1 lie ,'\mcrican Associaiion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin

V. 70, No. 9 (September 1986), P. 1136-1155.21 Figs.

Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea*

KE RU' and JOHN D. PIGOTT"

ABSTRACT the western Pacific (LaFond, 1966). It is bordered to the

north by the broad China Shelf, to the east by the Manila
The South China Sea experienced at least three stages of Trench, to the southeast by the Palawan Trough, and to the
rifting and two intervening stages of sea-floor spreading west by the narrow Indochina Shelf. Overall, the South
since the Early Cretaceous. Its evolution can be described China Sea has a northeast-striking rhombohedral shape, as
by an episodic model of tectonism, one of thermal cooling delineated by the 2(X)-m bathymetric contour, with a more
and subsidence, pulsed by temporally and spatially con- comphcated geometry in the deeper part. As the South
fined heating events. Analysis of regional geologic and China Sea has yet to receive a Deep Sea Drilling Project
geophysical data suggests episodes of rifting and associ- investigation, it has been the source of considerable specula-
ated thermal activities initiated during the Late Creta- tion about its tectonic history. Although the recent accumu-
ceous, the late Eocene, and the late early Miocene. The rift lation of geologic and geophysical data generated by
system corresponding to the first episode trends northeast- academia and industry has yielded insight into its catego-
southwest, whereas those of the second and third trend
rized Atlantic-type evolutionary history, many uncertainties
east-west. These two trends coincide with the orientations
remain. In this paper, we review the existing information
of the major tectonic lineations within the basin. Age esti-
mates from heat-flow and bathymetric data suggest the and models for the evolution of the region from Chinese
oceanic crust in the Southwest subbasin is considerably and English literature, provide additional pertinent geo-
older (55 Ma) than that in the Northwest (35-36 Ma) or logic and geophysical data (Ru and Pigott, 1985), then inte-
East (32 Ma) subbasins. grate the information. The resultant tectonic model for the
The episodic tectonic model is supported by basin subsi- muhi-episodic evolution of the basin has important impli-
dence analysis. Subsidence, especially subsidence rate cations concerning the region's hydrocarbon potential, and
curves derived from the regional well data, demonstrates may be applicable to similarly pulsed extensional tectonic
that unlike a classic Atlantic passive margin, thermal sub- provinces elsewhere.
sidence in the South China Sea was punctuated by rapid
subsidence events which are chronologically consistent
with the rifting episodes. SYNOPSIS OF PREVIOUS TECTONIC MODELS
In terms of hydrocarbon potential, the episodes of rift-
ing and drifting would be conducive to the development of Through an analysis of heat-flow data, Karig (1971,
overprinted structures and the deposition of several dis- 1973) proposed that the South China Sea basin evolved as a
crete transgressive packages of source rocks and reser- result of back-arc extension. Karig's model immediately
voirs, separated by widespread unconformities. The conflicted with the work of Ben-Avraham and Uyeda
thermal maturity of sedimentary organic matter affected (1973), whose systematic evolutionary model for the region
by episodic rifting and subsidence may be greater than was based on the identification of several magnetic stripes
expected on a purely passive margin of equivalent age that with a generally east-west trend, tentatively dated as Late
had not experienced repeated heating. Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. These trends were perpendic-
ular to the east-west convergence direction and thus were
INTRODUCTION inconsistent with a model of simple back-arc spreading.
Therefore, Ben-Avraham and Uyeda (1973) proposed that
The South China Sea basin (Figure 1) includes 1.5 x lO' Borneo, originally in a position next to mainland Asia and
km^ of sea floor, and is one of the great marginal basins of Hainan Island, migrated southward during the Jurassic
opening of the South China Sea basin, followed by the
basin experiencing two stages of closing. The first stage
©Copyright 1986. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved. occurred during the early Tertiary, with the subduction of
'Manuscript received, June 26,1985; accepted, May 27,1986. sea floor under the Palawan Trough as Borneo moved
^School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma 73019. Present address: Nan Hai West Oil Corporation, P.O. Box
northwestward. The second stage accompanied the post-
11, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, People's Republic of China. Eocene subduction along the Manila Trench. Ben-Avraham
^School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman, (1978) subsequentiy modified his model, suggesting a Cre-
Oklahoma 73019.
We are indebted to the early regional work of Brian Taylor and Dennis Hayes; taceous to middle Miocene opening, followed by the under-
it significantly helped inspire and constrain our tectonic ideas. We thank Chen thrusting of the sea floor along the Manila Trench.
Changmin, J. M. Poe, Zhang Wanxuan, Huang Weipeng, and G. Wissmannfor
their comments and for keeping us up to date with the available South China
Bowin et al (1978) presented a two-episode sea-floor-
Seadata. In addition, discussion with personnel at ARCO International, Exxon spreading model for the basin, one of the first models of
Production Research, and Occidental Petroleum international contributed to this type. They recognized several N70°E trending magnetic
furthering our understanding of the region. We are grateful for the constructive
review suggestions of James Helwig, John Mason, and Willis Tyrrell. anomalies in a limited area west of Luzon. Although these

1136
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1137

105' 115°

EXPLANATION
BOUNDARY OF CXEANIC O T ^ SEDIMENTARY BASINS ^^^r»'r^ SUBDUCTION ZONE
CRUST
2CX>M BATHYMETRIC _ _ —— FRACTURE ZONE < V T > EXTINCT SUBDUCTION
CONTOUR ^ ZONE
.-^rZ-l. SUBBASINS y.—-—' CROSS-SECTION LINE 0 WELL LOCATION

