these three parts: teaching, learning, and assessment (Greenstein, 2012).

Twenty-first century skills must build on the core literacy and numeracy that all
students must master. Students need to think critically and creatively, communicate
and collaborate effectively, and work globally to be productive, accountable citizens

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and leaders. These skills to be honed must be assessed, not just simply to get numerical
results but more so, to take the results of assessment as guide to take further action.

TOPIC 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF 21ST CENTURY ASSESSMENT

1.1 Responsive
Visible performance-based work (as a result of assessment) generates data that inform
curriculum and instruction. Teachers can adjust instructions, school leaders can
consider additional educational opportunities for students and policy makers can
modify programs and resources to cater to the present needs of the school
community.

Processes for responding to assessments are thoughtfully developed, incorporating

best practices in feedback and formative assessment. Feedback is to be targeted to the
goal and outcome. Rather than just a single test grade, students are informed of
progress toward the attainment of goal. Self-reflection, peer feedback, and
opportunities for revision will be a natural outcome.

1.2 Flexible

Lesson design, curriculum, and assessment require flexibility, suppleness, and

adaptability. Assessments and responses may not be fitted to expected answers.
Assessment need to be adaptable to students’ settings. Rather than the identical
approach that works in traditional assessment, 21st century approaches are more
versatile. These approaches best fit for the demands of the learning environments at
present since as students decisions, actions, and applications vary, the assessments and
the system need to be flexible, too.

1.3 Integrated

Assessments are to be incorporated into day-to-day practice rather than as add-ons at

the end of instructions or during a single specified week of the school calendar.

Assessments are enriched by metacognition. Assessment is about stimulating thinking,

building on prior learning, constructing meaning, and thinking about one’s thinking. It
offers opportunities for students to consider their choices, identify alternative
strategies, transfer earlier learning, and represent knowledge through different means.

1.4 Informative

The desired 21st century goals and objectives are clearly stated and explicitly taught.
Students display their range of emerging knowledge and skills. Exemplars routinely
guide students toward achievement of targets.

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Learning objectives, instructional strategies, assessment methods, and reporting
processes are clearly aligned. Complex learning takes time. Students have
opportunities to build on prior learning in a logical sequence. As students develop and
build skills, i. e. learning and innovation skills, information, communication and
technology skills, and life and career skills; the work gets progressively more rigorous.

Demonstration of 21st century skills are evident and support learning. Students show
the steps they go through and display their though processes for peer and teacher
review.

1.5 Multiple Methods

An assessment continuum that includes a spectrum of strategies is the norm. Students

demonstrate knowledge and skills through relevant tasks, projects, and performances.
Authentic and performance-based assessment is emphasized. There is recognition of
and appreciation for the processes and products of learning.

1.6 Communicated

Communication of assessment data is clear and transparent for all stakeholders.

Results are routinely posted to a database along with standards-based commentary,
both of which must be available and comprehensible at all levels. Students receive
routine feedback on their progress, and parents are kept informed through access to
visible progress reports and assessment data.

1.7 Technically Sound

Adjustments and accommodations are made in the assessment process to mee the
student needs and fairness. Students demonstrate what they know and how they can
apply that knowledge in ways that are relevant and appropriate for them.

To be valid, the assessments must measure the stated objectives and 21st century skills
with legitimacy and integrity. To be reliable, the assessment must be precise and
technically sound so that users are consistent in their administration and interpretation
of data. They produce accurate information for decision-making in all relevant
circumstances.

1.8 Systematic

Twenty-first century assessment is part of a comprehensive and well-aligned

assessment that is balanced and inclusive of all students, constituents, and
stakeholders and designed to support improvement at all levels.

These eight characteristics of 21st century assessment, are essential guide for the
preparation of assessment activities by educators. It is necessary to refer to these
characteristics to ensure that the learners are being assessed towards the skills and
demand of the 21st century.

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 TOPIC 2: INSTRUCTIONAL DECISION IN ASSESSMENT

The major objective of educational assessment is to have a holistic appraisal of a

learner, his/her environment and accomplishments.

