Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Bainbridge, Genovés 1956 Escapula

    Uploaded by

    silviahuesos
    19 views26 pages
    JHSADGJAHSD

    Original Title

    Bainbridge,Genovés 1956 Escapula

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    JHSADGJAHSD

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    19 views26 pages

    Bainbridge, Genovés 1956 Escapula

    Uploaded by

    silviahuesos
    JHSADGJAHSD

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    of 26
    A Study of Sex Differences in the Scapula DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE Trinity College, Cambridge & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA University of Mexico From the Duckworth Laboratory, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge Hither, and thither, on high glided the snow-whive wings of tall, unspeckled bird; these were the gentle thoughts ike Feminine at but teal inthe decp far down inte Botoes bla nabed mighty levsthana see fishy and sharks; aed thse were the strong, Woubled, murderous thinking of the inasculine sa ‘Bat though thus contrasting within, the contrat was only in shades and shadows without thse two seemed cone; it wan only these asi were that distinguished Shem. Hianaan Mayans, Moby Dick ‘THE PROBLEM OF DISCRIMINATING SKELETAL REMAINS on the basis of sex has always been of interest to anthropologists, and in recent years several authors have devoted much attention to it. We do not wish to enter here into the implications which the assignment of sex holds for anthropological theory; one of us (Genovés 1954) has already briefly touched on this topic, whose importance it is difficult to stress sufficiently. The consequences of using an unreliable technique for sexual descrimination has been well illustrated recently in the study of the Jebel Moya skeletons (Mukherjee, Rao & Trevor 1955), in which the widely different conclusions of the ficld anthropologists regarding the sex ratio of the series were revised and consider- ably modified in the light of later laboratory study. It is our firm belief that no single measure- ment of, or observation on, a bone is so clearly different in the two sexes as to warrant an unqualified assertion about the proper categorization of an individual specimen; in general, on the contrary, a thorough appraisal of all the characters that are sexually diagnostic is required to afford some basis for judgement. The large collection of r7th- and 18th-century skeletons from the parish church of St Bride, Fleet Street, London ect, has been the object of study for the past two years by several workers at Cambridge. As one of us (S.G.) was already engaged in studying the sex differences in the main bone of the lower girdle, the innominate (os coxae), it was thought that a natural sequence would be to follow with the scapula in the upper girdle. Besides, the scapula has been the object of what is perhaps a unique memoir by Professor H. V. Vallois (1928-46), which has proved to be an invaluable work of reference, and one collec- tion of scapulae of known sex was already available in the Department of Anatomy at Cambridge University. (Two more series were added later, one from London and the other from Brussels.) While we do not pretend to have compounded a nostrum which will cure all difficult cases in the present study, we have tried to co-ordinate as many data as posible related to the sex of the scapula. From a metrical standpoint discriminant functions would have provided the best means theoretically of distinguishing between the sexes, but the labour of computing them seemed excessive. Furthermore their use would not have allowed us 110 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA to pursue one of our principal aims, which was to attempt to design a scheme that would enable the relevant facts available from morphological character to be combined with those from metrical ones. Although in the event the morphological characters proved to bbe of little use for discrimination, the principle of the scheme that was produced might be applied to the sexing of other parts of the skeleton at some future date. ‘We wish to acknowledge our debt to the Rector of St Bride’s, the Rev. Cyril Armstrong, M.V.0., R.N.V.R., for enabling us to examine the remains in the church; to Professor J. D. Boyd, Department of Anatomy, Cambridge, who allowed access to the material in his care; to Miss Mary Thatcher, Librarian of the Haddon Library, Cambridge, for bibliographical and other assistance; to Dr J. C. Trevor, Director of the Duckworth Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Cambridge, ‘who conceived, encouraged, and made possible this investiga tion; to Professor F. Twiesselmann, Musée Royal des Sciences Naturelles Belgique, Brus- sels, for leave to examine the scapulac of the skeletons from Schooten, near Brussels; and to Professor Vallois, who kindly sent a copy of his memoir and gave us permission to repro- duce Figs. 1-4 from it. MATERIAL AND METHODS ‘The St Bride’s scapulae belong to 180 individuals who were at first divided provisionally by another student, Mr H. P. R. Bury, into groups according to their provenance in the church and their presumed age as follows: N, from the nave down to the 1o-ft level, date probably 1660-1850, 78 bones (44 right, 34 left); H, from the Herne vault, which forms part of the nave, date 1660-1850, 5 bones (3 right, 2 left); D, deep nave, below the ro-ft level, date before 1660, 25 bones (14 right, 11 left); C, from the main vault, date before 1790, 1 bone (left); E, from the main vault, date before 1770, 8 bones (3 right, 5 left); P, from marked coffins, date 1800-50, 12 bones (7 right, 5 left); L, from marked coffins, date 1750-1850, 51 bones (24 right, 27 left). The combined totals of N and H are 83 bones (47 right, 36 left) and of D, ©, and E 34 bones (18 right, 16 left). For the purpose of this study these St Bride specimens have been assumed to form a homogeneous sample which is of unknown sex." It is at present at Cambridge, and will bereferred to as Population I. Population II consists of 72 adults of known sex (313 and 419) and various ages who were buried between 1790 and 1852. It is preserved at St Bride’s Church. Population III is in the Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique. It comprises 47 adults (26¢ and 209) of rather advanced age from the cemetery of Schooten, who died at various dates throughout the nineteenth century, and were exhumed in 1936. Population IV, in the Department of Anatomy, Cambridge, is made up of 59 individuals (463 and of 196). As the sex and age of individuals is known in Populations II, III, and IV, our purpose has been to sex Population I with criteria drawn from Population If and IV, Population III serving as a test of the method. In all, 358 scapulae have been examined. Before embarking upon a study of the character of Population IV," we consulted the principal works dealing with the scapula, e.g. Graves (1921, 1922, 1925), Gray (1942), and Hrdlicka (1942a, b, c), but, without wishing to appear to detract from their excellence, we must state that in our view the extended memoirs of Vallois (1926, 1928-46), are without peer as a complete and authoritative survey of the subject. In consequence what follows has been for the most part restricted to a comparison with his results and conclusions. Vallois's work has disposed of the various ‘infallible’ guides to sexing advanced by first one, and then another enthusiastic author, eg. the hypertrophied ‘deltoid’ tubercle (Féré 1906), 2A study of the innominate bones, as far as ths as been completed seems to support the assumption. ‘Te morphological character: were examined fst in Population IV. As it was found that they provided no really weil eriterta of wx forthe seapula, we did not proceed with their study inthe remaining populations of known sex. A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA ur or the more marked vascular groove of the axillary border (Mendes Corréa 1915) in males. However, we have analysed a number of morphological characters with the more limited aim of discovering what, if any, utility they possess for sexual discrimination, with the results which follow. A number of measurements are considered in the next section and finally a simple sorting system is described, which employs the most useful of these. MORPHOLOGICAL. CHARACTERS? Gostal Facets. Small tuberosities, incipient costal facets, sometimes appear in the neighbour hood of the superior and inferior angles of the scapula; Vallois (1926) found them present in 83 at the superior angle and in 5 at the inferior angle, in a series of 181 bones. (983, 839). Our cases also were restricted to males: 4 definite superior facets (3); 3 definite inferior facets (3) and a further number of indefinite ones. But the feature occurs too infrequently to be of much value for sexing a scapula. Ridges and Impressions on the Costal Surface. There are obvious differences in the extent to which ridges and rough areas