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(Ru & Pigott 1986) Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in The South China Sea
(Ru & Pigott 1986) Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in The South China Sea
1136
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1137
105' 115°
EXPLANATION
BOUNDARY OF CXEANIC O T ^ SEDIMENTARY BASINS ^^^r»'r^ SUBDUCTION ZONE
CRUST
2CX>M BATHYMETRIC _ _ —— FRACTURE ZONE < V T > EXTINCT SUBDUCTION
CONTOUR ^ ZONE
.-^rZ-l. SUBBASINS y.—-—' CROSS-SECTION LINE 0 WELL LOCATION
Figure 1—South China Sea basin and surrounding areas. Sections A, B, and C in Figure 5; sections D and E in Figure 6.
1138 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
anomalies extended over the crest of a large basement i ise, eration of the old pre-South China Sea basin. Wang further
interpreted as an extinct spreading ridge, the anomalies suggested that beginning in the middle Oligocene, the sec-
were not symmetric around the inferred spreading axis. In ond episode was similar to that proposed by Taylor and
the Bowin et al (1978) model, the first episode of spreading Hayes (1980)—that the old sea floor was consumed beneath
occurred during the Mesozoic, isolating Borneo from the the subduction zone northwest of Borneo and Palawan.
Asia mainland. The resulting Mesozoic oceanic crust then HoUoway (1982) approached the problem differently. By
separated, with a new episode of spreading along a N70°E providing the stratigraphy of the surrounding marginal
spreading ridge during the middle Tertiary, providing newly area, he identified several major regional unconformities
formed younger and deeper oceanic crust in the middle of throughout the basin, among which the Cretaceous-Paleo-
the basin. Such a spreading geometry would have produced cene and the late Oligocene were regarded as the "rift-
the present magnetic anomalies and would be flanked by onset" and "breakup" unconformities (Falvey, 1974),
the older and shallower oceanic crust, which was thickened respectively He incorporated this stratigraphic analysis
and deformed since the Mesozoic. with the Taylor and Hayes (1980) magnetic interpretation to
Ludwig et al (1979) emphasized the role of the Reed Bank present a set of palinspastic maps. Significantly, Holloway's
block. They suggested that the Reed Bank block was conti- model assumes that spreading by continental crustal attenu-
nental in composition, and formerly attached to mainland ation occurred in the western part of the basin, where pres-
China. During the late Eocene or early Oligocene, the block ently only a relatively small area of true oceanic crust exists.
broke away from the mainland and moved southward. This Taylor and Hayes (1982) subsequently reconfirmed and
motion accompanied north-trending sea-floor spreading refined their previous interpretation of magnetic lineations
with old oceanic crust in front of the moving block, sub- with the addition of new data from the R/V Vema 1979
ducting along the northwestern sides of Borneo and Pala- cruise. A southwest-trending relict spreading center corres-
wan. The subduction ceased during the early Miocene, ponding to the magnetic lineations of the same direction
owing to the coUision of the block with Borneo and Pala- was also determined by free-air gravity and a limited series
wan. Their hypothesis is structurally attractive because it is of seismic reflection sections. Taylor and Hayes presented
consistent with the general paleostress distribution: the an Atlantic-type evolutionary model for the basin that is
north margin of the basin dominated by extensional fea- similar to Holloway's (1982). The major difference between
tures, and the south margin by compressional features. the two is in the western part of the basin. HoUoway (1982)
However, only limited confidence could be placed on their suggested that spreading in the western part started contem-
relative age interpretations. poraneously with, but ceased earlier than that in the east,
Tang Xin (1980) emphasized the significance of the old whereas Taylor and Hayes (1982) speculated that the
Mesozoic tectonic trace in the formation of the South China spreading center in the southwest part propagated south-
Sea basin. He suggested that a Cretaceous triple junction westward from the east, but the spreading ceased almost
south of Hainan Island reactivated during the Oligocene to simultaneously.