Figure 1—South China Sea basin and surrounding areas. Sections A, B, and C in Figure 5; sections D and E in Figure 6.
1138 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
anomalies extended over the crest of a large basement i ise,
interpreted as an extinct spreading ridge, the anomalies
were not symmetric around the inferred spreading axis. In
the Bowin et al (1978) model, the first episode of spreading
occurred during the Mesozoic, isolating Borneo from the
Asia mainland. The resulting Mesozoic oceanic crust then
separated, with a new episode of spreading along a N70°E
spreading ridge during the middle Tertiary, providing newly
formed younger and deeper oceanic crust in the middle of
the basin. Such a spreading geometry would have produced
the present magnetic anomalies and would be flanked by
the older and shallower oceanic crust, which was thickened
and deformed since the Mesozoic.
Ludwig et al (1979) emphasized the role of the Reed Bank
block. They suggested that the Reed Bank block was conti-
nental in composition, and formerly attached to mainland
China. During the late Eocene or early Oligocene, the block
broke away from the mainland and moved southward. This
motion accompanied north-trending sea-floor spreading
with old oceanic crust in front of the moving block, sub-
ducting along the northwestern sides of Borneo and Pala-
wan. The subduction ceased during the early Miocene,
owing to the coUision of the block with Borneo and Pala-
wan. Their hypothesis is structurally attractive because it is
consistent with the general paleostress distribution: the
north margin of the basin dominated by extensional fea-
tures, and the south margin by compressional features.
However, only limited confidence could be placed on their
relative age interpretations.
Tang Xin (1980) emphasized the significance of the old
Mesozoic tectonic trace in the formation of the South China
Sea basin. He suggested that a Cretaceous triple junction
south of Hainan Island reactivated during the Oligocene to
Miocene, with sea-floor spreading occurring perpendicular
to a northeast-trending spreading axis. The same year, Tay-
lor and Hayes (1980) provided a major breakthrough.
Based on a compilation of all available magnetic data, they
correlated the magnetic anomalies in the eastern part of the
deep basin with the worldwide magnetic reversal time scale.
As a result, Taylor and Hayes (1980) identified magnetic
anomalies 5D to 11, giving a sea-floor opening time of 17-
32 Ma, latest early Miocene to middle Oligocene. An east-
west chain of seamounts aligned at lat. 15°N coincided with
the east-west trend of magnetic lineations and was inter-
preted as the extinct spreading center, about which the sym-
metric pattern of magnetic lineations are also displayed.
However, Taylor and Hayes (1980) noted that the absolute
dating of the southwest corner of the basin was less clearly
resolved: some identified northeast-trending magnetic lin-
eations indicated a possible change in spreading direction in
the region.
Wang (1982) provided another two-episode spreading
model, which differed from the Bowin et al (1978) model.
On the basis of a detailed analysis of the geologic structures
of the Pearl River Mouth basin (Zhujiangkou basin) south
to Guangzhou (Canton) and east to Hainan, Wang hypoth-
esized that the first sea-floor spreading in the South China
Sea basin began during the Late Cretaceous. Borneo split
from mainland Asia and advanced southward with the gen-
eration of the old pre-South China Sea basin. Wang further
suggested that beginning in the middle Oligocene, the sec-
ond episode was similar to that proposed by Taylor and
Hayes (1980)—that the old sea floor was consumed beneath
the subduction zone northwest of Borneo and Palawan.
HoUoway (1982) approached the problem differently. By
providing the stratigraphy of the surrounding marginal
area, he identified several major regional unconformities
throughout the basin, among which the Cretaceous-Paleo-
cene and the late Oligocene were regarded as the "rift-
onset" and "breakup" unconformities (Falvey, 1974),
respectively He incorporated this stratigraphic analysis
with the Taylor and Hayes (1980) magnetic interpretation to
present a set of palinspastic maps. Significantly, Holloway's
model assumes that spreading by continental crustal attenu-
ation occurred in the western part of the basin, where pres-
ently only a relatively small area of true oceanic crust exists.
Taylor and Hayes (1982) subsequently reconfirmed and
refined their previous interpretation of magnetic lineations
with the addition of new data from the R/V Vema 1979
cruise. A southwest-trending relict spreading center corres-
ponding to the magnetic lineations of the same direction
was also determined by free-air gravity and a limited series
of seismic reflection sections. Taylor and Hayes presented
an Atlantic-type evolutionary model for the basin that is
similar to Holloway's (1982). The major difference between
the two is in the western part of the basin. HoUoway (1982)
suggested that spreading in the western part started contem-
poraneously with, but ceased earlier than that in the east,
whereas Taylor and Hayes (1982) speculated that the
spreading center in the southwest part propagated south-
westward from the east, but the spreading ceased almost
simultaneously.
The previous tectonic models have greatly advanced the
knowledge of the region. Nonetheless, we shall attempt to
demonstrate that many problems remain and that an over-
all Atlantic-type origin for the South China Sea is inappro-
priate and misleading, both in spatial and temporal
variations of its rifting and subsidence, and in its hydrocar-
bon potential.
MAJOR TECTONIC ELEMENTS AND LINEATIONS
Major constraints on any tectonic model are afforded
by the regional tectonic elements and lineations. The prin-
cipal tectonic elements of the South China Sea (Figure 1)
are those of convergence (the recently active Manila
Trench, the abandoned Palawan Trench, and the
obducted melange of Borneo and Palawan), of passive
subsidence (the China Shelf), and of divergence (the
inferred rifting centers in the basin interior). The orienta-
tion of these elements and associated geologic-geophysical
components is critical to an accurate analysis of the tec-
tonic evolution of the region.
Bathymetry, like topography, is one of the more useful,
yet understated geologic expressions, which can yield
important genetic information. Figure 2, compiled from
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1139

105° 110° 115° 120°

105" 110° 115° 120°

Figure 2—Bathymetry of South China Sea. Compiled from Mammerrickx et al (1977) and Wissmann (1984).

Mammerrickx et al (1977) and Wissmann (1984), shows compatible with the proposed theories of simple north-
that in addition to the overall northeast-striking rhombo- south spreading. However, inspection of the deeper part of
heral geometry (e.g., the200-m contour), several east-west the basin, as outlined by the boundary between oceanic
trends can be identified. These east-west trends would be and continental crust (Figure 1), reveals geometric compli-
1140 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
Figure 3—Depth to crystalline basement in kilometers, within
oceanic part of South China Sea (corrected for sediment load-
ing). Based on sediment isopach of Taylor and Hayes (1982) and
bathymetry of Figure 2. Dashed line indicates boundary of oce-
anic part of South China Sea.
cations, significant tectonically. In map view, this area can
be approximated as a composite of three polygonal blocks
joined by long. 116°E. We refer to these as the East,
Southwest, and Northwest subbasins. Figure 2 and the fol-
lowing figures show that in the Northwest and East sub-
basins, the dominant linear trends are east-west; whereas
in the Southwest subbasin, the major trends are northeast-
southwest. Figure 3 illustrates the corrected depth-to-
basement map within the oceanic part of the South China
Sea. It is corrected for sediment loading by the backstrip-
ping technique of Sclater and Christie (1980), and based
on the bathymetric map of Figure 2 and sediment isopach
maps of Taylor and Hayes (1982). Figure 4 illustrates the
magnetic anomalies and the major rifts within the oceanic
part of the basin, which have been interpreted as the
extinct spreading centers.
Simply stated, the geometry and linear elements of these
basins cannot be fully explained by one-event, non-epi-
sodic tectonic models. Furthermore, although we agree
with the interpretation of the rifts as the extinct spreading
center, the position of these rifts presents additional kine-
matic problems for a one-episode causative mechanism
for the complex geometry of the east and west basin
interiors.
'- 12"
Figure 4—Magnetic anomalies and major rifts within oceanic
part of South China Sea. After Taylor and Hayes (1982). Solid
lines indicate magnetic anomalies; parallel dashed lines indicate
major rifts; cross-hatching indicates boundary of oceanic part of
South China Sea.
EVIDENCE OF RIFTING-DRIFTING EPISODES
Recent work on the geodynamics of passive continental
margins, especially rifted passive margins, indicates their for-
mation can be generally divided into two successive stages:
the early rifting stage and the later drifting or sea-floor-
spreading stage (see review by Scrutton, 1982). Durmg the
rifting stage, intracontinental rift systems may be generated
either by active continental crust doming associated with
thermal expansion over an active mantle (Sleep, 1971; Kins-
man, 1975), or by the passive consequence of lithospheric
stretching (McKenzie, 1978). Fault-controlled subsidence,
volcanic intrusion or extrusion, and regional uplift character-
ize this first stage (Burke and Whiteman, 1972). The contin-
ued development of some of the rifts eventually breaks up the
continental crust and opens new oceans, which marks the
beginning of the drifting stage. Subsidence, owing to the
thermal decay of the continental lithosphere (Sleep, 1971) and
to sediment loading, proceeds at an exponentially declming
rate (Sleep, 1982). To understand the evolution of an Atlantic-
type passive margin or "margin sag basin," (cf., Kingston et al,
1983) and a newly formed oceanic basin, considerable atten-
tion must be given to the precursor rifting system developed
from inland through shelf to slope along the margin.
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1141