are developed upon individual bones. The idea of classifying them suggested itself to us, but the categories we devised: ‘pencil’, ‘brush’, ‘blood vessel’, etc. proved to be so dependent upon the incident light, the position, cleanness, and thickness of the blade that our separate results disagree too frequently to make it feasible. Clavicular Facet of the Coracoid. A facet may be present upon the antero-superior surface of the coracoid, as a result of contact between the process and the clavicle. Vallois (1926) noted it in four males and one female among 180 specimens; we found it once in a female, Little significance can be attached to this difference. Grest in the Supraspinous Fossa, Valois describes a small crest running medially from the suprascapular notch towards the superior angle, which is presumably duc to a fascial partition in the origin of the supraspinatus muscle. It was clearly present in a male once, twice less definitely, and it was absent from the females of our series. Irregularities in the Shape of the Acromion. ‘The outline of the acromion is usually more broken among males than females, but we were unable to use this to any appreciable extent as a criterion for distinguishing them. Glenoid Tubercle. In the approximate centre of the glenoid cavity there sometimes appears a small tubercle surrounded by a crescentic depression (Graves 1921). This is the glenoid tubercle which is referred to in the next section. It occurred more frequently in male bones and on strong specimens than weak ones. The following table summarizes our results: [sa Re [Ar [To lg | 3 | 6 Let a | 8 | Piriform Type of the Glenoid Cavity. Among Europeans the glenoid cavity usually has the form of a pear with its tip inclined to one side. The hollow on the margin of that side, the ventral, corresponds to the insertion of the middle gleno-humeral ligament. Vallois found this type consistently in a series of 180 scapulae, with only 7 exceptions that were perfectly ovoid. Four of these showed senile ossifications of the fibro-cartilaginous labrum. In our results this proportion has been slightly increased concomitantly with the more advanced average age of the series. See second footnote 112, DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA Sex | Piriform | Ovoid | Total 3 40 5 45 § 12 13 Axillary Border. The axillary border of an average European scapula appears to be divided into two longitudinal segments from which the teres muscles and part of the sub- scapularis originate respectively. They are separated by a ‘median axillary crest’, i.e. the lateral or axillary border of text books of anatomy, and bounded by ‘dorso-axillary’ and ‘ventro-axillary’ crests, the first limiting the areas of attachment of the teres minor and major, the second being the thickest part of the blade, a bar-like ridge upon which the serratus anterior acts, as if upon a lever, when it moves the scapula. Normally the dorso- axillary segment is a flat surface directed posteriorly, while the ventro-axillary surface is excavated by a gutter which faces antero-laterally or laterally in its upper region, The laterally directed gutter is more commonly found in male bones, particularly those which are strong, It appears to be one of the better indications of that sex in the scapula, although it is a feature which is not immediately recognized without a little experience of the bones themselves, ‘The median axillary crest should have been more distinct in the bones of females accord- ing to Vallois’s findings; but ours do not accord with them in this respect. It was not notably different between the sexes, and sometimes it was poorly developed in the females and very ‘well marked in males. Occasionally a very pronounced dorso-axillary crest replaced it. One individual (a male aged 65 years) strikingly recalled the Neandertal type, having a strongly developed dorso-axillary crest transgressing on to the infraspinous fossa and a very light ventro-axillary crest which disappeared below the middle third of the border. Fioune 2. ‘Thc forms of suprapincus fou: 1, trapezoid. The superior horde i approximately horizontal and be either straight or concave; 2, low triangular. "The border is at at angle of from 50° to 35° to the base the spine? 5, ‘high triangular, The border is at a higher angle than 35°, we of 95° fo the bate of the sine: 5s A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 113 Form of Supraspinous Fossa, There are three types of supraspinous fossa defined by Vallois: type 1, trapezoid; type 2, low triangular; type 3, high triangular (Fig. 1). The low triangular type is said to be characteristic of the European scapula, We found that this held true for our material, and that the trapezoid type was absent altogether. For the rest, no discernible difference existed between the sexes. This agrees with the figures quoted by Vallois for the incidence of different types of superior border, and with those for the supra- spinous index (Where the height of the fossa is related to the breadth of the scapula), all of which are not in keeping with his suggestion that the index should be higher among females. Form of Vertebral Border, The infraspinous segment .of the vertebral border may be classified without great difficulty as either convex, straight, or concave. According to Vallois, a convex or concave border usually signifies a male scapula, a straight one a female (see also Kuhns 1944); a8 our figures confirm: [Form oVercbralBorder| 3 [2 | Toa! | Straight 6) 7 | ag Convex ay | at] at Concave of rl Unclassified afar} 3 | Toma la fo | FET SIGH degre ont. On the other hand, the series is composed of individuals who are of a mature or advanced age. This fact taken in relation to the absence of a single concave border in the male group may, at first sight, seem to support those who favour associating the occurrence of a concave or scaphoid border with some such pathological defect as tuberculosis. However, the opposite view, that it is in large part the consequence of the muscle function, has been strongly con- firmed by the recent experimental work of Wolffson (1950) at the University of Chicago. In fact, the character tends to disappear at maturity through the agency of secondary ossi- fications. It may be that the concave border of a scapula is a normal variation which can be duplicated or accentuated occasionally by a pathological condition. Infraglenoid Tubercle, The infraglenoid tubercle appears as a tuberosity on that upper- most part of the axillary border which gives origin to the long head of the triceps. We took to be present if the direction of the axillary profile was seen in its ventral aspect to be inter- rupted below the glenoid cavity, and arrived at the following results: Presence of Infraglenoid Tubercle | [ | Total eee | "| | Clearly marked 7 | 3 | 2 | 213) 3 [46 [3 | 9 Vallois’s figures show it to be strongly marked in 15 out of 98 males and in 7 out of 80 females. However, the tubercle was smaller in actual size among the females than the males of our ‘clearly marked’ category. Without committing ourselves, we suggest that this fact may be related to the rather different conformation of the rest of the axillary border in the two sexes. Vascular Markings on the Axillary Border, The axillary border frequently shows vascular 114 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA marks about 3 to 5 cm. below the glenoid cavity, where one or both of the circumflex scapular vessels passes across its surface. A comparison of our observations with those of Vallois is given below. oe Piet] Absent | Teal [Pret] Abent| Toul) gfe) e/se| siya] g 3 2 | ' | ‘The results do not bear out those of Mendes Corréa (1915), who found the groove almost consistently and exclusively among males in a series of 64. In a few of our scapulae the course of a vessel can be very clearly followed as far as a nutrient foramen in the upper infraspinous surface. The great majority of them show no more than a light linear depression crossing the median axillary crest, ‘Suprascapular Notch. Valois has proposed a five-fold classification of the types of supra~ scapular notch, which we found reliable and easy to apply (Fig. 2). Our results are as follows: Frou, 2. Five types of supraxcapular notch: 1, completely absent; 2, shallow but definitely present; g, well marked, approxinately a tmicecles , very deep, appteacking 4 hil cele; foramen, prea His figures show a slight but definite tendency for the females to draw towards categories 1 and 2, and for the males to move to the opposite end of the table. This is lacking here, not unexpectedly, since the suprascapular ligament tends to ossify with increasing age, and all the females of our series were more than sixty years old. Form of the Spine. The usual form of the spine varies considerably among different races. Four principal types are defined by Vallois (Fig. 3), each of which is said to be proper to a certain group of people. It nevertheless seemed conceivable to us that examples of the other types might be present in