Miocene, with sea-floor spreading occurring perpendicular The previous tectonic models have greatly advanced the
to a northeast-trending spreading axis. The same year, Tay- knowledge of the region. Nonetheless, we shall attempt to
lor and Hayes (1980) provided a major breakthrough. demonstrate that many problems remain and that an over-
Based on a compilation of all available magnetic data, they all Atlantic-type origin for the South China Sea is inappro-
correlated the magnetic anomalies in the eastern part of the priate and misleading, both in spatial and temporal
deep basin with the worldwide magnetic reversal time scale. variations of its rifting and subsidence, and in its hydrocar-
As a result, Taylor and Hayes (1980) identified magnetic bon potential.
anomalies 5D to 11, giving a sea-floor opening time of 17-
32 Ma, latest early Miocene to middle Oligocene. An east-
west chain of seamounts aligned at lat. 15°N coincided with
the east-west trend of magnetic lineations and was inter- MAJOR TECTONIC ELEMENTS AND LINEATIONS
preted as the extinct spreading center, about which the sym-
metric pattern of magnetic lineations are also displayed. Major constraints on any tectonic model are afforded
However, Taylor and Hayes (1980) noted that the absolute by the regional tectonic elements and lineations. The prin-
dating of the southwest corner of the basin was less clearly cipal tectonic elements of the South China Sea (Figure 1)
resolved: some identified northeast-trending magnetic lin- are those of convergence (the recently active Manila
eations indicated a possible change in spreading direction in Trench, the abandoned Palawan Trench, and the
the region. obducted melange of Borneo and Palawan), of passive
Wang (1982) provided another two-episode spreading subsidence (the China Shelf), and of divergence (the
model, which differed from the Bowin et al (1978) model. inferred rifting centers in the basin interior). The orienta-
On the basis of a detailed analysis of the geologic structures tion of these elements and associated geologic-geophysical
of the Pearl River Mouth basin (Zhujiangkou basin) south components is critical to an accurate analysis of the tec-
to Guangzhou (Canton) and east to Hainan, Wang hypoth- tonic evolution of the region.
esized that the first sea-floor spreading in the South China Bathymetry, like topography, is one of the more useful,
Sea basin began during the Late Cretaceous. Borneo split yet understated geologic expressions, which can yield
from mainland Asia and advanced southward with the gen- important genetic information. Figure 2, compiled from
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1139
Mammerrickx et al (1977) and Wissmann (1984), shows compatible with the proposed theories of simple north-
that in addition to the overall northeast-striking rhombo- south spreading. However, inspection of the deeper part of
heral geometry (e.g., the200-m contour), several east-west the basin, as outlined by the boundary between oceanic
trends can be identified. These east-west trends would be and continental crust (Figure 1), reveals geometric compli-
1140 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
'- 12"
Figure 3—Depth to crystalline basement in kilometers, within Figure 4—Magnetic anomalies and major rifts within oceanic
oceanic part of South China Sea (corrected for sediment load- part of South China Sea. After Taylor and Hayes (1982). Solid
ing). Based on sediment isopach of Taylor and Hayes (1982) and lines indicate magnetic anomalies; parallel dashed lines indicate
bathymetry of Figure 2. Dashed line indicates boundary of oce- major rifts; cross-hatching indicates boundary of oceanic part of
anic part of South China Sea. South China Sea.
cations, significant tectonically. In map view, this area can EVIDENCE OF RIFTING-DRIFTING EPISODES
be approximated as a composite of three polygonal blocks
joined by long. 116°E. We refer to these as the East, Recent work on the geodynamics of passive continental
Southwest, and Northwest subbasins. Figure 2 and the fol- margins, especially rifted passive margins, indicates their for-
lowing figures show that in the Northwest and East sub- mation can be generally divided into two successive stages:
basins, the dominant linear trends are east-west; whereas the early rifting stage and the later drifting or sea-floor-
in the Southwest subbasin, the major trends are northeast- spreading stage (see review by Scrutton, 1982). Durmg the
southwest. Figure 3 illustrates the corrected depth-to- rifting stage, intracontinental rift systems may be generated
basement map within the oceanic part of the South China either by active continental crust doming associated with
Sea. It is corrected for sediment loading by the backstrip- thermal expansion over an active mantle (Sleep, 1971; Kins-
ping technique of Sclater and Christie (1980), and based man, 1975), or by the passive consequence of lithospheric
on the bathymetric map of Figure 2 and sediment isopach stretching (McKenzie, 1978). Fault-controlled subsidence,
maps of Taylor and Hayes (1982). Figure 4 illustrates the volcanic intrusion or extrusion, and regional uplift character-
magnetic anomalies and the major rifts within the oceanic ize this first stage (Burke and Whiteman, 1972). The contin-
part of the basin, which have been interpreted as the ued development of some of the rifts eventually breaks up the
extinct spreading centers. continental crust and opens new oceans, which marks the
Simply stated, the geometry and linear elements of these beginning of the drifting stage. Subsidence, owing to the
basins cannot be fully explained by one-event, non-epi- thermal decay of the continental lithosphere (Sleep, 1971) and
sodic tectonic models. Furthermore, although we agree to sediment loading, proceeds at an exponentially declming
with the interpretation of the rifts as the extinct spreading rate (Sleep, 1982). To understand the evolution of an Atlantic-
center, the position of these rifts presents additional kine- type passive margin or "margin sag basin," (cf., Kingston et al,
matic problems for a one-episode causative mechanism 1983) and a newly formed oceanic basin, considerable atten-
for the complex geometry of the east and west basin tion must be given to the precursor rifting system developed
interiors. from inland through shelf to slope along the margin.