The educational assessment process starts in analyzing the criterion together with the
teaching-learning environment. It is done to determine the effect of the environment
to the teaching-learning situation after which, the kind of evidence that are
appropriate to use for assessment of the individuals are set. This helps to determine
the strengths, weaknesses, needs and personality characteristics, skills and abilities of
the learner (Bloom, 1970).

It is clear that educational assessment encompasses the total educational setting and
not limited to the teacher-student engagement. It is not merely based on a single
aspect such as taking a test, and checking it. In totality, the processes of measurement
and evaluation are subsumed in the educational assessment process.

2.1 Decision-making at Different phases of Teaching-Learning process

Assessment is constantly taking place in educational settings. Decisions are made about
content/subject matter and specific targets, nature of students and faculty, morale and
satisfaction of both the teachers and the students, as well as the extent of which
student performances meet the standard and/or deliver the outcomes expected from
them by the teacher.

Assessments can be used as basis for decision-making at different phases of the

teaching-learning process. The table below depicts the different phases of the
teaching-learning process, how and what are made by the teachers:

Phase Decision(s) to be made Source(s) of information

Before staring • Content to cover during the
teaching following day, week,
month, grading period, and
so on.
• Abilities of students
considering the cultural
background, interests and
skills of students in
planning the teaching
activities.
• Materials appropriate to
use with the students
• Learning activities that will
engage both the teacher
• Informal observation of
students during class
• Conversation with students’
previous teachers
• Scholastic aptitude test
results
• Students’ past grades and
standardized test results
• Knowledge of student’s
personal family
circumstances

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 and students as the lesson
is being taught
• Learning targets that the
teacher wants to achieve as
a result of teaching
• Organization and
arrangement of students in
class in consideration of the
lessons and activities
During Teaching • Students learning on what
and how the lesson is
presented
• Improvement needed to
make the lesson work
better
• What feedback to give each
student about how well the
student is learning
• Readiness of the students
to move to the next activity
as planned in the learning
sequence
After a teaching • How well students achieve
segment the short and long term
instructional targets
• Strengths and weaknesses
to be given as feedback to
parents or guardians of
students
• Grade to be given to each
student for the lesson or
unit, grading period or end
of the course
• Effectiveness of teaching
the lesson to the students
• Effectiveness of the
curriculum and materials
used for the lesson
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• Observation of students
during learning activities
• Students’ response to
questions the teacher asked
them
• Observation of students
interaction
• Diagnosis of the types of
errors the students made or
erroneous thinking the
students are using
• Look for alternative ways to
teach the materials
• Identify if there are students
who are not participating and
acting appropriately.
• Classroom tests, projects,
observations
• Interviews with students
• Standardized test results
• Observations of each
student’s classroom
participation
• Review of each student’s
homework results
• Review each student’s
standardized achievement
and scholastic aptitude test
results
• Review information about a
student’s personal family
circumstances
• Informal observation of how
well the student has attained
the intended learning targets
• Summaries of the class’
performance on the
 important instructional
targets
• Summaries o f the class’
performance on selected
questions on standardized
tests
• Summaries of how well the
students liked the activities
and lesson materials
• Summaries of the class’
achievement on classroom
tests that match the
curriculum
(Nitko, 2000)

The list of decisions and possible sources of information that could be used as input in
decision-making process is not exhaustive. More can be included, based on teaching-
learning observations and experiences during Field Study and Observation courses.
Suggested sources of information for decision-making is not limited to a single choice.
A combination of two or more if necessary may be used to make decision process as
sound as possible.

Based on what was presented, it can be inferred that there is a very close relationship
between assessment and instruction. The data on observation and evidences and other
sources of information serve as basis for the teacher to decide what action he/she
needs to do to help the learner achieve the desired learning outcome. Note that data
used may be from informal assessments such as observation from interaction of
teacher and learner and also through formal one, such as giving of factual
case/problem for calculation, as what was mentioned in the above example.