Population IV as well, and that the sexes might differ in their relative frequencies of each. Thus Vallois remarks that the spine of a female scapula should tend to assume a form analogous to the Negro type. We have followed the descriptions of the four categories as closely as possible, but it seems fairly clear that, having handled no com- parative material, we have not interpreted them in the way understood by Vallois. Instead of finding the European type constantly, we obtained the following proportions, which reveal a certain preference of the females for the second category: ‘A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 15 Japanese | Toral | o 45° Buropean | Negro [Melanesian | Ja a7 " 7 4 5 | 4 o | 8 “One male was unclanifed because the lateral chird of the aromion was missing, Form of the Acromion. ‘The acromion is a rather irregularly shaped part of the spine of the scapula (Fig. 4) which under a variety of influences, such as the two muscle attach- ments, the deltoid and trapezius, a ligament, the coraco-acromial, and the articular capsule of the acromio-clavicular joint, presents an outline that is extremely variable and difficult to describe, However, its form can be classified tentatively as quadrangular, triangular, or falciform, The first type is recognized by the existence of marked acromial angle, and a superior border distinct from the continued superior lip of the crest of the spine. The second clearly lacks the superior border but possesses a definite acromial angle. The third lacks both, the inferolateral acromial border curving more or less smoothly away from the spine.t The acromia of male scapulae were fairly casily fitted into the classification, but it was very difficult to ascribe any particular shape to the females. Our examination yielded the fol- Towing results: Sex | Quadanguar | Timgub | Tg” | Fasioow | Azonion | Foa| | | Faleiform | |__Abent ° | 1 46 L ——|_ | | 3 1 | 3 fs é | 27 | 8 iL 4 | 3 ‘These are not in agreement with the figures quoted by Vallois. We do not attach any import- ance to the fact, in view of the looseness of the definitions and the difficulty of applying them, Vallois, for example, states that 40% of his French series was unclassifiable, It may appear that much time has been spent to no purpose in a number of sections dealing with the morphological characters of the scapula. Against this we should like to stress that our object has been to combine the information which morphology can unques- tionably provide about the sex of a bone with the precision that can be attained by the use of measurements. The fact that we have had to discard morphological criteria as far as the scapula is concerned, should not appear to detract from their value elsewhere, and, if sub- jective estimation be allowed, we would still say that the non-metrical features of the axillary border and infraglenoid tubercle, for example, if treated with caution, are at least as valuable as some of the measurements, One cannot, in any case, ignore the likelihood of coming across a scapula too fragmentary to measure, which occurs frequently in practice, when there is no option but to fall back upon the non-metrical characters for any conclusion that may be drawn about its sex. METRICAL CHARACTERS For measurements of the scapula we have in general followed the technique of Vallois, and have departed from it only when we felt that greater precision in locating terminal points was necessary. Occasionally symbols and terms which are not already to be found in the literature have been employed but this is simply for convenience; we do not wish to be understood as claiming to have crystallized anthropometrical technique and nomenclature by this brief survey of the scapula, which has been restricted to those characters which were required for our particular purpose. ‘The symbol Sc is used to denote ‘scapular’ by analogy ‘This isa sight rephrasing of Macalister’ (1892-99) definitions 116 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA 4 ious 5, Four typeof mine: 1, European, Clsnly masked deltoid cuberle, crest narrowing on each se off. Endo voal tinge eqllateraly with upper border lew disnct than lower, Long ax of epic straight (excep or a aight curve ‘Flower border of cre) 2, Negro, Elongated, indistinct tubercle on vey slender crest. Medial to tubercle, crest very Starrow, of asimple dg, when endospinal triangle absent. Long ats of spine ataight or widely curved sith coneavitics nove in medial bat and below in Interal hall. s, Manca. Very brosd, strong tubercle. Crest very ite reduced later: rita all, but medially very narrow endospinal rangle may be absent, Lang axis of crew absolccly straight. 4 Jap- tne. Moderately developed tubercle and crest, narvowing laterally 20 that ore and endcapinal triangle completly lose their superior border, a the inferior border overhangs sibapinows fossa running downwatbs a far ay the tubercle, then ipwards abrupay A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 17 7 8 icone 4. Types of scromion (ilustrated by Valles): r, quadrangular, with a posterior acromial tubercle; 2, distinctly ‘languid; Q'guadrangular wth posterior angle sounded lending towsrdsfalciom ,eregular tiangulars $y fregulse ‘quadrangulat; b, dsuncly quadrangle; 7, fleform with preciavicuar segment; 8, Guadrangula, with posterior angle Foundedy tending towards allo. with Ti for ‘tibial’ and Fe for ‘femoral’, ete. ZL, B, and W stand for length, breadth, and width or thickness; the small letters following them are abbreviations of the terms denoting the anatomical region concerned. It has also been of some advantage to be able to distinguish measurements which depend on two terminals from those which are maxima or minima. The first is represented by its symbols alone, a dash (’) is added to the second and a degree sign () to the third. SeL', maximum length of scapula between superior and inferior angles taken on the osteometric board (Vallois). The lower or ‘infrascapular’ terminal is marked for further use. ScB, breadth of scapula, between two points on the vertebral border and lateral angle. ‘The medial point is defined by the junction of the vertebral border of the scapula and the ‘prolongation of that segment of the inferior lip of the crest of the spine which lies medially to the trapezius tubercle’ (Vallois).$ We refer to it later as the ‘cis-scapular point’. The lateral or ‘trans-scapular? terminal is the point formed by the junction of the vertical and maximum horizontal diameters of the glenoid cavity (q.v.) When the glenoid breadth may be any one of a number of diameters within a certain area, the one taken is that which lies midway ‘This tubercle gives insertion principally to the middle and lower bres of the traperins. The deltoid muscle arises along the inferior lip ofthe crest, owever, and itis the deviation of this lip that enables one to recognize the presence of the tubercle, Pechaps it would be preferable, therefore, to use the term “deltoid tubercle’ for i, 118 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA between their extreme positions. This is a slightly amended version of Vallois's definition (the intersection of the glenoid height and the prolongation of the base of the spine), because the direction of the base of the spine was often indefinite and its lateral border was often a thick and rounded edge in our series. In this revised form the terminal seems to coincide very well with the glenoid tubercle described by Graves (1921) ;° when that is present — and Vallois has stated that the tubercle would be an ideal point but for its variability ~ it is formed by the appearance in the glenoid cavity of those trabeculae which lie along a natural diameter of the scapula, the line of stress at the base of the spine. ScLs', maximum length of spine. From the ‘cis-scapular point’ to the most distant point on the acromion in any direction (Vallois). SeLax, length of axillary border between the ‘infrascapular’ and ‘infraglenoid’ points (Vallois). ScWe, maximum width or projection of process of teres major, measured with the co- ordinate caliper, the tips measuring the length of the axillary border and the depth gauge the greatest prominence of the process (Vallois). It occasionally happened that the axillary length or the process departed widely from the plane of the blade of the scapula. As the figure then recorded by the caliper became more dependent upon the direction than the projection of the process, the measurement was abandoned in these cases (usually male). We regard the measurement as rather unreliable in general. Sele’, maximum length of coracoid in any direction between its apex and a terminal ‘on the base, which is defined as follows: the scapula should be held at arm’s length and eye height with the costal surface of the supraspinous segment orientated in a ‘plane’ perpen- dicular to the line of vision. The point of inflection or ‘contra-flexure’ (Boucher 1955) be- tween the lateral wall of the suprascapular notch and the medial border of the coracoid process