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1141
Figure 5—Cross sections across Pearl River Moutli basin. Modified after Wang (1982). Tinie-rocl« units: Mz = Mesozoic; Pg =
Paleogene; Ng = Neogene; and Q = Quaternary. See Figure 1 for locations.
tions of the major tectonic elements and lineations previously Ma (anomaly 11, Figure 4) consistent with the bathymetry and
described. We incorporated the spatial magnitude differences heat-flow-data age determination of early to late Oligocene.
into our tectonic analysis and into modeling the region's hydro- We attempted to date the Northwest and Southwest subbasins
carbon maturity. similarly. Unfortunately, the Northwest subbasin presently
Beginning with the East subbasin, as Taylor and Hayes laclcs a magnetically determined age. However, the bathymet-
(1982) reported, the magnetic signature indicates an age of 32.4 ric and heat-flow ages using equations 1 and 2 are consistent,
10
KM (D)
NW SE
==^»^:::jj£Q3^ v ^ - ^ ^ ^ : r r =
^ "ip^p^ ^^ ^^5i"~^i- —f=r^^ ^ \
£ 5-
LU
Q
%^^z9^^
NW
s Try
.
Figure 6—Cross sections across Xisha Trough. Modified after He e( al (1980). Time-rocli units: Pg = Paleogene; Ng = Neogene; and
Q = Quaternary. See Figure 1 for locations.
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1143
105
Figure 8—Heat-flow contour map of South China Sea. Data are from Jessop et al (1976), Anderson et al (1978), Qiao (1980), Tang
Xin (1980), Rutherford and Qureshi (1981), and Zhang and Huaizeng (1982). Triangles indicate heat-flow measurement stations.
Filled circles indicate heat flow calculated from well geothermal gradients. Stars represent historic volcanoes with a heat flow assumed
to be 10.8 HFU. Data are tabulated in appendix.
parative anatomy of a region's sedimentary response to extended globally in some studies (see Sloss, 1976,1978). For
tectonism (e.g., Africa by Dingle, 1982), and have even been the South China Sea, a regional synchroneity in subsidence is
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1145
5
111
TECTONIC RECONSTRUCTION
NUMBER OF BASALTS
(B) 2 4 6 8 10
mi
- 20" d
d
0.
SOUTH
- 15
CHINA SEA CO
d
s UJ
J O
< 10-
10"
d
12-
14-
? AGE OF BASALTS
QLATERKARY
PLIOCENE
.... 9
I^1^ (A) (Ma)
UJ
L
10- z
UJ
o M HEATNG & RIFTING
1^
o MIOCENE
UJ
z
20- E. S 500
SEA-FLOOR SPREAtMNG
Hi
L.
1 E. & NW. SUBBASINS 1
_30-
OUGOCENE
2 Q 1000
< E w
HEATING & RIFTING (0
*in L
z
UJ EOCENE M.
1500
g
50- UJ
_J
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
2 E. 1 SW. SUBBASIN 1
60- PALEOCENE
80
occurred (Tang Xin, 1980). Because Mesozoic volcanism is UI
h
east coast of Indochina. We endorse HoUoway's (1982) U
z 40
u
interpretation of a transcurrent fault in southwest Indo- Q
china required to offset this subduction system. Kinemati- cn . ^ ^
a
D
cally, the 20° clockwise rotation of China and Indochina,
and the 45°-50° counterclockwise rotation of southwest 0 i l l 1 1 1
land Asia and by placing Borneo in a position about 70° AGE (Ma)
M. E L. E.
EOC. CLIG OLIG. MIO.