2.2 Assessment in Classroom Instruction

Linn and Gronlund (2000) described the relevance of assessment in instructional

decision by classifying the varied assessment procedures according to use in classroom
instruction. The following are the categories and purposes of each category.

Category
1. Placement Assessment
2. Formative Assessment
3. Diagnostic Assessment
4. Summative Assessment
Purpose
Measures entry behavior
Monitors learning progress
Identifies causes of learning problems
Measures end-of-course achievement

Linn (1999) said that informed decision-making in education is very important because
of the benefits it can bring about. Topmost of these benefits is the enhancement of
students’ learning and development. In addition, there is the boost on morale and
feeling of greatness in knowing one’s competence in the area of academic skill and
self-worth in knowing one’s capability to function effectively in society. Lastly, the

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affective side of development is equally important, such as personal dimensions,
including being able to adjust to people and coping with various situations that will
lead to a better life adjustment.

2.3 Types of Educational Decision

On a greater scale, the use of assessment in decision-making is not just within the
bounds of the classroom. It extends to the whole education community. Results of
assessment may trigger updates in the existing curriculum and other policies governing
the school system. Or it may be the other way around, so as to plan for changes or
development in school assessments and in what particular aspect of the school system
these changes are necessary.

Kubiszyn and Borich (2002) classified the different educational decision into eight (8)
categories. These types of decisions are described briefly below.

Types of Educational Decision

Decision Description Example

Instructional This decision is normally made
by individual classroom
teacher, as necessary to meet
the targets or objectives set
during classroom engagement.
Decisions are reached
according to the results of test
administered to a class.
Grading It is usually based on teacher-
made tests. Grades are
assigned to the students using
assessment as one of the
factors.
Diagnostic It is made to determine a
student’s strengths and
weaknesses and the reason/s.
Selection It involves accepting or
rejecting the examinee based
on the results of assessment,
for admission or qualification
to a program or school activity.
After a test was given by the
teacher, the result is not so
satisfactory thus the teacher may
decide to re-teach the lesson
using a different strategy so as to
improve the learning and meet
the objective/target set for that
particular lesson.
A quarterly grade is based on the
following: result of teacher-made
test, class participation, projects,
and attendance.
A teacher gave an essay test. The
teacher noticed that the students
were able to write more than five
grammatically correct sentences
but the coherence of the ideas
contained in the paragraph is
poor. So the result shows that the
students still need more help in
understanding the principles of
writing a good paragraph.
College or University Entrance
Examination, Choosing School
Representative for a National
Quiz Bee

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 The decisions are made not by
classroom teachers but by
specialists such as guidance
counselors, administrators or
the selection committee.
Placement It is made after a student has
been admitted to school. It
involves the process of
identifying students who
needs remediation or may be
recommended for enrichment
program of the school.
Guidance and It utilizes test data to assist
Counseling students in making their
personal choices for future
career and help them now
their strengths and
weaknesses by means of
standardized tests.
A diagnostic test on English and
Math were given to freshmen to
determine who among them may
encounter difficulty in these
areas. Those who will get a below
average scores will be included in
the remediation program to help
the students cope with the
lessons in English and Math.
The NCAE helps to identify which
career path the student may
pursue that matches his/her
interests and skills, whether
academic, vocational or technical
programs.

On the other hand, teachers

may use the results of socio-
metric tests to identify who
among the students are
popular or unpopular. Those
who are unpopular may be
given help for them to gain
friends and become more
sociable.
Program or It is made not at the level of The decision to implement the K-
Curriculum the teachers but on higher 12 Curriculum in order to avoid
level such as division, regional mismatch among graduates and
or national level. Based on the the industry and to be at par with
result of assessment and the Curriculum implemented in
evaluation, educational the Philippines’ neighboring
decisions may be reached: to countries.
continue, discontinue, revise
or replace a curriculum or
program being implemented.
Administrative It involves determining the To conduct a remediation class,
Policy implications to resources additional budget is necessary for
including financial the logistics (classroom,
consideration to improve the instructional materials,
student learning as a result of assessment materials, etc.) and
an assessment. It may entail also the additional pay for the

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 acquisition of instructional teachers that will handle the
materials, books, etc. to raise remedial classes.
the level of students’
performance in academic, or
non-academic or both.