is noted; then the scapula is rotated slightly about its long axis in order to find the most projecting point in that region. This is taken as the terminal, but occasionally the tubercle of the suprascapular ligament is present and does not coincide with it. Then it is preferable to take the measurement from the tubercle, so long as spicules and prolongations of the bone which are clearly of ligamentous origin are avoided. Vallois has already defined the point as that ‘at the level of the medial end of the crest of the conoid ligament, where it reaches the medial border of the coracoid process’; but we have not found this definition much better than the vague earlier onces. Since the surface of the horizontal part of the coracoid process curves to merge imperceptibly with the ventral surface of the vertical part, there is properly speaking no medial border. The crest of the tubercle of the conoid ligament may continue downwards into the tubercle of the suprascapular ligament and arise either on the dorsal or the ventral surface of the process. SeLg, length of glenoid cavity between the supraglenoid and infraglenoid points. The lower terminal is the ‘most caudal point on the border of the glenoid cavity’ (Vallois), the upper is the most projecting point in the profile of its supraglenoid border that lies upon the continuation of the lateral border of the root of the coracoid process. The definition modifies the one given by Valois in order to avoid a circumstance sometimes occurring among older specimens, when an exostosis of the ventral margin of the articular surface (possibly arising as an ossification of the glenoidal labrum) would draw the terminal away from the upper- ‘most part of the glenoid cavity. ‘It should be noted that the measurement is the maximum, length of the cavity, but it is not necessarily that of the articular surface’ (Vallois). ScBg’, maximum breadth of glenoid cavity outside the articular border, perpendicular to the glenoid length (Vallois). Care should be taken to ensure that the bar of the caliper is “Occasionally, therefore, the breadth of the scapula could be measured even when the order of the glenoid cavity was broken, A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 119 roughly parallel to a line passing across the face of the two articular borders, wherever the measurement is being taken. ScWs', maximum width of crest of spine at the level of the deltoid tubercle (Livon 1879), in any direction perpendicular to the long axis of the crest. ‘SeWs°, minimum width of crest of spine between the deltoid tubercle and the acromion (Livon 1879). Only the tips of the caliper should be used, the bone being held so that the observer looks directly down on to the dorsal surface of the acromion and the adjoining part of the spine, In some scapulae it may happen that this measurement is larger than the pre- ceding one. It does not seem that either of them is of great importance for general description, but the minimum width has proved to have a certain value for our purposes. ScWax, width of axillary border 3 cm, below the infraglenoid point (Vallois). When attempting to make our two techniques agree we (D.B. and S.G.) were obliged to amplify considerably Vallois’s admonition to ‘hold the points of the sliding caliper well down in such a way as to ensure that the measurement is taken perpendicularly to the direction of the blade of the scapula’. The bone is held so that its axillary border is directed upwards, parallel to the surface of a table, and so that the surface is cut perpendicularly by a ‘plane’ tangen- tial to the axillary and vertebral borders. The measurement is taken 3 cm. from the infra- glenoid point, with the caliper arms vertical to the table and the bar of the instrument per- pendicular to the axillary border. It will be found necessary to stand up over the scapula while measuring in order to take these precautions properly, The point at which the width is to be measured on the border may coincide with a notch produced by the passage of the circumflex scapular artery on to the infraspinous surface; in these cases the measurement is taken immediately below it. Two measurements, the length and breadth of the acromion, were found to be quite impracticable. Vallois defines the first as the ‘distance between the most cranial point of the acromion and the apex of the acromial angle’, this last terminal being the ‘median point of the curve’ when the angle is rounded, as in the type of acromion termed falciform. As a rule we found that the inferior and lateral boundary of the process followed a wide curve, merging often invisibly with the inferior lip of the crest of the spine. The median point of such a curve cannot have a precise position. Also, the most cranial point of the acromion can vary con- siderably according to the orientation given to the specimen by the observer. It does not seem worth while to retain the measurement of length in view of the extravagantly large errors that are possible. The acromial breadth, having a terminal in common with it, must then also be dispensed with. The shape of the acromion is determined by an upper and a lower border, which may together or independently run smoothly from the spine or abruptly set off in different directions at once. Its extreme variability defies the imposition of any standard definition that could be used in measurement, ‘The definitions presented may appear unduly elaborate. But it is necessary that they should be followed if our results are to have any utility. Although cumbersome, they describe quite simply and easily adopted precautions, with which it was possible for us to attain to a consistency of from 1.0 to 1.5 mm. in cases over which we, apparently using the same methods, were otherwise liable to differ by as much as from 5.0 to 6.0 mm., e.g. in ScWar.? Tt is folly to neglect a few extra lines to describe exactly how a measurement was taken and yet record it to o.1 mm, The differences between the techniques of different observers can quite nullify the accuracy of the figures and make the care that was taken over their recording futile. In this respect we fully agree with the principles that Morant has done so much to justify by the example of his detailed and painstaking work (e.g. Buxton & Morant 1933; Morant 1936). "However, all the specimens have been measured by only one of us (S.G.). A single technique has consequently been followed throughout. (8) a quently 120 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA STATISTICAL TREATMENT ‘The two authors have felt for some time that inability to utilize morphological characters in schemes of mathematical disctimination was a considerable disadvantage for the anthro- pologist faced with the problem of sexing. The concern of statisticians to minimize errors within the field of metrical characters seemed rather out of proportion in view of the avai able information which the anthropologist was being obliged to neglect. Therefore, if it were possible, we wished to design a scheme which would employ morphological characters on an equal footing with measurements, for example, by assigning scores to them. In the sorting method which is about to be described, it would in theory be possible to do this by replacing the various limits by combinations of them which give equivalent percentages of correct classification. Unfortunately, the morphological characters have not provided any really useful criteria of sex for the scapula, so that there is no warrant for our developing the details of the procedure here. One other requirement we hoped to satisfy was that the scheme should be fairly simple to calculate and apply. More complex methods of sexing, such as the discriminant function, are the most accurate, certainly, but they are by no means much better than the others. As one of us has had the experience of calculating discriminant func- tions in another study (Bainbridge 1955), we feel that there is good reason to avoid a lengthy and complicated manipulation of the data whenever possible, most particularly, because upon occasion even the best method may not give satisfactory results. ‘We should make it clear that the method followed here is largely empirical. It does not pretend to be theoretically rigorous, and we can only hope that the approximation in- volved in it may not have been such as to invalidate its further applications. As we were privileged to have at our disposal three populations of known sex, the method was worked out upon two of them, IT and IV, the third, IIT, being kept aside in order to test it afterwards. ‘The 99-87% Limits. Our first step was to test whether populations II and IV could be pooled. Clearly, from the results of the F tests and ¢ tests (Table I), they may be treated as the same at the 1% level of significance, for all characters except SeLg, the length of the glenoid cavity, and ScWs’, the maximum width of the crest of the spine. Both sexes of the series differ significantly in character ScWs’; but in SeLg only the males are different. ‘The