Late Cretaceous
Figure 13—(A) Detailed analysis of subsidence curve of baclc-
The first rifting episode of the South China Sea (Figure stripped well Zhu C. See Figure 1 for well location. |8* represents
19B) began during the Late Cretaceous whh widespread stretching factor for each theoretical curve. 01, ^2, andfi3repre-
volcanic activity in southeast China, the Natuna arch, and sent stretching factors for each of three rifting-drifting episodes.
in southwest Borneo (Tang Xin, 1980; Wang, 1982). Tec- |3 total is 2.5 and represents conventional best-fit stretching fac-
tonic uplift generally characterized the entire region as doc- tor 3* for well Zhu C without considering tectonic episodicity of
umented by a regional Late Cretaceous unconformity South China Sea. By removing rifting subsidence, the calculated
However, in the grabens of mainland and offshore China, time averagefiof episodic stretching factors /31,fil,and jii is 1.5.
(B) Subsidence rate curve. References and calculative procedure
thick sedimentary successions record this first episode of are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
rifting and continental crustal extension (Wang, 1982). This
rifting system trended predominantly northeast-southwest,
corresponding to the general strike of the numerous and
widespread normal faults on the China margin. As a conse- 1973; Hutchinson, 1975; Hamilton, 1979), had begun. We
quence, the direction of extension is southeasterly. infer that the major strike-slip fault southwest of Indochina
By the close of the Late Cretaceous, Borneo had started clockwise from today's position. The western edge of this
its counterclockwise rotation (Hamilton, 1979) with an arc-trench system may have formed a zone of crustal weak-
approximate rotation center being offshore of the south- ness, which could later be reactivated during a period of tec-
western tip of present-day Borneo. Owing to the joint effect tonic extension. However, later crustal extension in China is
of the rotation and the southeastward extension of the con- not limited to the Mesozoic accretional domain, as Ceno-
tinental crust to the northwest, the subduction of the preex- zoic extension occurred throughout eastern and southeast-
isting oceanic crust along the Lupar Hne of northwestern ern China (Tang Xin, 1980; Wang, 1982; Zhang et al, 1982;
Borneo, as evidenced by ophiolite outcrops (cf., Haile, Li, 1984).
1148 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
ZHU D CADLAO 1
1. 500 500 -
O
£ 1000 - £ 1000 h
a a
(A (O
CQ
m \ ^
<n 1500 - <» 1500
2000 2000 -
(B) 120 -
(B) 120
i
80
I-
< <
m
cn
(Ma)
40
60 40
AGE
rx^ (Ma)
20
] [
M. M.
EOC. EOCOLIG. OLIG EOC.
Figure 14—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for Figure 15—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for
backstripped well Zhu D. References and calculative procedure backstripped well Cadlao 1. References and calculative proce-
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location. dure are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
changed from left-lateral to right-lateral, and the fault grad- oped, e.g., the Bukit Mersing ophiolite belt (Hutchinson,
ually became a subduction zone southeastward. The north- 1975). Another kinematic requirement for this activity is the
south-trending fracture zone off the eastern coast of existence of a northwest-trending, left-lateral transform
Indochina may have activated at this time in response to the fault, northeast of the spreading center.
regional extension. (For a discussion of the analysis of shear
in rifting, see Freund and Merzer, 1976; Freund, 1982.)
Eocene
Paleocene During the early and middle Eocene, sea-floor spreading
was dominant in the Southwest subbasin, with continued
By the middle Paleocene, the first rifting episode in the propagation of the spreading axis southwestward. Sus-
major part of the basin had ended. The Southwest subbasin tained rotation of Borneo accompanied subduction of the
(Figure 19C) began to open during the Paleocene, starting preexisting oceanic crust. With time, this subduction zone
in the northeast and propagating southwestward. This time migrated northwestward, with net accretion to Borneo
of drifting and lower rate of subsidence are recorded in the (Hamilton, 1979). Beginning with the late Eocene (Figure
Sampaguita 1 well on the Reed Bank by a succession of 19D), drifting was punctuated by a new rifting episode, as
paleoenvironments indicating increasing water depth recorded by an unconformity in the Reed Bank area (Hollo-
higher in the section (cf., Taylor and Hayes, 1980). The con- way, 1982) and by a shallowing-upward succession in the
tribution of sea-floor creation in the Southwest subbasin Beibu Gulf wells (cf., Li, 1984). The new zone of rifting was
was probably less important in terms of maintaining the located primarily along the China margin east of Hainan.