Rifting these two geographically separate extensional trends related to

the regional tectonic evolution? These regional trends corres-
Mainland China is considered to be the landmass from
pond to the tectonic trends previously described for the South-
which microcontinental blocks separated in the opening of the
west and East subbasins, suggesting a similar regional genetic
South China Sea basin, so it is a logical starting point for rifting
analysis. Major shelf basins along the China margin are shown relationship. Unfortunately, data are not presently available
on Figure 1. The four main Cenozoic sedimentary basins are that would constrain the timing of these faults; the two pre-
the Pearl River Mouth (Zhujiangkuo), Beibu (Tonkin) Gulf, vious structural figures (Figures 6, 7) are from different
Yingge Sea, and Southwestern Taiwan basins. For these sources. Nevertheless, from the episodic tectonic scenario pro-
basins, much of the geologic and geophysical information is posed, we expect at least two separate trends. The first, to
not publicly available because of the current oil exploration accompany the initial Late Cretaceous-Paleoceneriftingepi-
programs. However, the regional structural information that is sode, would have extensional faults oriented northeast-south-
available is instructive, both in terms of timing and of geome- west. The second, to accompany the late Eocene to early
try Consequently, analysis of the numerous extensionaJ faults Oligocene episode, would have extensional faults oriented
onshore and offshore China becomes crucial in resolving and east-west, implying a significant change in the major exten-
constraining the evolutionary history of the basin. sional direction. As for the third, less well-defined episode, the
associated faults may have inherited the direction of the pre-
Figure 5 illustrates a series of basinal dip cross sections
vious trends.
across the Pearl River Mouth basin adapted from Wang
(1982). Note the frequency of large-scale extensional features
such as grabens, normal faults, and tilted blocks, which are Sea-Floor Spreading
diagnostic of passive continental margins. Specifically, observe
from crosscutting relationships that many of the faults suggest The timing of spreading for the region has been generalized
much greater durations of activation, whereas others are by previous workers who relied on available magnetic data
briefer in duration. If a one-event tectonic model were correct, (Taylor and Hayes, 1980, 1982). Ideally, this approach would
then regionally pervasive extensional faulting owing to thermal be the best; however, such data are not available for the South-
subsidence should have ended by the late Oligocene. However, west and Northwest subbasins. Therefore, we supplemented
many of these faults cut Neogene rock units, which negates a the magnetic data with detailed basement-depth and heat-flow
hypothesis of only one episode ofrifting.The episodicity in the data to differentiate the ages (time scale of Harland et al, 1982)
large-scale faulting is better displayed in the Xisha Trough, of the basin-floor regions. Such methods can offer considera-
shown in Figure 6 (He et al, 1980). Note the two separate gra- ble insight when applied to frontier regions where absolute
ben-fault systems. If only the older faults existed, this would basement ages are either unknown or poorly known.
support HoUoway's hypothesis that rifting ended during the The effects of sediments in the South China Sea have been
Oligocene. However, the younger fault activities are indicative removed to delineate the correct isostatic bathymetry, shown
of continued or reactivated rifting. previously in Figure 3. The data from Figure 3 were applied to
Previous geologic and geophysical investigations concern- an empirical analysis of the basin-floor ages. Because the basin
ing the China margin and South China Seariftinghave sug- is less than 70 Ma, we used the depth-time equation of Parsons
gested at least three rifting events. The first episode was and Sclater (1977):
initiated during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, resulting in
d(t) = 2,500-h 3501"'2 (1)
widespread uplift documented by the unconformity between
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, culmmating in small Late Cre- where time t is in 10* years and depth d(t) is in meters.
taceous to Eocene grabens throughout south and southeast For the heat-flow-time determination, we used the empiri-
China (Tang Chongguang, 1980; Wang, 1982; Zhang and cal equation appropriate for materials less than 120 Ma, also
Huaizeng, 1982). The second episode occurred during the late from Parsons and Sclater (1977):
Eocene to Oligocene, resulting in theriftingproximal to Reed
Bank and Xisha Trough (He et al, 1980; Taylor and Hayes, q(t)= 11.31- (2)
1980). The third episode probably began during the middle to where q(t) is in heat-flow units (HFU). In Figure 8, we com-
late Miocene, as suggested by concomitant regional volcanic piled the thermal data of the region into a heat-flow map. The
activity (cf., Barr and McDonald, 1981; Wolfe, 1984). data include historic volcanoes and oceanographic heat-flow
Examination of the surface expression of the faults shows measurements (Jessop et al, 1976; Anderson et al, 1978), geo-
two principal trends, one northeast-southwest, the other east- thermal gradients, and bottom-hole temperatures (Qiao, 1980;
west (Figure 7). Knowing that the South China Sea is younger Tang Xin, 1980; Rutherford and Qureshi, 1981; Zhang and
than the China mainland, we might hypothesize that the main- Huaizeng, 1982). The calculated heat flows used conductivi-
land-dominant, northeast-trending faults predate the east- ties, estimated by taking the hole lithostratigraphies and cor-
west-trending faults, which are more numerous offshore. This responding average numbers for particular lithologies from
assumption may be correct because as Figure 5 shows, the Clark (1966) (e.g., see equation 14 in Pigott, 1985). These data
Neogene section has less faulting in cross section C than in are tabulated in the appendix. Figure 9 shows a three-dimen-
cross sections A and B, inferring the predominant northeast- sional surface map of the South China Sea heat flow, illustrat-
trending faults in the west are indeed older than the east-west- ing significant spatial differences. The geometries of the
trending faults in the east. The question then becomes, are heat-flow troughs andridgescorrespond well with the orienta-
1142 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

Figure 5—Cross sections across Pearl River Moutli basin. Modified after Wang (1982). Tinie-rocl« units: Mz = Mesozoic; Pg =
Paleogene; Ng = Neogene; and Q = Quaternary. See Figure 1 for locations.

tions of the major tectonic elements and lineations previously
described. We incorporated the spatial magnitude differences
into our tectonic analysis and into modeling the region's hydro-
carbon maturity.
Beginning with the East subbasin, as Taylor and Hayes
(1982) reported, the magnetic signature indicates an age of 32.4
Ma (anomaly 11, Figure 4) consistent with the bathymetry and
heat-flow-data age determination of early to late Oligocene.
We attempted to date the Northwest and Southwest subbasins
similarly. Unfortunately, the Northwest subbasin presently
laclcs a magnetically determined age. However, the bathymet-
ric and heat-flow ages using equations 1 and 2 are consistent,

10
KM (D)
NW SE
==^»^:::jj£Q3^ v ^ - ^ ^ ^ : r r =
^ "ip^p^ ^^ ^^5i"~^i- —f=r^^ ^ \
£ 5-
LU
Q
%^^z9^^

NW

s Try
.