two groups therefore have been pooled in the remaining characters, and the para~ meters of the new population have been calculated for each sex. Knowing the respective means and standard deviations, one can easily find the percentage of cach sex that will fall beyond a given ‘limit’. For example, 99-74% of any normal distribution is included within a range of three standard deviations on each side of the mean. Only 0:13% of each group should be found farther than three standard deviations® from its mean in one direction because 99-87% of it lies between the limits of this boundary and the otter tail, i. the other extreme of its distribution. Farther than two standard deviations from the mean in one direc= tion there lies no more than 2.20% of the group, that is to say, 97-80% of it is below that boundary (or above it, if the limit is being taken on the other side of the mean), and beyond one standard deviation, 15-80%. Then, in order to find what percentage of the other sex can be ‘classified’, one must calculate the percentage of that sex which lies outside the fixed boun- daries of the first. Supposing females are smaller than males in a particular character, the female limit will be calculated three standard deviations above the female mean. Only 013% of the females will be still larger than this, The males classified by the female limit are those #Ie in customary to quote the standatd errors of estimate of the mean and standard deviation slong with those para- meters when describing « population in order to provide meature of the inaceuracy with which each is Kkely to have been calculated. We cannot do this here, because in attempting to take the error in the parameter into consideration, ‘we make nonsense of uch questions at "What are the actual lite ofthe male population in suchrand-such a character? ‘which are an eseitial pat ofthe method, The reasons why thir shoud he so are dealt with at length in the Ap- A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA tai mates who are longer than the remaining 99-87% of the females. In other words, one wishes to know what percentage of the male group is above this point. The question can be answered very simply, once the distance between the female limit and the male mean has been found. One need only divide the distance by the male standard deviation in order to find the number of standard deviations that that represents, and the percentage of classified males that corres- ponds to the number obtained can be looked up in a Probit table, Obviously the percentage of classified females can also be found by the same means. The actual limits and percentage of classification at the first ‘level of certainty’ (99:87%) are presented in Tables 11, III, and IV. Table V summarizes the previous tables with the purpose of showing the relative merits of the different measurements. It is uncertain at first sight whether ScBg’ or ScB is the best of these. ‘Technically they can be said to be equally accurate, but ScBe’ was measurable in 74 males and 50 females, whereas for ScB this was possible only in 66 males and 47 females. ‘The numbers classified by them are therefore ScBg’, 41-4 males, 14-0 females; SeB, 35-3 males, 14-5 females; from which it is evident that ScBg’, the glenoid breadth, should be pre- ferred. That this should be our best character is an interesting confirmation of the well- known generalization that male articular surfaces are distinctly larger as a whole than female. ‘The figures obtained can be applied now to a particular bone in the following manner: it is noted whether measurement ScBg’ for that individual is greater than the female 99.87% limit or smaller than the male 99.87% limit. In either case one may for all practical pur- poses say that the scapula belongs to the other sex. If this is repeated for a whole serics of bones, approximately 72% of the females and 44% of the males will still be unclassified. Now obviously, other characters can be used besides this one, because they will pick out a certain, though smaller, number of males and females. There is no point in applying them to the entire series; they would only select again some of the individuals whose sex is already agreed upon. But, except in the unlikely event that they are all completely correlated with the first, ScBg’, one could expect that each measurement should classify a few of the individuals who have been missed in the first sorting. If every one of them is applied to the whole of this residue, therefore, it will be possible to estimate how far they are not correlated with SeBg’ and how much further use they have. When this is done for the pooled population, cB is proved to be the best second character. Next, both ScBg’ and ScB are applied to the group in turn leaving a second residue which can itself be sexed by each one of the remain- ing characters. The best among them, which is Sel’, is the best third character. The residue when the pooled populations have been sexed by SeBg', ScB, and ScL’ is the third residue; this can be sexed by each of the six left. ‘The best character among them can be taken; a residue remains after sexing the population by means of the previous three and this new one; that residue can be sexed by the other five; and so on. In this way, one arranges the characters in the order in which they would be most useful for sexing an actual series, But order apart, fully 62-6% (62 out of 131) of the pooled population were sexed by applying measurements ScBg’, ScB, ScL', ScWax, ScLs', and ScLax in sequence to the residues from cach preceding stage. Tt is true that the use of this method places responsibility for the classification at every step upon a single measurement. But the probability of error has been made extremely small deliberately, and the advantages which accrue from reducing the size of the untreated popula- tion quickly are large in proportion. This has been confirmed in practice by the fact that no scapula was wrongly sexed in any of the three populations of known sex, although in all 104 individuals were classified out of 177. The 97-80%, Limits. The next stage consists of the calculation of the 97.80% limits 122 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA and the percentages of the other sex classified by them (Table VI).? An increased number of classifications goes with the decrease in the accuracy, of course, but the percentage which is calculated includes a proportion that has already been removed at the first level of cer- tainty (9°87%). The percentage remaining to be classified by the new limits is therefore given by the difference between the figures for classification at 97-80% and 99-87% levels? ‘The category of males or females, however, contains a proportion of 2-20% i.e. 100% minus 97-80% of the opposite sex who have been erroneously classified. In order to discover what is the probability that an individual really is a male (or a female) it is necessary to take account of the sex-ratio of the population, a consideration that was of no concern at the first level, because there it was assumed approximately that no individuals of either sex transgressed the 99:87% boundaries. If the sex ratio were 1:1, then for a category which contained, say, 47-80% of the males and 2-20% of the females, the probability of classifying a male as a male would be 47:80:50, or 95-60%. Conversely, the probability of classifying a female as a male, ice. the probability of error, would be 4-40%. But if the proportion of females were to increase in the total population, the probability of error would be greater. Table VII shows first of all the percentage of each group left in the 97-80% categories when the individuals classified at the first level of certainty have been allowed for. This figure is then shown multiplied by the number of scapulae exhibiting the character in question, i.e. the sample number. The number of the other sex is multiplied by 2.20%, The sum of these two figures is the total number of specimens in that category. Its proportion of correctly sexed individuals gives the probability that the category will classify correctly in the future, The figures have been tested by applying the 97-80% limits of each character to the residue from the first stage and observing, by means of a table of the binomial distribution, whether the ratios of correct and incorrect classifications depart significantly from the proportions expected from Table VII. In fact none do, because the samples obtained are small (Table VII). With this warrant to proceed, all the individuals still unclassified are taken and examined to see whether they exceed the 97-80% limits of any character. Suppose that a tick signifies that the individual is definitely sexed by some character and a further tick indicates the same result with respect to another character, while a cross means a disagreement which mullifies the first. It was found empirically that three unopposed ticks, or a surplus of three, were necessary before one could venture to sex the bone with some