northwestern Borneo subduction, than was Borneo's coun- The resultant extensional faults were oriented east-west.
terclockwise rotation at this time. We believe this explains Kinematically, north-south-trending transform faults are
why the Paleocene subduction complex is not as well devel- required to allow for the transverse differentiation of the
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1149
(B) 120 -
(B)
s
80 s
80
<
O 40 U 40
K
z
ui
Uhn
a
(0
m ^ - ^
(0 I I
60 40 20 60 40 20
AGE (Ma) AGE (Ma)
] [
Figure 16—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for Figure 17—Subsidence (A) and subsidence rate (B) curves for
bacl(stripped well Bei A. References and calculative procedure backstripped well Bei B. References and calculative procedure
are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location. are described in text. See Figure 1 for well location.
north-south-trending crustal extension. The fault (F2) near tation interrupted by the globally correlative fall in sea level
present-day long. 116°E is significant because it presently (cf., Vail et al, 1977). This eustatic fall is documented by an
divides the Southwest and East subbasins and corresponds extensive unconformity in the basin (cf., HoUoway, 1982)
to the north-south-trending lineations identified on the sed- and indeed throughout much of southeast Asia (e.g., New
iment isopachs of Taylor and Hayes (1982). Other inferred Guinea: Pigott et al, 1983). The original spreading center is
transform faults were at present-day long. 110°E (Vietnam inferred to be approximately along lat. 19°N in the North-
fracture zone: Fl) and long. 113°E (F3). Note that the west and East subbasins. Briefly thereafter, the western seg-
northwest-trending transform fault created during the first ment (west of present-day long. 116°E) was abandoned,
sea-floor-spreading episode began to be subducted, along accompanied by the termination of subduction between
with the preexisting oceanic crust. long. 113° and 116°E, as evidenced by the absence of Neo-
gene melange west of Sabah on Borneo (Hamilton, 1979).
This abandoned trench segment was preserved, becoming a
Oligocene depocenter for younger sediments. It is presently expressed
bathymetrically as the Palawan Trough off the northwest
The Oligocene represents a time of major tectonic activ- coast of Brunei and Sabah. The opening of the eastern seg-
ity in the South China Sea. The crustal extension of the sec- ment continued with the drifting of the Reed Bank and
ond rifting episode ended by the close of the early North Palawan blocks southward. Consequently, this open-
Oligocene. At the same time, the counterclockwise rotation ing of the East subbasin initiated the ancestral Ulugan fault
of Borneo may have been completed; as a result, subduc- (F4) and continuously led to the subduction of the preexist-
tion ended west of present-day long. 113°E. Beginning dur- ing oceanic sea floor (including the inferred transform fauU
ing the late Oligocene (Figure 20A), the second episode of of the first drifting episode), as evidenced by melange off-
sea-floor spreading initiated, as indicated by the oldest shore Sabah to northwest Palawan (Hamilton, 1979; Hollo-
magnetic anomaly, and by generally transgressive sedimen- way, 1982).
1150 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
Figure 19—Kinematically consistent reconstruction of South China Sea: (A) end of Early Cretaceous; (B) end of Late Cretaceous; (C)
endofPaleocene;and(D)endof Eocene. Explanation is given in A. P.I. = Paracel Islands; M.B. = Macclesfield Bank; R.B. = Reed
Bank; N.P. = North Palawan; L.S. = Luconia Shoals; and S. P. = South Palawan. Fl, F2, and F3 refer to faults discussed in text.
large, older structures may be inappropriate owing to compli- within each sedimentary subbasin.