Figure 6—Cross sections across Xisha Trough. Modified after He e( al (1980). Time-rocli units: Pg = Paleogene; Ng = Neogene; and
Q = Quaternary. See Figure 1 for locations.
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott
Figure 7—Major normal fault trends on Cliina onsliore and off-
sliore areas. Relative sense of displacement is unavailable.
Dashed line indicates boundary of Pearl River Mouth basin.
Modified after Wang (1982) and Chen (1977).
36 and 35 Ma, respectively: an early Oligocene age. These
dates then suggest the East subbasin and Northwest subbasin
formed at approximately the same time.
However, a significant problem emerges when the South-
west subbasin is dated. Again, a magnetic age is unavailable.
The bathymetric age indicates 55 Ma, the late Paleocene;
whereas the heat-flow age is substantially younger, 16.6 Ma,
the early Miocene. Because these age dates differ significantly,
we tentatively conclude that the Southwest subbasin is either
tectonically too deep or tectonically too hot.
A scatter plot examination (after the method of Folk, 1973)
yielded insight to this problem. When the heat-flow values of
this region are compared to paired basement depths (Figure
10), two populations appear. Population A closely compares
with the observed relationship between heat flow and depth as
described by the empirical formula of Parsons and Sclater
(1977) for normal cooling processes. In contrast, population B
represents locations that are considerably farther from the
empirical relationship. Note that except for one location, all of
the Southwest subbasin points are in population B and thus
imply perturbation of the normal cooling process. Due to
recent heating (last 12 Ma) by magmatic and volcanic activities
in Indochina, Hainan, and on mainland China (He et al, 1980;
Barr and MacDonald, 1981) (Figure 1 lA, B), the regional geo-
logic evidence suggests the Southwest subbasin is more likely
too hot rather than too deep. Therefore, we conclude without
magnetic evidence to the contrary that 55 Ma, late Paleocene,
can be accepted as the age for the Southwest subbasin. Impor-
tantly, this date also indicates that another episode of sea-floor
spreading may have occurred in a segment separate from that
previously proposed.
This thermal anomaly of the Southwest subbasm may be
illustrated in another way If the South China Sea were purely a
passive tectonic margin of post-Cretaceous age, its regional
heat flow would be approximately 1.4 HFU (input 65 Ma into
equation 2). However, as Figures 8,9, and 10 show, the basin
(especially the western part) is substantially hotter (>2.25
HFU), underscoring the importance of later heating events.
1143
Chronology of Rifting-Drifting Episodes
Figure 12 is a compilation of the preceding information on
rifting and drifting for the region. The first episode of rifting
occurred during the Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, fol-
lowed by the first episode of sea-floor spreading in the South-
west subbasin. This time of drifting ended by the beginning of
late Eocene, when the second episode of rifting began.
Approximately 32.4 Ma, the second episode of sea-floor
spreading initiated simultaneously in the East and Northwest
subbasins. Beginning in the late early Miocene, the third epi-
sode of rifting in the region occurred. In summary, the evi-
dence supports the proposed model of episodic tectonics in the
South China Sea, suggested by at least three distinctriftingepi-
sodes alternating with at least two episodes of spreading.
ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE FROM SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS
One of the best ways to test the mechanics of the episodic
rifting and spreading events would be to examine the strati-
graphic record and assess the subsidence history. Let us con-
sider the McKenzie (1978) stretching model, where continental
lithosphere of thickness a and crust of thickness y are stretched
by a factor fi, which is the ratio of the new length to the original
length. During stretching, thinning of the lithosphere occurs
with consequent passive upwelling of the asthenosphere,
resulting in an increase in the geothermal gradient. The initial
and subsequent subsidence magnitude and rate are functions
of the stretching factor p. This model of extension predicts
rapid initial subsidence, followed by a slower decline in subsi-
dence caused by thermal decay If the subsidence occurs on a
passive continental margin, the break in the slope of the curve
is referred to as the breakup time—the initiation of sea-floor
spreading. Therefore, for a basin with an episodic evolution,
e.g., if several episodes ofriftmgand drifting occur, one would
expect several segments vrith different slopes on a subsidence
curve.
Our first detailed well study is the Zhu C well in the Pearl
River Mouth basin (Figure 13A). The curves of subsidence ver-
sus time, or Bubnoff diagrams (Fischer, 1975), for Zhu C and
the following wells are constructed from backstripping
(removing effects of compaction, sediment loading, paleo-
bathymetry, and changes in sea level according to the methods
of Sclater and Christie, 1980) the depth-stratigraphic data syn-
thesized from He et al (1980), Qiao (1980), Tang Xin (1980),
ASEAN Council on Petroleum (1981), Wang (1982), and
Zang et al (1983). Note that for the Zhu C well, the subsidence
curve is broken into at least five principal segments, two of
abrupt, steep subsidence, and three of slower, more gentle sub-
sidence. We interpret the gentle segments as a tectonic record
of the thermal decay of the basin floor. However, the slopes of
the steep segments are too high to be explained by thermal con-
traction and must be interpreted instead as the initial subsi-
dence duringrifting,as suggested by the McKenzie model. To
resolve these changes in subsidence, we determined the subsi-
dence rate (the first derivative of subsidence with respect to
time) as a function of time (lower part of Figure 13B). Con-
struction of subsidence rate curves greatly facilitates the com-
1144 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

105

105 110 115'' 120»

Figure 8—Heat-flow contour map of South China Sea. Data are from Jessop et al (1976), Anderson et al (1978), Qiao (1980), Tang
Xin (1980), Rutherford and Qureshi (1981), and Zhang and Huaizeng (1982). Triangles indicate heat-flow measurement stations.
Filled circles indicate heat flow calculated from well geothermal gradients. Stars represent historic volcanoes with a heat flow assumed
to be 10.8 HFU. Data are tabulated in appendix.

parative anatomy of a region's sedimentary response to extended globally in some studies (see Sloss, 1976,1978). For
tectonism (e.g., Africa by Dingle, 1982), and have even been the South China Sea, a regional synchroneity in subsidence is
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1145

demonstrated by comparing the subsidence and subsidence

rates of the Zhu C and Zhu D wells of the same basin, the Cad-
lao 1 well north of Palawan, and the Bei A and Bei B wells of
the Beibu Gulf basin (lower part of Figures 13-17). Note that
the two subsidence rate maxima consistently occur during the
early Oligocene and the middle Miocene, which correspond to
the second and third episodes ofriftingpreviously mentioned.
The times of lower subsidence rates documented by the wells
represent post-rifting episodes and are Eocene, late Oligocene
to early Miocene, and late Miocene to Holocene. The earliest
lower subsidence rate coincides with the spreading of the
Southwest subbasin; the second correlates with spreading in
the East and Northwest subbasins. We interpret this observed
spatially widespread synchroneity in subsidence rates to be
regionally supportive of episodic tectonics in the South China
Sea.
We also compared subsidence and subsidence-rate profiles
of the South China Sea vidth a classic Atlantic passive-margin
model, where episodic tectonics are not incorporated. Figure
18 illustrates the subsidence and calculated subsidence rate of
the Cost B2 well (Atlantic margin) (compiled from data of
Steckler and Watts, 1978). In sharp contrast, note that the
South China Sea wells record a significantly greater subsidence
rate (almost twdce as rapid) in a shorter period of time (almost
half as much) than the Cost B2 well. Further, theriftingstage is
represented by a single peak in the Cost B2 well and by at least
two peaks in the South China Sea wells. Consequently, the
thermal subsidence on the Atlantic-type margin is uninter-
rupted and long-lasting, but the thermal subsidence on the
South China Sea margin is punctuated by rifting events. Of
course, the Atlantic-type subsidence may have experienced
such perturbations during its early evolution, which may not
be resolvable now. Indeed, most margin-sag basins are poly-
history basins (Kingston et al, 1983). Nonetheless, the subsi-
dence and subsidence-rate profiles for a classic passive tectonic
margin and those of the episodic South China Sea differ mark-
edly These differences may be further quantified in terms of
crustal stretching.
The conventional method of calculating the stretching
factor (3 (McKenzie, 1978) is to derive the basin subsidence
curve by backstripping, as for the Zhu C well in Figure 13,
and then to obtain the best-fit j3 curve. However, if the
model is used for a basin with episodic tectonic evolution,
the subsidence curve must be a thermal subsidence curve Figure 9—Three-dimensional surface plot of present-day heat
and should not include rifting subsidence. For example, flow for South China Sea. Data source same as Figure 8.
for the Atlantic margin, rifting occurs only at the begin-
ning and does not figure into the subsequent thermal
decay. However, if rifting occurs episodically, such a pro- basin evolution without considering the separate events. If
cedure cannot be followed. For example, if we treated the a time average /J, (3, is needed to describe the overall ther-
Zhu C well stretching calculation in an analogous manner mal decaying process, then for the Zhu C well, |3 is 1.5,
to that of a classic Atlantic passive margin, the best-fit (3 which is also more compatible with the interpreted thick-
would be 2.5, smaller than the (3 total of 3 determined by ness of the crust in that area. A similar calculative proce-
Steckler and Watts (1982) for the Cost B2 well (Figure 18). dure for the Zhu D well yields a (3 total of 3.0 and a jS of
But this /3 total of 2.5 does not accurately represent the 2.0. Without better available stratigraphic precision, addi-
South China Sea's crustal attenuation. Examination of the tional stretching factor calculations for the region are
separate cooling segments shows the 0 for the first episode probably not warranted. However, both time average
is 1.15, the second is 1.7, and the third is 1.6. Such seg- betas bracket Holloway's (1982) stretching factor estimate
mented descriptions of (3 more accurately define the of 1.85 for the entire South China Sea.
stretching that occurred during rifting. Therefore, it is Additional complexities are illustrated in Figures 13-18.
inappropriate to specify only one (3 for multi-episodic First, none of the South China Sea wells record rapid sub-
1146 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

Quaternary, perhaps indicating a more recent but subdued

^NORMAL COOLING PROCESS
stage of rifting. Interestingly, this increase may be related
to the increase in Quaternary basalts (Figure 11) and to the
previously described problem of anomalously high heat
flow in the western part of the South China Seabasin.
These complexities and determinations of regional jSs may
be resolved better following the release of more data.