confidence. ‘This procedure might be open to two criticisms: firstly, that different characters do not count with equal weight in sexing, and secondly, that the characters are correlated with one another, for to add up marks is to treat them as if they were independent, But we have already shown that if a character classifies at all, it classifies with a certainty of about 94% in all, cases (Table VII), therefore the weights should be equal. Furthermore, the nature of the method is such that the number of specimens which proceed to this second stage is small, Its too small to give any significant estimate of the increase in accuracy in classifying that certainly is obtained if two marks are required for a decision instead of one. This suggests what has been taken as approximately true here, namely, that the classes selected by the new limits are too small for the intecorrelations of various pairs of characters to be significantly diferent. ‘Therefore different pairs of measurements can be treated as if they were the same. Two marks may not have twice the value of one, but all combinations of characters giving two marks ‘Tae 97 0% limit ofeach sx ie calelated at two standard deviations from its mean, and the percentage ofthe other sex cased by i a the percentage of the other sex that fie bond the Limit that to say, away from the mean belonging to the limt, The ditance beeween the limit andthe ather mean, divided by the other wandard deviation, gives 4 Rgure Which js refered to.a Probit table for the percentage of clasications required (Seep. 121) ‘although the gp 87% limita of several characters ave not been used; the individual which they would clarify can bye assumed to have been removed, bremuse the numbers of sexed scapulae are very lite bettered by employing moce than six characters A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 123 should have roughly equal weight. A like argument can be applied to combinations of triplets, quadruplets, etc, The 84°20% Limits. For the few individuals who still remain indeterminate, 84-20% limits, and the probabilities of correct classifications which attach to them, can be calculated. This has not been done in fact, because at this level the boundaries of the two sexes no longer overlap in most characters. Classification is then impossible, because one may find, for example, that the individual is male above a value of 143:8 mm, and female below one of 149-0 mm. The only solution is to interchange the male and female limits and use them to classify the other sex, tabulating the percentages of classification anew. The probabilities of correct classification have been worked out and tested in the same way as before (p. 121 and Table IX). Since the probabilities differ markedly between the measurements (Table IX), it would clearly be wrong simply to treat them as if they were equally useful for sexing. As a first approximation to the true value, however, one can weigh each in accordance with its prob- ability of correct classification before using it. The characters must be combined with those of the previous stage, in the cases which so far have escaped classification; therefore each prob- ability has been divided by 94°3, the mean percentage probability of characters at the 97'80% level, in order to obtain a series of scores (Table X). Now, although one can assume that the intercorrelations of various combinations of characters are approximately the same, and that a score of two, for example, derived from any fair of them carries the same weight (sce p. 22), it does not follow that a particular figure will have the same value when it is derived from different numbers of characters, To illustrate this fact, it must be remembered that two marks do not possess twice the value of one. In that case, two scores of 0-5 are not equivalent to a single mark of 1; nor are four of 0-5 equal to a score of 1 plus two of 0'5. ‘The fewer the characters that have contributed to a given figure, the higher will be its actual value. All that can be done is to assume that these differences will be negligible in the still smaller samples proceeding to the last stage. In this last stage, the final residue of unclassified scapulae in the pooled population has been scored by all the characters. It has been divided into two categories of classified and queried individuals, the boundary between them being selected simply by inspecting the numbers of scapulae, rightly and wrongly classified with a given score, The classified group is made larger by lowering the score that divides it from the queried one, but then it contains more members who are wrongly classified. Therefore the boundary has been placed at a point where this group is at its largest while still reasonably unmixed. From the results obtained on these bones of known sex it seems that a score of -E1'5 or greater can be considered to give a definite sexing, and that anything less must be regarded as uncertain. No precise meaning can be given to the figures as such, but that of 1'5 presumably corresponds to a 70% to 80% probability of correct classification. Results. The division of Populations IT and IV into the groups of males and females who compose them has been described in detail in the preceding pages. The actual stages of this process are shown below: 1. The 9987% limits: the characters ScBg, SeB’, Sel, ScWax, ScLs', and ScLax were applied to the populations in succession. Eighty-five individuals were classified, 2. The 97-80% limits: all the characters except ScWs° and ScWt' (for females) were used. Twenty-one individuals were classified, of whom one (No. 112) was misplaced. This was already believed to have been associated wrongly with a body whose sex was known, 3. The 84-20% limits: all the characters except ScWie were used. Seventeen individuals, were classified, one of them wrongly. Eleven more did not obtain a score of -+1-5, but were divided into five queried males and six queried females. Three females and one male were ‘The 820% limit i calculated at one standard deviation from the mean (ee the ninth footnote and p. 130). 14 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA incorrectly classified. There were thus in all six mistaken classifications out of a total of 1g1 specimens. °F The scheme was then applied to a further series of known sex, Population IIT (26 males and 20 females). This provided a quite independent test of the method, because the series had not been used in the design originally. Twenty-one individuals were then classified by the 99-87% limits, two were classified by the 97-80% limits, and ten by the 84-20% limits. Eleven were queried. There were three mistakes in the last sorting, two of them in the queried group. It is a remarkable confirmation of the utility of the method, when one considers that exactly half the series was classified on its showing in three characters and less. The St Bride's Material of Unknown Sex, In accordance with the original purpose for which the study was undertaken, the scheme was applied finally to Population I, the series of scapula of unknown sex from the parish church of St Bride, The figures are given below. Tt was thought that the disproportion of the sexes might alter the weights that should be attached to characters in the ‘84-20%’ limits for the weights are dependent upon the per- Gentage errors of clanification of the characters (sce p. 122). These percentage errors are calculated from the percentages of the populations of the accepted and the intrusive sex contained within a certain category (see p. 120), and since these last percentages are meant to refer separately to the percentage of the total male population, or to the percentage of the total female population alone, the actual numbers that they represent will depend upon the total number of males, and then of females respectively, and the actual value of a ratio of ‘two such percentages (as in the percentage error) will change as the total number of one sex increases or decreases relative to the total number of the other, The scores were there- fore recalculated to correspond to the new sex-ratios, There is a difference of o-or in one character only, and it applies to the scores of three individuals without changing their category. ara Sex | 99°87% | 97°80% ‘not be measured. SUMMARY ‘A scheme has been designed to permit one to sex an individual scapula at three levels of certainty: approximately 100%, 95%, and. 80% respectively. In order to contruct it, the upper 987%, 97'80%, and ‘84-20%’ limits in nine characters have been calculated for females, and also the lower 99'87%, 97°80%, and ‘84-20%’ limits for males (i.e. at three, ‘two, and one standard deviations from the mean, Table XI). Wherever the measurement of a scapula exceeds its female limit it is said to have been classified as male by that measure- ment, and when it is less than the male limit, female. In actually sexing, those individuals are struck out first whose measurements lic beyond the 99-87% limits; they are the ‘certain’ males and females. The