cations of possible secondary migration. The timing of the Second, the stratigraphic section produced by episodes of
faults (e.g., for conduits or seals), with respect to hydrocar- uplift (rifting) and changing rates of subsidence lead to sev-
bon maturation and migration, must be critically examined eral complete depositional sequences of regressive-transgres-
1152 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence In the South China Sea
CHIN/> CHINA
END OF
EARLY MIOCENE
0 200 400
KM
Figure 20—Kinematically consistent reconstruction of Soutli China Sea. (A) End of Oligocene, and (B) end of early Miocene. P.I. =
Paracel Islands; M.B. = Macclesfield Bank; R.B. = Reed Bank; N.P. = North Palawan; L.S. = Luconia Shoals; S. R = South
Palawan; and D.B.L.P. = Darvel Bay-Labuk-Palawan opbiolite line. Fl, F2, F3, and F4 refer to faults discussed in text. Explanation
is same as in Figure 19A.
sive sedimentation. The breakup unconformities are (1985) and were used to determine threshold temperature (T),
chronostratigraphically significant and mappable sequence depth to the oil ceilmg (D^J, and depth to the oil floor (D^f).
boundaries. A function of the position on the basin margins, The equations are as follows:
abrupt and thick transgressive successions occurred, which
are diagnostic of rifting (Perry and Pigott, 1983). The associ- T = 164.4-19.39 In t, (3)
ated source rocks, seals, and reservoirs provide sev- where T is in °C and t is time (sediment age) in lO' years;
eral stacked, potentially prospective, seismic sequences in
shallow and deep areas. In regions distal to terrigenous D^ = 100 [(T - Ts)/(dT/dZ)], (4)
sources (Palawan), carbonates predominated; whereas those where T is derived from the preceding equation, Ts is mean
proximal to fluvial input were dominantly clastic (e.g.. Pearl annual sediment surface temperature, and dT/dZ is the geo-
River Mouth basin). In the deeper region, sedimentation at thermal gradient in °C/100 m; and
times of lower relative sea level should generally increase the
reservoir quahty (such as sand content and permeabiUty) of D„f = 100 [(150 - Ts)/(dT/dZ)l. (5)
turbidites (e.g., Type I turbidite system of Mutti, 1985). These calculated relationships principally apply to Type I
Third, and one of the most significant aspects of the epi- kerogen (see Pigott, 1985), and thus in application woiild be
sodic tectonism is the geochemical effect of the variation of affected by regional variations in kerogen type. Nonetheless,
heat flow during time and through space. Owing to the dis- the maturity calculations dramatically illustrate the impor-
tinct and separate heating (or reheating) events in the South tance of the proposed tectonic model on the thermal matura-
China Sea, the thermal maturity of sediments should be tion of the organic matter. This method is especially
greater than expected for a classic passive continental margin advantageous in frontier basinal areas, areas where detailed
of equivalent age. Consequently, the oil ceiling (oil threshold geochemical analyses have either not been made or are
depth) and oil floor (depth at which oil cracks to gas) would unavailable.
be shallower than in a basin that had not experienced For modeling purposes, we assumed that the two principal
repeated heating. As a first approximation to the area, we South China Sea source rock ages are earliest Eocene (55 Ma)
modeled maturation as a function of the existing geothermal and earliest Miocene (24 Ma), two times of significant
gradients using the method outlined by Pigott (1985), which spreading and terrigenous deposition. These ages and the
incorporates an empirical approach based on worldwide sed- regional thermal values (appendix) were incorporated into
imentary basin data. The requisite equations are from Pigott equations 3 and 4. The results, shown in Figure 21A and B,
Ke Ru and John D. Pigott 1153
iiff
C.l.= 100 M
Figure 21—Computer-drawn (Golden Software) contour maps of depth (in meters) to oil ceiling for Eocene (A) and Miocene (B)
source rocks, and for depth (in meters) to oil floor (C). C M . = China margin; M.T. = Manila Trench; N. A. = Natuna arch; and P.