These aforementioned educational decisions are the primary reasons why assessment
in the educational setting is implemented continuously. Prior to implementing the
assessment, its objective and target must be clearly defined so as not to cause wastage
in terms of resources and ensures that the results will be utilized and evaluated that
will consequently yield to recommendations that are beneficial to the school
community in general.

TOPIC 3: OUTCOME-BASED ASSESSMENT

Knowing what is expected from the learners by their teachers at the end of a particular
lesson helps them to meet those targets successfully. In relation to this, teachers who
have set clear targets for their lessons, will be guided accordingly as they deliver their
lesson through instructional learning activities to meet the desired outcomes. Thus, all
assessment and evaluation activities must be founded on the identified student
intended learning outcomes (ILO). These ILOs should be identified and clarified with
students so that it will be an effective teaching-learning process as the teachers
commence the learning activities through delivery of the lessons.

3.1. Student Learning Outcome

Student learning outcome is the totality of accumulated knowledge, skills, and attitude
that students develop during a course of study. And this serve as the basis for assessing
the extent of learning in an Outcome Based Education (OBE). Outcome Based
Assessment must be continuously done during the entire teaching learning both by the
teachers and students to ensure that the activities are aligned with the expected
outcomes set for the students by the teacher. Providing feedback including the results
of assessment is important to identify the next steps (to be done by the teacher and
student) toward the realization of the intended learning outcome.

3.2 Sources of Student Expected Learning Outcome

As aforementioned, outcomes or targets for every lesson is expected to be defined and

clarified by the teacher at the start of the course/learning activities. This is necessary
so as both the students and teachers will be guided as to what steps should be taken
during the course of the teaching-learning activities. There are several factors that
need to be considered in defining the outcomes, to ensure that these are aligned with
the set directions of the program and evaluation setting in general. Following are that
need to be considered in crafting the student expected learning outcomes:

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1. Mission statement of the school.
2. Mandated policies on competencies and standards issued by government education
agencies.
3. Competencies expected different professions, business and industry.
4. Development plan and goals as well as the current thrusts of both the national and
local governments.
5.. Current global trends and developments so that graduates can compete globally.
6. General 21st century skills focusing on the following:
• Oral and written communication
• Quantitative reasoning ability together with scientific methodology
• Analyzing, synthesizing and developing creative solutions.
• Use of technology
• Information literacy

3.3 Characteristics of Good Learning Outcome

It is important to define outcomes as clearly and explicitly as possible. Good learning

outcomes give emphasis to the application and integration of the knowledge and skills
acquired in a particular unit of instruction (e.g. activity, course program, etc.), and
emerge from a process of reflection on the essential contents of the activity, course,
program, etc.

1. Very specific, and use verbs (that makes expectations clear). By being very specific,
it informs students of the standards by which they will be assessed, and ensures that
student and instructor goals in the course are aligned.

2. Focused on the learner: Rather than explaining what the instructor will do in the
course, good learning outcomes describe knowledge or skills that the student will
employ, and help the learner understand why that knowledge and those skills are
useful and valuable to their personal, professional and academic future.

3. Are realistic: all passing students should be able to demonstrate the knowledge or
skill described by the learning outcome at the conclusion of the course. In this way,
learning outcomes establish standards for the course.

4. Focus on the application and integration of acquired knowledge and skills: good
learning outcomes reflect and indicate the ways in which the described knowledge and
skills may be used by the learner now and in the future.

5. Good learning outcomes prepare students for assessment and help them feel
engaged in and empowered by the assessment and evaluation process.