characters ScBg’, SeB, Sel’, ScWax, ScLs’, and ScLax are used for this task in succession, because this is their order of usefulness; but no specimen is scored by more than one of them at this stage. Then the remaining series is inspected to see whether any of its measurements are beyond the 97'80% limits (except in character ScIVs°, and for the female limits of character ScWie'). Once the residue has been examined in all its characters, any individual who has a A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 125 surplus of three unopposed points in one direction is said to be male or female, as the case may be, at the second level of about 95% certainty. If the remaining scapulae then fall outside an ‘84-20%’ limit, they are scored in accordance with the weight of the particular measurement used. A final score which is positive is male, a negative one, female, but the sex is best left queried unless the score exceeds 41-5. (Once the measurements have been obtained for a series, the entire process is extremely rapid: for example, the 178 scapulae from St Bride’s Church were sexed on paper in approximately twenty minutes). The method has then been reapplied to the two populations used in its design and to an independent one of known sex. The errors incurred have been surprisingly small in view of the fragmentary condition of many of the specimens, and the paucity of measurements which were thus available, Finally, an unknown population from St Bride’s Church has been sexed by its means. The design has been made in such a way that morphological characters can be combined with it whenever they are of help. APPENDIX - The Standard Errors of the Mean and the Standard Deviation ERROR IS ALWAYS INVOLVED in any estimation of the parameters of a population, That is to say, the observed values calculated for them in a particular sample may not be those of the hypothetical population from which it is assumed to have been drawn, These ‘true’ para- meters cannot actually be known, but the degree to which the calculated parameters are likely to depart from them purely by chance can be estimated, because their error is deter- mined by the size of the sample. In dealing with the problem, one uses a ‘standard error of the mean’ and ‘standard error of the standard deviation’, which apply to the mean and standard deviation in the same way that the standard deviation applies to the sample itself, Thus 99-70% of all the possible means will lie within three standard errors of each side of the observed mean, and it follows that the true value of the population mean must be some- where within this range with 99-70% certainty (unless the sample was biased from the beginning). So it can be said that the ‘true mean’ is between any two figures x, and ,, with a particular probability. If a number of normal curves are now drawn!? around each of these possible values of the ‘true’ mean, namely , *, and the actual sample mean %, one can, say that the frequency curve of the hypothetical population is between one curve and another with such and such a probability." Of course, the distribution most likely to be the actual one is that drawn for the observed mean itself{x). Similarly, the sample standard deviation may be in error. The possible values which the population standard deviation could have are limited by the fact that 99-70% of all possible standard deviations lie within three standard errors each side of the observed value, and thus the value of the ‘true’ standard deviation is probably (99-70%) between some figures s, and 5, although most probably it is s9, the sample standard deviation. Again, curves can be drawn about the sample mean to correspond to these values of the standard deviation and the true population will lie between one curve and the other with a certain probability. It is fairly clear that we could also draw many curves corresponding to some other mean and standard deviation than those of the samples. Any one of them might be that of the hypothetical population. But a particular mean or standard deviation is less likely to be correct as it gets farther away from the observed values. On each side of the sample para- meter, means and standard deviations equally distant are equally probable (or improbable). The likelihood" that a particular combination of a mean and a standard deviation is the ‘aby sing the fact that 654% ofthe individuals are within a range of one standard deviation on each side ofthe mean, 05-62) of them are within two standard deviations on each sil, amd g9'7% within thre. Alternatively a table of ordiae Ses of the normal carve could be-emph “ethis isnot an accurate way of speaking ofthe situation, but it may perhaps convey it more larly. ‘This has'no connection with maximum likelihood sate. * 126 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA correct one can be found by referring to a table of ordinates of the normal curve."* Obviously there is an infinite number of different combinations of more or less likely means and more or less likely standard deviations, and an infinite number of curves corresponding to com- binations of them which have the same probability of being the right one. ‘One can think of the probability of each of the combinations as an ordinate, in the same way that the height of an ordinate of the normal curve represents a probability or a fre- quency. But whereas the ordinate corresponding to a certain probability has a fixed position on cach side of the mean in an ordinary normal curve, the position of an ordinate of a certain, probability in this situation changes both with the mean and with the standard deviation corresponding to it. A three-dimensional diagram would be required to represent the situa- tion adequately, in which the possible values of the mean are plotted along one axis, those of the standard deviation along another at right angles to it# and the probability of the combination along the height of the ordinate (Fig. 5). the error distribution of means and standard deviations about the sample values: SS! IM the mean ans, intersecting it at the sample mean and standard deviation (ty )> ‘Mand 8 represeat points three standard ercors above the sample values, M’ and 8 points, wne 5. Diagram represent ‘sn ordinate of probabil fhe dard roy elo np ‘AA BB et: ae poltson the circumference ofa ring which cuts off 039% ofthe volume ofthe sold. The figure is repre- feaed ar ifthe sale of MMI and SS had been adjnted to make the base ofthe wid cular. XE de probability of the mean i fy and that ofthe standard deviation isfy the probability ofthe combination is fy cals the eveas are indopeatnt ‘othe probability of the combination i tbecause the mean and standard deviation are independent parameters. A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 127 ‘Now the area under a probability curve is the integral sum of all the ordinates of the curve, which is unity, i.e. 100% certainty. One can cut out a certain section of the curve, and the amount that is left represents the percentage of individuals lying above and below the boundaries of the section, It would be possible to do the same for the solid represented in the diagram, For example, suppose 0-3% of the volume of the figure to be cut off by the dotted ring, 99°70% of all possible combinations of a mean and a standard deviation would fall inside the ring. Clearly the ‘true’ mean and standard deviation should certainly (99°70%) be inside the ring, between values corresponding to the points A and A’, or B and B’, or G and C’, or D and D’, or E and E’, or any other pair of points which are at opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. Each of these points corresponds to a pair of values, a mean and a standard devia- tion. There is no more reason for choosing one diameter than another, and therefore there is an infinite number of equally good answers to the question ‘within what range of curves (determined by particular means and particular standard deviations) does the “true” popu- lation distribution lie with 99-70% certainty?” In consequence, the further question: ‘What are the 99°70% limits of certainty of 99-70% of the population?” is also unanswerable.!” For this reason, where it would have seemed feasible to take account of the errors of means and standard deviations in the calculations of the text, in fact we have been able to use only the most probable values, namely the sample values. ‘An analogous problem arises when one attempts to find the limits of 99:70% certainty for the overlap between two populations, such as the males and females of our series. Now a five-dimensional diagram is required to represent the situation. Four of the axes inter- secting at the observed sample parameter, x9, 5 of group A and %, ‘9 of group B are taken up by the means and standard deviations of the two groups, the fifth by the probability. A. five-dimensional solid can be described by constructing ordinates to correspond to the prob- ability of any combination of the means and standard deviations of the two groups. The height of any ordinate is given by p, x Pa x ps X Pa; where p,, Py are the respective probabilities of the means and standard deviations which have been chosen in group A, and p,, and fa are the corresponding probabilities in group B. One may cut out a 0-3% five-dimensional section of the solid, in the manner described previously; but quite clearly it is impossible to translate the results into probable ranges of overlap between group A and group B. Nevertheless, one question would be capable of answer in this form.