= Palawan. Data for control are shown in Figure 8. Methods are described in text.
illustrate the computed depth to the oil ceiling (oil threshold CONCLUSIONS
depth) for these two respective times. The oil threshold depth
is shallowest in the southwest region (near the Natuna arch) The post-Cretaceous evolution of the South China Sea
with a depth of only about 1,400 m for the Eocene and 2,200 can be described by a multi-episodic model of rifting and sub-
m for the Miocene, deepening toward the unprospective sidence. Initiating in the Late Cretaceous, late Eocene, and
Manila Trench, with 3,500 m for the Eocene and 4,400 m for late early Miocene, at least three stages of rifting and associ-
the Miocene. The Palawan area has an approximate oil depth ated thermal activities pulsed the otherwise passive thermal
ceiling of 2,800 m (Eocene) and 3,200 m (Miocene). For the cooling and subsidence of the region. Both these rifting
China margin, our calculations suggest depths of about 2,100 events and the intervening stages of sea-floor spreading are
m (Eocene) and 2,600 m (Miocene) for this oil threshold recorded within several of the region's wells by a synchroneity
maturity. Using equation 5, Figure 21C illustrates the depth of changes in subsidence rates. Integration of these and other
to the oil floor. Altogether Figure 21 illustrates the significant available geologic and geophysical data yields a series of kme-
thermal effects of the basin floor on the maturation of matically consistent tectonic reconstructions of the region
hydrocarbons. If the basin floor had not been thermally per- dining time.
turbed, but instead cooled regularly through time, the geo- Episodic rifting and subsidence can also affect the struc-
thermal gradient would follow the empirical relationship tural, sedimentologic, and geochemical controls of a region's
(Pigott, 1985) for cooling oceanic crust less than 120 x l()' hydrocarbon potential. For example, the thermal maturity of
years: sedimentary organic matter is substantially greater for a
multi-episodic heating model (e.g., the South China Sea)
dT/dZ = 113/(KVt). (6) than would be expected for a purely passive Atlantic-type
Therefore, in the South China Sea basin at present, for a 65- margin of equivalent age.
Ma source rock and an average shaly sandstone conductivity
of 5, the geothermal gradient should be approximately REFERENCES CITED
2.8°C/100 m. Consequently, for an average surface tempera-
ture of 25°C, the oil ceiling would lie at 2.1 km and the oil Anderson, R. N., M. G. Langseth, and D. E. Hayes, 1978, Heat flow, ther-
floor at 4.5 km. But as Figure 21, parts A and C show, for mal conductivity, thermal gradient: a geophysical atlas of the east and
southeast Asian seas: GSA Map and Chart Series MC-25.
much of the basin floor, the calculated depths to the oil floor ASEAN Council on Petroleum (ASCOPE), 1981, Tertiary sedimentary
and to the oil ceiling for the present thermal regime are sub- basins of the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea: stratigraphy, struc-
stantially shallower, underscoring the effects of multi-epi- ture, and hydrocarbon occurrences: Jakarta, ASCOPE Secretariat,
72 p.
sodic heating on the hydrocarbon maturity of the South Barr, S. M., and A. S. MacDonald, 1981, Geochemistry and geochronol-