5
111
TECTONIC RECONSTRUCTION

The overall evolution of the South China Sea basin

-L. -L.
3 4 5 6
BASEMENT DEPTH (KM)
CORRECTED FOR SEDIMENT LOADING
Figure 10—Basement depth versus heat flow. Dashed line indi-
cates normal cooling model of Parsons and Sclater (1977).
Stars represent stations from central part of East subbasln. Tri-
angles represent stations from southern part of E^st subbasin.
Squares represent stations from northeastern part of East sub-
basin. Circles represent stations from Southwest subbasin.
sidence for the first rifting episode. This may be due to
well locations (not within the initiating graben) or to ero-
sion during subsequent uplift. Second, an increase in sub-
sidence rate appears in several wells during the
from the Late Cretaceous onward can be viewed as a
dynamic process, during which a passive continental mar-
gin was created. This process was not continuous, but was
punctuated by episodes of rifting and drifting. Figures 19
and 20 illustrate the interpreted, kinematically constrained
evolutionary model.
Prior to Late Cretaceous
Following the Late Triassic collision that welded the
South China and Indochina block along the Red River
suture zone, the region experienced renewed convergence
during the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Figure
19A). A northwest-dipping subduction of Tethys under-
neath the southeastern margin of the Eurasian plate

NUMBER OF BASALTS
(B) 2 4 6 8 10
mi

- 20" d

d
0.

SOUTH
- 15
CHINA SEA CO
d
s UJ
J O
< 10-

10"

d
12-

14-
? AGE OF BASALTS

105° 110" 115

s
Figure 11—(A) Distribution of late Cenozoic basalts (shaded regions). Triangle represents historic volcano off Vietnam coast. Data
are from He et al (1980) and Barr and MacDonald (1981). (B) Histogram of ages of late Cenozoic basalts. Data are from Barr and
MacDonald (1981).
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1147

QLATERKARY
PLIOCENE
.... 9
I^1^ (A) (Ma)

UJ
L
10- z
UJ
o M HEATNG & RIFTING
1^
o MIOCENE
UJ

z
20- E. S 500
SEA-FLOOR SPREAtMNG
Hi
L.
1 E. & NW. SUBBASINS 1
_30-
OUGOCENE
2 Q 1000
< E w
HEATING & RIFTING (0
*in L

z
UJ EOCENE M.
1500
g
50- UJ
_J
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
2 E. 1 SW. SUBBASIN 1

60- PALEOCENE

HEATING & RFTING QH»^l I I i OiV.^1

CRETACEOUS ~ ~ A
7fl- I P2=1.7 ^ " * > » I P3 = 1.6
ni- soo'-
A accompanied volcanism
regional unconformity
(B)
Figure 12—Geoclironologic interpretation of episodic evolution 120
of South China Sea.

80
occurred (Tang Xin, 1980). Because Mesozoic volcanism is UI

absent in eastern Indochina (cf.. Tang Xin, 1980), the <

a
Andean-type volcanic arc would have been located off the UI

h
east coast of Indochina. We endorse HoUoway's (1982) U
z 40
u
interpretation of a transcurrent fault in southwest Indo- Q
china required to offset this subduction system. Kinemati- cn . ^ ^
a
D
cally, the 20° clockwise rotation of China and Indochina,
and the 45°-50° counterclockwise rotation of southwest 0 i l l 1 1 1

Borneo (Hamilton, 1979) are considered by fixing main- 60 40 20

land Asia and by placing Borneo in a position about 70° AGE (Ma)

Late Cretaceous
The first rifting episode of the South China Sea (Figure
19B) began during the Late Cretaceous whh widespread
volcanic activity in southeast China, the Natuna arch, and
in southwest Borneo (Tang Xin, 1980; Wang, 1982). Tec-
tonic uplift generally characterized the entire region as doc-
umented by a regional Late Cretaceous unconformity
However, in the grabens of mainland and offshore China,
thick sedimentary successions record this first episode of
rifting and continental crustal extension (Wang, 1982). This
rifting system trended predominantly northeast-southwest,
corresponding to the general strike of the numerous and
widespread normal faults on the China margin. As a conse-
quence, the direction of extension is southeasterly.
By the close of the Late Cretaceous, Borneo had started
its counterclockwise rotation (Hamilton, 1979) with an
approximate rotation center being offshore of the south-
western tip of present-day Borneo. Owing to the joint effect
of the rotation and the southeastward extension of the con-
tinental crust to the northwest, the subduction of the preex-
isting oceanic crust along the Lupar Hne of northwestern
Borneo, as evidenced by ophiolite outcrops (cf., Haile,
M. E L. E.
EOC. CLIG OLIG. MIO.
Figure 13—(A) Detailed analysis of subsidence curve of baclc-
stripped well Zhu C. See Figure 1 for well location. |8* represents
stretching factor for each theoretical curve. 01, ^2, andfi3repre-
sent stretching factors for each of three rifting-drifting episodes.
|3 total is 2.5 and represents conventional best-fit stretching fac-
tor 3* for well Zhu C without considering tectonic episodicity of
South China Sea. By removing rifting subsidence, the calculated
time averagefiof episodic stretching factors /31,fil,and jii is 1.5.
(B) Subsidence rate curve. References and calculative procedure
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
1973; Hutchinson, 1975; Hamilton, 1979), had begun. We
infer that the major strike-slip fault southwest of Indochina
clockwise from today's position. The western edge of this
arc-trench system may have formed a zone of crustal weak-
ness, which could later be reactivated during a period of tec-
tonic extension. However, later crustal extension in China is
not limited to the Mesozoic accretional domain, as Ceno-
zoic extension occurred throughout eastern and southeast-
ern China (Tang Xin, 1980; Wang, 1982; Zhang et al, 1982;
Li, 1984).
1148 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

(A) AGE (M a) (A) AGE (Ma)

60 40 20 c 60 40 20
1 -^^

ZHU D CADLAO 1
1. 500 500 -

O
£ 1000 - £ 1000 h
a a
(A (O
CQ
m \ ^
<n 1500 - <» 1500

2000 2000 -

(B) 120 -
(B) 120

i
80
I-
< <

m
cn

(Ma)
40

60 40
AGE
rx^ (Ma)
20

] [
M. M.
EOC. EOCOLIG. OLIG EOC.