6. Offer a timeline for completion of the desired learning.

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 TOPIC 4: TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is an essential and powerful tool in the teaching and learning process.
Moreover, it is a process of obtaining data with which we could measure student
competence and learning outcomes. The process begins with the identification of the
specific target goals before collecting and interpreting the information. Classifying and
synthesizing of the gathered data are possible through the use of the different
assessment techniques.

4.1 Traditional and Authentic Assessment

Paper-and-pencil tests or quizzes are best examples of traditional assessment mainly

describe and measure student learning outcomes. Most of the time, teachers still
engage themselves in utilization of traditional assessment. Law and Eckes (1995) state
that traditional assessments are single-occasion tests which measure what learners can
do at a particular time.

Traditional assessments are indirect and inauthentic measures of students learning

outcomes. This kind of assessment is standardized and for that reason, they are one-
shot, speed-based, and norm-referenced (Bailey, 1998). Traditional assessment often
focus on learner’s ability of memorization and recall, which are lower level of cognition
skills (Smaldino, 2000).

With the above findings in the use of traditional assessment, there has been a
movement from traditional assessment toward authentic assessment. Authentic
assessment focuses on the analytical and creative thinking skills, students to work
cooperatively and that reflect student learning achievement, and student attitudes of
relevant activities.

Assessment is authentic when it measures performances or products which have

realistic meaning that can be attributed to the success in school. Activities, questions
and problems with “real world” satisfy the criterion that it needs to be an authentic
intellectual work within the given situation or contextual realism of the tasks.

The commonly reported dimensions of authenticity are grouped into three broad
categories (Frey, 2012):

A. The Context of the Assessment

• Realistic activity or context
• The task is performance-based
• The task is cognitively complex

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B. The Role of the Student
• A defense of the answer or product is required
• The assessment is formative
• Students collaborate with each other or with the teacher.

C. The Scoring
• The scoring criteria are known or student-developed
• Multiple indicators or portfolios are used for scoring.
• The performance expectation is mastery.

In the present K to 12 curriculum, the students are expected to produce products or

performances through authentic tasks. This should reflect what teachers want their
students to do with their learning and demonstrate the use in real life situation.
Wiggins (1989) argues that teachers should “test those capacities and habits we think
are essential and test them in context. Make them replicate within reason, the
challenges at the heart of each discipline.” Authentic assessment has four basic
characteristics:

1. The task should be representative of performance in the field.

2. Attention should be paid to teaching and learning the criteria for assessment.
3. Self-assessment should play a great role.
4. When possible, students should present their work publicly and defend it.

In general, below are some of the best uses of authentic assessment (Mueller, 2010)

I. Authentic assessments are direct measures.

The main purpose of authentic assessment is to be able to use the acquired knowledge
and skills in the real world. Forms of assessment task must be applied in authentic
situations. This could be done also by teachers by asking the students to use what they
have learned in some meaningful way. (e.g. Conducting a science experiment –
hypothesis testing, developing feasibility study, calculating savings).

II. Authentic assessments capture constructive nature of learning.

In a constructive point of view, learners should create knowledge and meaning based
from schemata. Thus, assessments cannot just ask students to repeat information they
have received. Students must also be asked to demonstrate that they have accurately
constructed meaning about what they have been taught. Moreover, students must be
given the opportunity to engage in the construction of meaning. Authentic tasks not
only serve as assessments but also as vehicles for such learning.

III. Authentic assessments integrate teaching, learning and assessment.

In the authentic assessment model, the same authentic task used to measure the
students’ ability to apply the knowledge or skills is used as vehicle for student learning.
Problem solving and decision making skills are best exemplified by this purpose.

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Students are learning the process of developing a solution to a problem by simply
applying the meaningful concepts.

IV. Authentic assessments provide multiple paths to demonstration.

Students may have different ways by which they could demonstrate what they have
learned. Similarly, authentic tasks tend to give the students more freedom on how they
will demonstrate what they have learned. By carefully identifying the criteria of good
performance on the authentic task ahead of time, the teacher can still make
comparable judgments of student performance even though student performance
might be expressed quite differently from student to student.