* “What is the probability that the groups differ?” Suppose that a three-dimensional solid is constructed for each group, as in the first diagram. Once definite values are ascribed to the mean and standard deviation axes, the two solids can be placed in proper relation to one another, as illustrated in Fig.6. The hatched region in which they are overlapping represents the probability that A and B have the same mean and standard deviation. The part of A which is not overlapping B is that part of the universe of possible As which is not identical with B, ie. the probability that A is not B. The non-overlapping part of B similarly gives the probability that B is not A. Finally, the proportion of all the non-overlapping regions to the total gives the proportion of possible As or Bs that is not both A and B at the same time, namely the probability that A and B are different, Note that this does not answer the question of how different they are, According to the previous argument, this would be unanswerable. itis pomible to predict the probable ranges fom a consideration of Clune Rost, of Trinity College, Cambridge, for pointing In efcr is "At cenah probabil, witch two pon; ema ‘bout the mean, ate the dove that will take Sceount of or include the error in the estimate of the mean? Cleatyy problem it gives a practical annwer by circumventing, rather than meeting the dificulty. to later parts of ou sorting Tnethod, howeven, i i neaamary to we the mean and standard deviation gn, ihAlthough it not miggeted that anyone would want to answer iy except Sivolously, by the method indicated. 128 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA oO 70 30 % 3 oa lf Fir Pa runs 6, Diagram representing tw erordsibtions in relation: MM and $8 are the mean an andar dev fre Daa ering ero ning OM a 5 are on an sac iin Mprceked ts fay sever is er ana, ft widely aire in tel andard deacons Tae one Sr the ages ‘Glisce bs viuly denen fom a hrgor sample than the caer, beni kt andar erot rpresated. yy the prea Uline figure of approsimately the Some see The ilustrstion ignore two ota fredy, tat the slide Would have STiptial noc ciscula bass; secondly, thatthe theoretical normal curve stretches fom 3! tote. Nore Figures 1,2, 3, and 4 are taken from Vallos (1928-46, pp 4/204, 292, and 258{fespectively) with the author's permission A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 129 REFERENCES Bamarivar, Dovatas R. 1955. Sexing the Chimpanzee, MS. Duckworth Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Cambridge. Bovenes, BJ, 1965. Foctal Sciatic Notch: Sex Differences, J. Farnsic Med, 2 pp. 51-54, Buxton, 'L. H. Dupezy & Morawr, G. M. 1933. The Exential Craniological Technique. Part 1. Definitions of Points and Planes, Ry Awstinor. Inet. 63, pp. 19-40, Evcxsrapr, E. von 1925, Variationen am ‘otllacrand der Scapela (Sufca aillarsteretsu, Sulcus alas subneapulats). dati. dng, 2, pp. 217-26, Find, Cu, 1006, Note sur une debcination de Pepine de Pomoplate, Rene Chir. 9 pp. 31-33- Pisin, R.A & Vares, Pe to4@, Slatstical Tables Jor Biological, Agricultural and Medel Raserch, grd ed, Edinburgh, Genovis, Swerago i954. The Problem of the Sex of Certain Fostl Hominid, with Special Refer ence to the Neandertal Skeletons from Sy ¥: J R. Anrurop. Inst, 84, pp. 131-44. Graves, W. W. 1919. Age Incidence of Scaphoid ‘Type of Seapula, Contr’ Med. Bio’ Res. x, pp. 525-32. Graves, W. W. 1gat. The Types of Scapula: A Comparative Study of some Correlated Characters in Human Scapulae. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 4, pp. 111-28. Gnaves, W. W. tga. Age Changes in the Seapuls. Amer. 7. Plys. Anthrop. 5) pp. 21-34. Gaves, WW, 1925, Methods of Recognizing Seapula ‘Types in the Living del Its Med. 96, PP: 51 Grav, D. J. 1942. Variations in Human Scapulae. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 29, pp. 57-72 Finpuitxa, Ags 1942. ‘The Scapula: Visual Observations. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 29, pp. 73-94- Hapuitxa, ALES 19425. The Juvenile Scapula: Further Observation. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 29, pp. 287-310. Hepuiéxa, ALES 1942c. The Adult Scapula: Additional Observations and Measurements. Amer. 7. Phys, Anthrop. 29, pp. 363-415. ; Kurins, J. G. 1944. Variations in the Vertebral Border of the Scapula. Physiother. Rev. 25, pp. eopat0 Livox, M1879, De Yomoplate et de ss indies de lrgeur dans les races humaines,Thise de Méde- cae, Pace Macatisrur, A. 1892-93. Notes on the acromion, J. Anat., Lond. 27, pp. 245-51. Manttx, Ruvoie 1928 Lehybuch der dnthropologie in gstematischer Dartdlang, end ed., 3 vols. Jena. Menus Connta, A. A. 1915. Impressoes arteriaés da fossa infraspinata da omoplata. An. Paulist. ‘ed. Cer, (8. Palo)» pp Bron, Mapes Connéa, A. A. roto. Osteometria Portuguesa, IT Cintura cacapular. dn. Acad. Plch, (Porto), 1g, PPIs . Morar, G. M. 1936. A Biometric Study of the Human Mandible. Biometrika, 28, pp. 84-122 Monurajen’ Raisin, Rao, C. Rapuarniuiva & Teevon, JG. tong. Te dno leben of Jebel’ Moya (Sudan). Oce. Publ. Camb. Univ. Mus. Archacol. Ethnol., No. 3. Cambridge. Nant: Bonen Or Seman. rg4g, Tables of the Binomial Probbiliy Disibuton, Washington, Vatiows, Hwn V. 1926. Les Anorsalies de Lemoplate chee Pilomme. Bull. See Antep. Pars Se 7 pp. 1996. ° " " Vauiots, “Hens V2 1920-46. Llomoplate humaine. Etude anatomique et anthropoloyique. Ball ‘Sac. Anthrop. Pacis, Jeme sér-, 9 (1928): pp. 129-68; Seme sér., 10 (1929): pp. 110-15 Bene sér., 2 "(1932)" pp. 9-199; geme s8t. 7 (1948)? pp. 16-100. som, with Speck Wourrsox, Daviba M. 1950. Scapula Shape and Muscular Function, with Special Reference to ‘the Vertebral Border. Amer. 7. Phys. Anthrop., Ns., 8, pp- 931-42. 130 DOUGLAS BAINBRIDGE & SANTIAGO GENOVES TARAZAGA ‘Tanta I. Comparison of Population IF and IV by means of Ftese and tet [ Male 3 Female 2 | Character F p> |e » |e » | ‘Sel! 219 | >o-20 | 1-435 S020 005, SB | 1313 | 020) 1-739 oro | 0-796 | 0-45 Sels! 167 | >0-20 | 1-967 005 | 0274 | O77 ScLax rig | ~ 020 | 0372 porno | ris | 015 | See rig | 0-20 | 0306 Sor20 | 1542 | 015 Sad 1764 | oo | 2413 0105 | 2148 | 0-04 Silg rat | >oor | — pow | — | — ScBe 1070 | S020 | 1604 0705 | 0-247 | 0-82 Ss aabr | Soor | — oo5 | — | — swe rizo | S020 | o47t 005 | 1-962 | 0-06 | ScWax | rags | “oo | rays one | o447 | 065 Taptz II. Means, Standard Deviations, and 99.87% Limits of Male and Female Groups in Pooled Popula- tions Hf and TV L_ 3 8 Characters | Mean, sp Mean 80. | | ‘Sel! [56-283 9-296 1958 7197 SB | eeaee | ote | 4034 Sebs 142493 | 7591 19995 | 4323 SeLax | 134244 | 8057 1162 | 6-278 ScWid | tga | 2-730 860 | 18d Sek’ 46 95 3338 3992 2708 ScBe ag648 | 2113 24-29 | 1-678 Sere go71 | 2207 bor | agit | Sewer | 15305 | ast 1028 | 1-360 Tanue IIT. Stages in the Calculation of Percentages of Females Classified by Male Limits Character | Distance between ¢ | Distance | Percentage Limit and 9 Mean (mm.) @ av. | Classification of 9s | Sch 618" —o856t | 195 SB i 202 ~o500 | 309 | Sets! 429 0992 | 164 Schax 655 | —roga 149 Siw | “531 2818 1a Sala | 3:09 crrgr 127 ScBy S08 M0584 281 ScWse | 557 | 310. ro ScWax =159 Srtoa 135 ‘A negative sign shows that the male limit is lower than the female mean. In such a case, less than 50% of the females can be classified, because, by definition, the mean is exactly at the middle of the distribution, {Before referring to a probit table, it would be usual to add an arbitrary figure, such as 5’ to this column in order to avoid the use of negative numbers (Fisher & Yates 1948). A STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SCAPULA 131 ‘Tape IV. Stages in the Calculation of Percentage of Males Classified by Female Limits | Gharacter | \ | Limit and 3 Mean (mm, ‘Sel! ona SB Percentage | Classification of ds | | 062 | Sets’ vn Schax 12g SeWid | 277 ScLe 105 | SeBe' 0-32 | Ses" 618 SeWax 126 Tanz V. Summary of the 99°87% Limits and Comparison of Characters by Means of their Percentages of Clasieation l. Lower Limit of ds | Percentage of $s | Percentage of 3s | Upper Limit of &s Character | (correct too1mm,) | clasiied by ¢ | clasified by @ | (comecttoo-tmm.) j amit” | Smit \ [Se [isa aes oo we SB 307 309 350 rors Ses 1197 | 161 358 403, Sear, tte 9 1955 | Somme +4 ; #8 | Sane j 38 a8 | See" 253 so | Sein a3 | 03 | Sewer ab [a9 Tanus VI. Means, 97°80% Limits, and Stages in the Calculation of Percentages of Males and Females (Classified by each other's Limits Distance between 3 | Percentage of 9s Character Mean | Limit and @ Mean Glassiied |

    You might also like