Figure 14—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for Figure 15—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for
backstripped well Zhu D. References and calculative procedure backstripped well Cadlao 1. References and calculative proce-
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location. dure are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.

changed from left-lateral to right-lateral, and the fault grad- oped, e.g., the Bukit Mersing ophiolite belt (Hutchinson,
ually became a subduction zone southeastward. The north- 1975). Another kinematic requirement for this activity is the
south-trending fracture zone off the eastern coast of existence of a northwest-trending, left-lateral transform
Indochina may have activated at this time in response to the fault, northeast of the spreading center.
regional extension. (For a discussion of the analysis of shear
in rifting, see Freund and Merzer, 1976; Freund, 1982.)
Eocene
Paleocene During the early and middle Eocene, sea-floor spreading
was dominant in the Southwest subbasin, with continued
By the middle Paleocene, the first rifting episode in the propagation of the spreading axis southwestward. Sus-
major part of the basin had ended. The Southwest subbasin tained rotation of Borneo accompanied subduction of the
(Figure 19C) began to open during the Paleocene, starting preexisting oceanic crust. With time, this subduction zone
in the northeast and propagating southwestward. This time migrated northwestward, with net accretion to Borneo
of drifting and lower rate of subsidence are recorded in the (Hamilton, 1979). Beginning with the late Eocene (Figure
Sampaguita 1 well on the Reed Bank by a succession of 19D), drifting was punctuated by a new rifting episode, as
paleoenvironments indicating increasing water depth recorded by an unconformity in the Reed Bank area (Hollo-
higher in the section (cf., Taylor and Hayes, 1980). The con- way, 1982) and by a shallowing-upward succession in the
tribution of sea-floor creation in the Southwest subbasin Beibu Gulf wells (cf., Li, 1984). The new zone of rifting was
was probably less important in terms of maintaining the located primarily along the China margin east of Hainan.
northwestern Borneo subduction, than was Borneo's coun- The resultant extensional faults were oriented east-west.
terclockwise rotation at this time. We believe this explains Kinematically, north-south-trending transform faults are
why the Paleocene subduction complex is not as well devel- required to allow for the transverse differentiation of the
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott
AGE (Ma)
40 20
(B)
80
<
O 40
z
ui
Uhn
a
(0
m ^ - ^
(0
60 40 20
AGE (Ma)
] [
Figure 16—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for
bacl(stripped well Bei A. References and calculative procedure
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
north-south-trending crustal extension. The fault (F2) near
present-day long. 116°E is significant because it presently
divides the Southwest and East subbasins and corresponds
to the north-south-trending lineations identified on the sed-
iment isopachs of Taylor and Hayes (1982). Other inferred
transform faults were at present-day long. 110°E (Vietnam
fracture zone: Fl) and long. 113°E (F3). Note that the
northwest-trending transform fault created during the first
sea-floor-spreading episode began to be subducted, along
with the preexisting oceanic crust.
Oligocene
The Oligocene represents a time of major tectonic activ-
ity in the South China Sea. The crustal extension of the sec-
ond rifting episode ended by the close of the early
Oligocene. At the same time, the counterclockwise rotation
of Borneo may have been completed; as a result, subduc-
tion ended west of present-day long. 113°E. Beginning dur-
ing the late Oligocene (Figure 20A), the second episode of
sea-floor spreading initiated, as indicated by the oldest
magnetic anomaly, and by generally transgressive sedimen-
1149
AGE (Ma)
(B) 120 -
s
s
80
U 40
K
I I
60 40 20
AGE (Ma)
Figure 17—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for
backstripped well Bei B. References and calculative procedure
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
tation interrupted by the globally correlative fall in sea level
(cf., Vail et al, 1977). This eustatic fall is documented by an
extensive unconformity in the basin (cf., HoUoway, 1982)
and indeed throughout much of southeast Asia (e.g., New
Guinea: Pigott et al, 1983). The original spreading center is
inferred to be approximately along lat. 19°N in the North-
west and East subbasins. Briefly thereafter, the western seg-
ment (west of present-day long. 116°E) was abandoned,
accompanied by the termination of subduction between
long. 113° and 116°E, as evidenced by the absence of Neo-
gene melange west of Sabah on Borneo (Hamilton, 1979).
This abandoned trench segment was preserved, becoming a
depocenter for younger sediments. It is presently expressed
bathymetrically as the Palawan Trough off the northwest
coast of Brunei and Sabah. The opening of the eastern seg-
ment continued with the drifting of the Reed Bank and
North Palawan blocks southward. Consequently, this open-
ing of the East subbasin initiated the ancestral Ulugan fault
(F4) and continuously led to the subduction of the preexist-
ing oceanic sea floor (including the inferred transform fauU
of the first drifting episode), as evidenced by melange off-
shore Sabah to northwest Palawan (Hamilton, 1979; Hollo-
way, 1982).
1150 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

AGE (Ma) Tate, 1976). Another significant convergence feature is the

(A) initiation of a subduction zone of a proto-Manila Trench
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
in the eastern part of the South China Sea. This trench was
a consequence of the counterclockwise rotation and west-
1000 ward migration of Luzon. At the close of the early Mio-
COST B2
ATLANTIC MARGIN
cene, the South China Sea essentially attained its modern
2000 internal configuration.
HI
^ 3000
ui Middle Miocene
g
^ 4000 \ .
The middle Miocene was characterized by continued cool-
5000 ing of the crust with further shelf-basin subsidence. At this
time, the Natuna basin received substantial marine sedimen-
tation (cf.. May and Eyles, 1985), and the China margin
(B) aop experienced widespread transgression (Qiao, 1980). A third
a rifting episode commenced with heating in the late early Mio-
S
60 cene to early late Miocene. Although HoUoway (1982) stated
that the unconformity related to this event occurs only in
Palawan and was the result of local tectonics (e.g., the local
40 collision along Palawan), new geophysical evidence from the
China margin (unpublished seismic stratigraphy by Pigott)
demonstrates this as a regional unconformity Therefore, we
a 20 attribute this unconformity to a more extensive event, the
third rifting episode. This third episode of heating is docu-
mented both by the anomalously hot Southwest subbasin
and by the widespread volcanism that began 12 Ma in Indo-
140 120 100 china, Hainan Island, and Leizhou (Luichow) Peninsula,
AGE (Ma) illustrated in Figure 11. Concomitant with this third episode
of rifting, the South China Sea floor continued to be sub-
Figure 18—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for ducted into the Manila Trench (Figure 20B).
Cost B2 well on Atlantic margin compiled from data of Sleekier
and Watts (1978). Note differences between this classic Atlantic-
type passive margin subsidence (/3 total = 3) and preceding Soutb Late Miocene to Holocene
China Sea type of Figure 13.
From the late Miocene to the present, thermal cooling and
subsidence have dominated the tectonic activities of the
E^rly Miocene South China Sea. The subduction along the Manila Trench
During the early Miocene, the opening of the East sub- (Figure 1) continued to accompany the westward movement
basin (Figure 20B) continued with accompanied thermal of the Philippine block. Renewed volcanic activity started 4
contraction and substantial sediment loading. The buoy- Ma (Figure 1 IB) and extended eastward into the Philippines
ant North Palawan block collided and aborted the north- (cf., Wolfe, 1984), corresponding to a small but detectable
east section of the subduction zone, east of the inaease in subsidence rate in most of the sedimentary basins
right-lateral Ulugan transform fault. The abandoned sub- of the region (Figures 13-18). This activity may be indicative
duction zone has been described from seismic profiles by of a fourth episode of incipient rifting, but more information
HoUoway (1982). Motion along the Ulugan fault began to (and perhaps geologic time) is needed for substantiation.
cease, with the zone culminating as a suture between
oceanic- and continental-type crust, smaller, though simi-
lar in many respects, to the northern New Guinea fault sys- IMPLICATIONS CONCERNING HYDROCARBON
tem (Pigott et al, 1983; Trumbly and Pigott, 1984). By the POTENTLVL
close of the early Miocene, sea-floor spreading similarly
ceased in the East subbasin (as indicated by the youngest The tectonic model of episodic rifting and subsidence we
magnetic anomaly, 5D) owing to the collision of the conti- propose has several important implications concerning the
nental Reed Bank block with the remaining section of the hydrocarbon potential of the South China Sea. First, in
subduction zone north of Sabah to southern Palawan. terms of the structural setting, the episodes of tectonism pro-
This collision may have brought about the subsequent duced at least two distinct regional fault trends, the older
compressional deformation of the sub-middle Miocene (Late Cretaceous to Eocene) striking northeastward and the
sediments along Palawan, emplaced the Darvel Bay- younger (late Eocene to Holocene) striking east-west. Owing
Labuk-Palawan ophiolite (Hutchinson, 1975), and left the to younger structural relationships overprinting older ones,
numerous north-south-trending, right-lateral strike-slip the northeast-trending extensional fault systems generally cut
fauks in northwest Sabah (as described by McManus and the east-west-trending faults; thus, traps based purely on the
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1151