The table summarizes the attributes of traditional from authentic (performance)

assessment.

Attributes of Traditional and Authentic Assessments

Attribute Traditional Assessment Performance Assessment

Assessment activity Selecting a response Performing a task
Nature of activity Contrived activity Activity emulates real life
Cognitive level Knowledge/comprehension Application/analysis/synthesis
Development of teacher-structured Student-structured
solution
Objectivity of scoring Easily achieved Difficult to achieve
Evidence of mastery indirect evidence Direct evidence
Liskin-Gasparo (1997), Mueller (2008) & Wren (2009)

4.2 Formative Evaluation and Summative Evaluation

Assessment for learning pertains to the use of formative evaluation to determine and
improve students’ learning outcomes. On the other hand, Assessment of learning uses
summative evaluation which provides evidence of students’ level of achievement in
relation to curricular learning outcomes.

Teaching and learning plans are based on the results of formative assessment which
provides feedback on the effectiveness of teaching and learning process as seen from
the students learning. Summative assessment on the other hand, is used to determine
how much students have learned at the end of term, unit or academic year. Summative
assessment is one basis for determining the final grade as demonstrated from the
achievement of the students.

Classroom-based “formative assessment” has also taken on an increasingly important

role in education policy in recent years. Formative assessment refers to the frequent,
interactive assessment of student progress to identify learning needs and shape
teaching (OECD, 2005). It is a planned process in which the teacher or students use
assessment-based evidence to adjust ongoing learning and instruction. Without any

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inter- or intra-individual consensus as to what the term formative assessment means,
it is difficult to have a well-formed body of research (Popham, 2011).

Formative assessment can be defined more specifically as, “All those activities
undertaken by teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide
information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in
which they are engaged” (Black & William, 1998). The results of formative assessment
leads to identifying its goal in improving and motivating the students to enhance
achievement. The gathered information and interpreted evidence is utilized by the
teacher to give feedback about the progress of students as learning takes place.

Formative assessment occurs at three points of instruction: (1) during instruction:; (2)
between lessons; and (3) between units. Most formative assessments occur during
instruction (William & Leahy, 2007). This is when teachers are observing and using
questions, giving feedback in informal targeted ways. This is typically based on quizzes,
observation, student self-assessment, and other major assessment which are given at
the end of these time frames.

Formative assessment fosters learning with understanding which benefits both

teachers and students by providing the teachers with information on student learning
needs. By enabling appropriate adaptation of course material and teaching strategies,
formative assessment promotes a reflective teaching process that results in better
teaching and better evaluations from students (Richlin, 1998). High-quality feedback
to students can model the learning process, although it could also foster “learned
dependence” in which learning goals are subsumed under performance goals (Yorke,
2003).

Traditionally, summative assessments are conducted at the end of each section or unit
to find out student achievement. Summary of evidences indicate extent of learning
achievements which can classify or for certification or giving of honors/awards.
Moreover, summative assessments are typically traditional paper-and-pencil
measures such as unit tests, long tests, exams, essays, or projects that form a portion
of a student’s final grade. These serve as evaluative function at the end of the unit or
term.

Characteristics of Formative and Summative Assessment

Characteristics Formative Summative

Purpose To provide ongoing feedback To document student learning
and adjustment to instruction at the of an instructional
segment.
When conducted During instruction and after After instruction
instruction
Student Encouraged Discouraged
involvement
Student Intrinsic, mastery-oriented Extrinsic, performance-
Motivation oriented

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 Teacher role To provide immediate, To measure student
specific feedback and achievement and give grades.
instructional correctives
Learning Deep understanding, Knowledge and competence
emphasized application, and reasoning
Level of Highly specific and individual General and group oriented
specificity
Structure Flexible, adaptable Rigid, highly structured
Techniques Informal Formal
Impact on Strong, positive, long-lasting Weak and fleeting
learning
(McMillan, 2007)

4.3 Norm and Criterion-Referenced Assessment

Norm-referenced assessment gives us information on what the students can perform

by comparing to another student. It describes student performance in the class by
comparing is a limited percentage of competition for those who are high scorers.
Criterion-referenced assessment describes the performance of the students without
reference to the performance of others which uses preset criteria or predefined and
absolute standard or outcomes. Usually, it describes student’s mastery of the course
content, thus, there is no competition for a limited percentage for a high score.

