Cody Young Period 5 9/14/07 Chapter 12 Essay Outlines

1. Discuss how Renaissance ideas are expressed in the Italian art of the period, referring to specific works and artists. Thesis Statement: Renaissance ideas were reflected in the Italian art of the period through the portrayal of nature, realism, and the human being. Body Paragraph 1: Body Thesis: Realism and experimental techniques revolutionized painting in the 15th century. CD: Masaccios groundbreaking frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel demonstrated a more realistic relationship between figures and landscape and visually represented the laws of perspective. CD: The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian by Antonio Pollaiuolo experimented in classical motifs in an attempt to show the human body under stress, while investigating movement and anatomical structure.

Body Paragraph 2: Body Thesis: Humanism and classical philosophical principles were the ideals expressed in Renaissance art. CD: Michelangelos David proclaimed the beauty of the human body and the glory of human beings. CD: Raphaels School of Athens expresses the concepts of a world of balance, harmony, and order the underlying principles of the art of classical Greece and Rome.

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Body Thesis: The realistic portrayal of the human form was the focus of 15th century northern Renaissance artists. CD: Jan van Eycks precise attention to detail imitated nature through observation of reality and portrayal of detail through his paintings. CD: Albert Durers Adoration of the Magi tried to achieve a standard of ideal beauty by examining the human form while also harmoniously integrating the details of northern artists.

Concluding Statement: The Renaissance brought new ideas and techniques to painting and art that revolutionized the way that works of art were made. With new advancements in the laws of perspective and realism, artists began to shift focus over to expressing the human form through new design in architecture, styles of painting, and attention to detail. Classical philosophical ideas of the Greeks and Romans were also important subject matter during this time period.

2. Discuss the political development of Italy during the Renaissance. What new political practices (statecraft) did the Italians contribute to Europe? How are these new political practices reflected in the work of Machiavelli?

Thesis Statement: The new political practices that the Italians contributed to Europe were the concept of a balance of power and the modern diplomatic system, which reflected Machiavellis work by preoccupation with stately political interests. Body Paragraph 1: Body Thesis: The concept of a balance of power established order and peace in a chaotic realm of Italian territorial states. CD: The Peace of Lodi, which was signed in 1454, ended half a century of war and established a 50 year long peace. CD: An alliance between the cities of Milan, Florence, and Naples led to a workable balance of power within Italy.

Body Paragraph 2: Body Thesis: The creation of the ambassador changed the political focus of the Italian states and most of Europe by increasing diplomatic relations and information between states.

CD: An increasingly large number of states led to a need of increase of security and public relations between them, especially the smaller states overshadowed by their neighbors. CD: The ambassadors power included exercising methods that were beneficial to the political interests of the corresponding state.

Body Paragraph 3: Body Thesis: Machiavellis ideas and principles laid the basis for the secularism of modern politics. CD: Machiavelli believed that a ruler should act on behalf of his state and not of his own conscience. CD: Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, used ruthless measures and fierce laws to create a new central state in Italy.

Concluding Statement: Political development in Italy during the Renaissance contributed not only to the Italian States, but to the rest of Europe as well. The concepts of developing a balance of power and a diplomatic system changed the priorities of the state and allowed more security and communication throughout the country. The works of Machiavelli were also a major influence on Italian rulers, which eventually led to the development of modern, secularized politics.

3. The major characteristic in the development of the new monarchies was the expansion of central government authority in the areas of economic, political, judicial, military, and religious policy. Is this a valid statement in regard to England, Spain and France? Was the pattern of political development the same in Eastern Europe?

Thesis Statement: England, Spain, and France strengthened their government authority through the use of developing new monarchies, while Eastern Europe struggled to achieve a centralization of their territorial states.

Body Thesis: England, Spain and France centralized their power through unification of their states by electing new monarchs.

CD: After the War of the Roses, the Tudor king Henry VIII established a strong monarchial government by reducing the power of the aristocracy and using diplomacy to avoid wars. CD: Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain worked to strengthen their central government by establishing new policies and reforming the Church and royal council. CD: With the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, France established new power in the monarchy while reducing papal influence in the government. Louis XVI later then created the basis for a strong French monarchy.

Body Paragraph 2: Body Thesis: Increasing developments in the economy greatly contributed to the favor of the new monarchs by the lower classes of their countries. CD: Henry VIIIs initiative to reduce overburdening taxes in the middle classes and the gentry provided much support for his monarchy. CD: Louis XVI expanded the French economy by imposing a permanent land tax on the population and encouraging the growth of commerce.

Body Paragraph 3: Body Thesis: Eastern Europe struggled to develop strong centralized monarchies due to threats of the Ottoman Turks, conflicts between the aristocracy and government, and religious differences.

CD: The fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 severely weakened Eastern Europe as it eliminated the buffer between the two different regions. CD: By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks threatened the Holy Roman Empire after the conquering of the Byzantine Empire. CD: Polands problems with Bohemia and Hungary and war with the Russians and Turks allowed the aristocrats to reestablish their power. CD: Through the control of the Sejm, magnates in Poland reduced peasantry to serfdom and gained the right to elect their kings.

Concluding Statement: The establishment of new monarchies and rulers greatly strengthened the governments of England, Spain, and France through reforming political structures and bolstering the economy. Support for the lower classes and a reduction of internal dissention also resulted

from these new developments. However, Eastern Europe failed to establish strong central monarchies due to internal strife, increasing threats from the Ottoman Turks, and conflicts between ethical and religious groups.

4. Discuss the major characteristics of the Renaissance papacy. What impact did the policies of the Renaissance popes have on the Catholic Church? Thesis Statement: The major characteristics of the Renaissance papacy were their preoccupation with secularism and the attempt to reform the Church by eliminating heresy, all of which impacted the Catholic Church by leading to a decline in moral leadership of popes and its moral prestige.

Body Paragraph 1: Body Thesis: Heresy became a major problem with the growing movements of English Lollardy and Hussitism. CD: John Wyclif, the leader of the Lollard movement preached that worshippers should reject all religious practices not mentioned in the Scriptures, and also alleged that popes should be stripped of their temporal authority and property. CD: The Hussite movement in the Czech Republic sparked a series of wars in the Holy Roman Empire when John Hus, the leader of the group, was arrested and burned at the stake as a heretic. Body Paragraph 2: Body Thesis: Attempts to reform the Church with decrees and papal bulls proved to be unsuccessful in solving the problems associated with the papacy. CD: The Council of Constance passed two reform decrees, Sacrosancta and Frequens, which stated that the council received authority from God and gave them more power over the pope. CD: Pope Pius II issued the papal bull Execrabilis which condemned any appeals to a council over the head of the pope as heretical, defeating the counciliar movement in a final stand. Body Paragraph 3: Body Thesis: The declining morals and leadership of the popes led to a decline in papal prestige and made many Christians question the spiritual purity of their leaders. CD: Pope Julius II, the warrior pope led personal armies against his armies, which disgusted most Christians who viewed the pope as a spiritual leader.

CD: Pope Sixtus IV was known for his blatant practices of nepotism and debauchery in order to seek financial gain for himself and his family. Concluding Statement: The Church during the Renaissance was a time of chaos and problematic events, especially heresy and reform. Attempts to deal with these problems proved to be unsuccessful and only contributed to the decline of the Churchs prestige and morals. Popes during this time period were known for their notorious practices and habits, such as nepotism, pursuit of temporal interests, and debauchery.