Figure 19—Kinematically consistent reconstruction of South China Sea: (A) end of Early Cretaceous; (B) end of Late Cretaceous; (C)
endofPaleocene;and(D)endof Eocene. Explanation is given in A. P.I. = Paracel Islands; M.B. = Macclesfield Bank; R.B. = Reed
Bank; N.P. = North Palawan; L.S. = Luconia Shoals; and S. P. = South Palawan. Fl, F2, and F3 refer to faults discussed in text.

large, older structures may be inappropriate owing to compli- within each sedimentary subbasin.
cations of possible secondary migration. The timing of the Second, the stratigraphic section produced by episodes of
faults (e.g., for conduits or seals), with respect to hydrocar- uplift (rifting) and changing rates of subsidence lead to sev-
bon maturation and migration, must be critically examined eral complete depositional sequences of regressive-transgres-
1152 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence In the South China Sea

CHIN/> CHINA

END OF
EARLY MIOCENE
0 200 400
KM

Figure 20—Kinematically consistent reconstruction of Soutli China Sea. (A) End of Oligocene, and (B) end of early Miocene. P.I. =
Paracel Islands; M.B. = Macclesfield Bank; R.B. = Reed Bank; N.P. = North Palawan; L.S. = Luconia Shoals; S. R = South
Palawan; and D.B.L.P. = Darvel Bay-Labuk-Palawan opbiolite line. Fl, F2, F3, and F4 refer to faults discussed in text. Explanation
is same as in Figure 19A.

sive sedimentation. The breakup unconformities are
chronostratigraphically significant and mappable sequence
boundaries. A function of the position on the basin margins,
abrupt and thick transgressive successions occurred, which
are diagnostic of rifting (Perry and Pigott, 1983). The associ-
ated source rocks, seals, and reservoirs provide sev-
eral stacked, potentially prospective, seismic sequences in
shallow and deep areas. In regions distal to terrigenous
sources (Palawan), carbonates predominated; whereas those
proximal to fluvial input were dominantly clastic (e.g.. Pearl
River Mouth basin). In the deeper region, sedimentation at
times of lower relative sea level should generally increase the
reservoir quahty (such as sand content and permeabiUty) of
turbidites (e.g., Type I turbidite system of Mutti, 1985).
Third, and one of the most significant aspects of the epi-
sodic tectonism is the geochemical effect of the variation of
heat flow during time and through space. Owing to the dis-
tinct and separate heating (or reheating) events in the South
China Sea, the thermal maturity of sediments should be
greater than expected for a classic passive continental margin
of equivalent age. Consequently, the oil ceiling (oil threshold
depth) and oil floor (depth at which oil cracks to gas) would
be shallower than in a basin that had not experienced
repeated heating. As a first approximation to the area, we
modeled maturation as a function of the existing geothermal
gradients using the method outlined by Pigott (1985), which
incorporates an empirical approach based on worldwide sed-
imentary basin data. The requisite equations are from Pigott
(1985) and were used to determine threshold temperature (T),
depth to the oil ceilmg (D^J, and depth to the oil floor (D^f).
The equations are as follows:
T = 164.4-19.39 In t, (3)
where T is in °C and t is time (sediment age) in lO' years;
D^ = 100 [(T - Ts)/(dT/dZ)], (4)
where T is derived from the preceding equation, Ts is mean
annual sediment surface temperature, and dT/dZ is the geo-
thermal gradient in °C/100 m; and
D„f = 100 [(150 - Ts)/(dT/dZ)l. (5)
These calculated relationships principally apply to Type I
kerogen (see Pigott, 1985), and thus in application woiild be
affected by regional variations in kerogen type. Nonetheless,
the maturity calculations dramatically illustrate the impor-
tance of the proposed tectonic model on the thermal matura-
tion of the organic matter. This method is especially
advantageous in frontier basinal areas, areas where detailed
geochemical analyses have either not been made or are
unavailable.
For modeling purposes, we assumed that the two principal
South China Sea source rock ages are earliest Eocene (55 Ma)
and earliest Miocene (24 Ma), two times of significant
spreading and terrigenous deposition. These ages and the
regional thermal values (appendix) were incorporated into
equations 3 and 4. The results, shown in Figure 21A and B,
 Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1153

iiff
C.l.= 100 M

Figure 21—Computer-drawn (Golden Software) contour maps of depth (in meters) to oil ceiling for Eocene (A) and Miocene (B)
source rocks, and for depth (in meters) to oil floor (C). C M . = China margin; M.T. = Manila Trench; N. A. = Natuna arch; and P.
= Palawan. Data for control are shown in Figure 8. Methods are described in text.

illustrate the computed depth to the oil ceiling (oil threshold CONCLUSIONS
depth) for these two respective times. The oil threshold depth
is shallowest in the southwest region (near the Natuna arch) The post-Cretaceous evolution of the South China Sea
with a depth of only about 1,400 m for the Eocene and 2,200 can be described by a multi-episodic model of rifting and sub-
m for the Miocene, deepening toward the unprospective sidence. Initiating in the Late Cretaceous, late Eocene, and
Manila Trench, with 3,500 m for the Eocene and 4,400 m for late early Miocene, at least three stages of rifting and associ-
the Miocene. The Palawan area has an approximate oil depth ated thermal activities pulsed the otherwise passive thermal
ceiling of 2,800 m (Eocene) and 3,200 m (Miocene). For the cooling and subsidence of the region. Both these rifting
China margin, our calculations suggest depths of about 2,100 events and the intervening stages of sea-floor spreading are
m (Eocene) and 2,600 m (Miocene) for this oil threshold recorded within several of the region's wells by a synchroneity
maturity. Using equation 5, Figure 21C illustrates the depth of changes in subsidence rates. Integration of these and other
to the oil floor. Altogether Figure 21 illustrates the significant available geologic and geophysical data yields a series of kme-
thermal effects of the basin floor on the maturation of matically consistent tectonic reconstructions of the region
hydrocarbons. If the basin floor had not been thermally per- dining time.
turbed, but instead cooled regularly through time, the geo- Episodic rifting and subsidence can also affect the struc-
thermal gradient would follow the empirical relationship tural, sedimentologic, and geochemical controls of a region's
(Pigott, 1985) for cooling oceanic crust less than 120 x l()' hydrocarbon potential. For example, the thermal maturity of
years: sedimentary organic matter is substantially greater for a
multi-episodic heating model (e.g., the South China Sea)
dT/dZ = 113/(KVt). (6) than would be expected for a purely passive Atlantic-type
Therefore, in the South China Sea basin at present, for a 65- margin of equivalent age.
Ma source rock and an average shaly sandstone conductivity
of 5, the geothermal gradient should be approximately REFERENCES CITED
2.8°C/100 m. Consequently, for an average surface tempera-
ture of 25°C, the oil ceiling would lie at 2.1 km and the oil Anderson, R. N., M. G. Langseth, and D. E. Hayes, 1978, Heat flow, ther-
floor at 4.5 km. But as Figure 21, parts A and C show, for mal conductivity, thermal gradient: a geophysical atlas of the east and
southeast Asian seas: GSA Map and Chart Series MC-25.
much of the basin floor, the calculated depths to the oil floor ASEAN Council on Petroleum (ASCOPE), 1981, Tertiary sedimentary
and to the oil ceiling for the present thermal regime are sub- basins of the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea: stratigraphy, struc-
stantially shallower, underscoring the effects of multi-epi- ture, and hydrocarbon occurrences: Jakarta, ASCOPE Secretariat,
72 p.
sodic heating on the hydrocarbon maturity of the South Barr, S. M., and A. S. MacDonald, 1981, Geochemistry and geochronol-
China Sea sediments .Such kinetic increases in thermal matu- ogy of late Cenozoic basalts of southeast Asia: GSA Bulletin, v. 92, p.
rity of organic matter would be expected in sedimentary 1069-1142.
Beddoes, L. R., 1976, The Balabac sub-basin, southwestern Sulu Sea, Phil-
basins elsewhere that have been reheated similarly by tecton- ippines: Southeast Asia Petroleum Exploration Society, Offshore South
ism of pulsed thermal cooling and subsidence. East Asia Conference, Singapore, Paper 15, p. 1-22.
1154 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea

APPENDIX
Heat-F ow Data
Mao Map Gfiot hernial Calculated Map [lecithnrmal ral,\jl.jl ci! M:jp Ceothsrmal Calculated Nap Geot hernial Calculated
Re T e r e n c e Heat Flow Reference Gradienl Heat rioLv Referenrp Gradif-nl He-.t [ low Refftrer>ce Oradient Heat Flow Reference Gradient Heat Flow
No. 1 IHFU) ^ No. ' ("c/ino K''-* (HFii;^ No. 5 {"C/100 H)-^ >ii..r." KD. ^ (°c/ioo n)^ (HFU)^ No. ^ CC/lOO H ) ^ (HFJ)^

1 1.48 1 2.85 1.45 62 3.92 2.2? 123 2.02 1.11 184 6.84 5.76
2 l.flO 2 2.70 1.38 63 3.45 I.9!l 124 2.54 1.60 165 5.69 5.15
3 2.46 3 2.54 1. )n 64 5.59 I.H7 125 5.05 1.56 166 5.72 5.14
4 2.38 4 2.<<fi 2.37 65 3.02 126 5.45 1.76 167 5.90 2.15
•y 2.GO 5 2.83 1.44 66 3.57 l.9f. 127 2.85 1.45 168 2.92 1.50
6 1.16 6 2.94 1.50 67 5.54 1.95 126 2.63 1.34 169 3.55 1.82
7 l.QO 7 2.52 1.29 68 4.27 2.35 129 2.43 1.24 190 4.67 2.41
8 1.87 8 2.94 1.50 69 4.23 2.5i no 2.55 1.20 191 5.75 1.93
9 1.99 9 2.35 1.20 70 4.96 2.73 151 2.66 1.56
10 1.90 10 2.54 1.30 71 3.84 2.11 152 2.43 1.24
11 0.56 11 2.77 ^ 4 ] 72 ^.06 2.12 li3 4.54 2.32
12 1.91 12 2.B1 1.45 73 3.47 1.91 134 2.50 1.28
15 l.BO 15 2.J9 1.12 74 2.83 1.57 155 3.13 1.60
lii 2.20 14 2.94 1.50 75 3.75 2.06 156 3.12 1.59
15 2.55 15 2.30 1.44 76 5.60 3.08 137 5.34 1.70
16 2.66 16 2.77 1.41 77 3.50 !.e3 158 2.32 1.18
17 2.B4 17 2.99 1.52 78 3.67 2.02 139 2.50 1.28
18 2.46 18 2.74 1.39 79 2.55 1.40 140 2.13 1.09
19 1.92 19 2.77 1.41 ao 2.43 1.34 14] 2.72 1.59
20 2.11 20 2.81 1.55 ai 3.10 1.71 142 2.71 1.49
21 2.61 21 2.50 1.38 92 2.5fl 1.42 145 3.78 2.14
22 5.65 22 4.36 2.40 93 3.05 1.68 144 3.83 2.11
2: 2.33 25 2.92 1.61 84 3.17 1.74 145 5.01 2.10
24 2.48 24 2.81 1.55 a5 4.09 2.25 146 3.17 1.74
25 2.68 25 2.81 1.55 86 2.61 1.4c 147 4.29 2.36
26 3.10 26 2.85 1.57 37 i.2) 1.78 148 4.43 2.44
27 0.62 27 3.19 1.75 36 5.10 1.71 149 1.65 0.97
ZB Z.82 2B 2.59 1.42 89 5.74 2.14 no 3.47 2.31
29 1.8B 29 5,56 1.85 90 3.39 1.86 151 4.30 2.37
50 1.09 50 2.51 1.27 91 2.85 1.5B i')2 3.10 1.71
Jl 1-55 31 4.D1 2.21 92 5.59 2.32 153 2.49 1.37
52 1.35 32 5.52 5.04 93 2.83 1.56 154 4.60 2.53
5^ 1.52 55 4.]9 2 . 30 94 1.35 11.74 155 1.86 1.02
5-5 0.34 54 3.50 1,9! 95 2.66 1.47 156 3.50 1.93
}5 1.59 55 4.6^ 2.56 96 1.2Z 0.67 1>7 4.33 2.58
J6 1.24 36 4.72 2.60 97 5.0) 1.66 I'.B 4.76 2.62
57 0.65 57 4.26 2.54 98 4.12 2.27 159 4.29 2.36
J8 0.97 5a ?.ei Z.IO 99 3.29 l.BO 160 4.05 2.23
59 2.5B 59 4.50 2,48 10(1 1.70 0.94 161 5.76 2.07
^D • .41 40 5.43 1.69 101 1.93 1.Q6 162 5.00 2.75
41 1.90 41 5.D2 2.76 102 Z.Ql 1.11 163 5.85 2.11
1*2 2.25 42 4.19 2.30 103 3.47 1.98 164 4.16 2.29
lii D.59 45 4.05 2.23 104 3.52 1.93 165 4.47 2.46
hh 2.21 44 2.19 1.20 105 3.17 1.74 166 4.56 2.51
il5 1.77 45 5.40 2.97 106 2.19 i.zn 167 4.58 2.41
46 l.BO 46 2.79 1.53 107 2.66 1.68 168 4.56 2.51
47 1.56 47 4.62 2.54 108 3.03 1.67 169 5.34 1.84
4B D.59 48 4.07 2.24 109 2.79 1.53 [10 4.82 2.63
49 1.49 49 5.89 2.14 110 1.95 1.06 171 3.70 2.04
^0 0.40 50 5.70 2.04 111 3.0J 1.66 172 5.61 3.09
51 1.B2 51 3.34 1.94 112 1.95 1.06 173 6.27 3.45
32 0.74 52 2.69 1.48 115 1.90 1.05 174 3.57 2.07
53 0.94 55 3.37 2.13 114 2.32 1.28 175 3.84 2.11
54 0.87 54 5.27 2.90 115 1.99 1.09 !76 3.58 1.97
55 0.14 55 4.56 2.52 116 2.19 1.20 177 4.04 2.22
56 0.18 56 5.99 2.19 117 3.52 1.83 178 4.99 2.74
57 0.46 57 4 . 3D 2.5B 118 2.15 I.IB 179 3.00 1.65
58 0.98 5B 5.79 2.OB 119 4.56 2.52 180 5.0] 2.57
59 1.87 39 4.85 2.66 120 2.85 i.56 181 4.30 2.57
60 2.15 60 4.5B 2.52 121 5.03 1.97 182 5.68 3.12
61 0.48 61 5.87 2.13 122 1.81 1.13 183 5.97 5.28

'IndicaMd bytrlangtooiFlgureS.
'MeasufstTwnt compiled from Jsssop et al (1976) and Anderson et al (1973).
^Indlotad by fWed drdeton Figure 8.
MeaaurementscompJI«dfr(HnRiitherfonlandQurestii(19B1), lajigXIn (1980), Oiao{1980), and Zangetal (1983).
Calculated by method described in text.

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