Both methods are very useful in assessing learning outcomes. The first tells how an
individual performance compares with that of others, the record tells the specific
performance in terms of what an individual can do without reference to performance
of others.

Summary of Comparison of Two Basic Approaches to Achievement

Norm-Referenced Criterion-Referenced
Principal Used Survey Testing Mastery Testing
Major Emphasis Measures individual Describes tasks students
differences in can perfom.
achievement
Interpretation of Results Compares performance to Compares performance to
that of other individual a clearly specified
achievement domain.
Content of Courage Typically covers broad Typically focuses on a
area of achievement limited set of learning
tasks.
Nature of Test Plan Table is commonly used Detailed domain
specifications are favored
Item Selection Procedures Items are selected that Includes all times needed
provide maximum adequately to describe
discrimination among performance. No attempt
individuals (to attain a is made to alter item

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 reliable ranking). Easy difficulty or to eliminate
items are typically easy items to increase the
eliminated from the test. spread of scores.
Performance Standards Level of Performance is Level of performance is
determined by relative commonly determined by
position in some known absolute standards
group (ranks fifth in a (demonstrates mastery
group of 20) defining 90% of technical
terms.
(Gronlund, 2013)

4.4 Contextualized and Decontextualized Assessment

In contextualized assessment, the focus is on the students’ construction of functioning

knowledge and the students’ performance in application of knowledge in the real work
context of the discipline area. Assessment tasks reflect the goal of learning. It uses
performance-based tasks which are authentic in nature.

It describes assessment practices which measures skills and knowledge in dealing with
specific situations or perform specific tasks which the students have identified as
important and meaningful to the. Application of the skills and knowledge must be in
the context of the real world as possible.

According to Biggs (2011), decontextualized assessment includes written exams and

term papers, which are suitable for assessing declarative knowledge, and do not
necessarily have a direct connection to a real-life context. It focuses on declarative
knowledge and procedural knowledge in artificial situations detached from the real
work context.

While both contextualized and decontextualized learning and assessment each has its
role in evaluating learning outcomes, in practice, decontextualized assessment has
been overemphasized compared to the place declarative knowledge has in the
curriculum. Both must be assessed appropriately. A common mistake is to assess only
the lead-in declarative knowledge, not the functioning knowledge that emerges from
it (Bigss ang Tang, 2011).

4.5 Analytic and Holistic Assessment

Analytic assessment refers to specific approach in the assessment of learning

outcomes. In this procedure, students are given feedback on how well they are doing
on each important aspect of specific task expected from them. Assessment then is
made specific based on the importance of the performance. With this, assessment
shouldn’t be undertaken in part but must address the whole performance.

Holistic assessment refers to a global approach in the assessment of a student-learning

outcome. Sadler (2009) pointed out that in holistic assessment, the teacher or the
assessment has to develop complex mental responses to a student’s work and in

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evaluating the student’s work, the assessor provides a grade and supports it with a
valid justification for assigning the grade.

Holistic assessment could be the form of reflection papers and journals, peer
assessment, self-assessment, group presentation and portfolio. The application of the
various assessment methods need to be tailored in a way that it will enhance a
student’s personal strength. Subsequently, the correct application of holistic
assessment in the various areas of study is expected to improve the student’s learning
outcome (Akubuilo, 2012).

One positive implication that may result form holistic assessment is that the students
are competent to handle assessment tasks accurately (Sadler, 2009). Most students
provide the requirements of most assessment tasks. Through holistic assessment, the
students are able to develop decisive and investigative skills that permit them to
handle assessment tasks effectively. Moreover, the students are capable of knowing
how to construct responses to questions.

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