China Sea sediments .Such kinetic increases in thermal matu- ogy of late Cenozoic basalts of southeast Asia: GSA Bulletin, v. 92, p.
rity of organic matter would be expected in sedimentary 1069-1142.
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1154 Episodic Rifting and Subsidence in the South China Sea
APPENDIX
Heat-F ow Data
Mao Map Gfiot hernial Calculated Map [lecithnrmal ral,\jl.jl ci! M:jp Ceothsrmal Calculated Nap Geot hernial Calculated
Re T e r e n c e Heat Flow Reference Gradienl Heat rioLv Referenrp Gradif-nl He-.t [ low Refftrer>ce Oradient Heat Flow Reference Gradient Heat Flow
No. 1 IHFU) ^ No. ' ("c/ino K''-* (HFii;^ No. 5 {"C/100 H)-^ >ii..r." KD. ^ (°c/ioo n)^ (HFU)^ No. ^ CC/lOO H ) ^ (HFJ)^
1 1.48 1 2.85 1.45 62 3.92 2.2? 123 2.02 1.11 184 6.84 5.76
2 l.flO 2 2.70 1.38 63 3.45 I.9!l 124 2.54 1.60 165 5.69 5.15
3 2.46 3 2.54 1. )n 64 5.59 I.H7 125 5.05 1.56 166 5.72 5.14
4 2.38 4 2.<<fi 2.37 65 3.02 126 5.45 1.76 167 5.90 2.15
•y 2.GO 5 2.83 1.44 66 3.57 l.9f. 127 2.85 1.45 168 2.92 1.50
6 1.16 6 2.94 1.50 67 5.54 1.95 126 2.63 1.34 169 3.55 1.82
7 l.QO 7 2.52 1.29 68 4.27 2.35 129 2.43 1.24 190 4.67 2.41
8 1.87 8 2.94 1.50 69 4.23 2.5i no 2.55 1.20 191 5.75 1.93
9 1.99 9 2.35 1.20 70 4.96 2.73 151 2.66 1.56
10 1.90 10 2.54 1.30 71 3.84 2.11 152 2.43 1.24
11 0.56 11 2.77 ^ 4 ] 72 ^.06 2.12 li3 4.54 2.32
12 1.91 12 2.B1 1.45 73 3.47 1.91 134 2.50 1.28
15 l.BO 15 2.J9 1.12 74 2.83 1.57 155 3.13 1.60
lii 2.20 14 2.94 1.50 75 3.75 2.06 156 3.12 1.59
15 2.55 15 2.30 1.44 76 5.60 3.08 137 5.34 1.70
16 2.66 16 2.77 1.41 77 3.50 !.e3 158 2.32 1.18
17 2.B4 17 2.99 1.52 78 3.67 2.02 139 2.50 1.28
18 2.46 18 2.74 1.39 79 2.55 1.40 140 2.13 1.09
19 1.92 19 2.77 1.41 ao 2.43 1.34 14] 2.72 1.59
20 2.11 20 2.81 1.55 ai 3.10 1.71 142 2.71 1.49
21 2.61 21 2.50 1.38 92 2.5fl 1.42 145 3.78 2.14
22 5.65 22 4.36 2.40 93 3.05 1.68 144 3.83 2.11
2: 2.33 25 2.92 1.61 84 3.17 1.74 145 5.01 2.10
24 2.48 24 2.81 1.55 a5 4.09 2.25 146 3.17 1.74
25 2.68 25 2.81 1.55 86 2.61 1.4c 147 4.29 2.36
26 3.10 26 2.85 1.57 37 i.2) 1.78 148 4.43 2.44
27 0.62 27 3.19 1.75 36 5.10 1.71 149 1.65 0.97
ZB Z.82 2B 2.59 1.42 89 5.74 2.14 no 3.47 2.31
29 1.8B 29 5,56 1.85 90 3.39 1.86 151 4.30 2.37
50 1.09 50 2.51 1.27 91 2.85 1.5B i')2 3.10 1.71
Jl 1-55 31 4.D1 2.21 92 5.59 2.32 153 2.49 1.37
52 1.35 32 5.52 5.04 93 2.83 1.56 154 4.60 2.53
5^ 1.52 55 4.]9 2 . 30 94 1.35 11.74 155 1.86 1.02
5-5 0.34 54 3.50 1,9! 95 2.66 1.47 156 3.50 1.93
}5 1.59 55 4.6^ 2.56 96 1.2Z 0.67 1>7 4.33 2.58
J6 1.24 36 4.72 2.60 97 5.0) 1.66 I'.B 4.76 2.62
57 0.65 57 4.26 2.54 98 4.12 2.27 159 4.29 2.36
J8 0.97 5a ?.ei Z.IO 99 3.29 l.BO 160 4.05 2.23
59 2.5B 59 4.50 2,48 10(1 1.70 0.94 161 5.76 2.07
^D • .41 40 5.43 1.69 101 1.93 1.Q6 162 5.00 2.75
41 1.90 41 5.D2 2.76 102 Z.Ql 1.11 163 5.85 2.11
1*2 2.25 42 4.19 2.30 103 3.47 1.98 164 4.16 2.29
lii D.59 45 4.05 2.23 104 3.52 1.93 165 4.47 2.46
hh 2.21 44 2.19 1.20 105 3.17 1.74 166 4.56 2.51
il5 1.77 45 5.40 2.97 106 2.19 i.zn 167 4.58 2.41
46 l.BO 46 2.79 1.53 107 2.66 1.68 168 4.56 2.51
47 1.56 47 4.62 2.54 108 3.03 1.67 169 5.34 1.84
4B D.59 48 4.07 2.24 109 2.79 1.53 [10 4.82 2.63
49 1.49 49 5.89 2.14 110 1.95 1.06 171 3.70 2.04
^0 0.40 50 5.70 2.04 111 3.0J 1.66 172 5.61 3.09
51 1.B2 51 3.34 1.94 112 1.95 1.06 173 6.27 3.45
32 0.74 52 2.69 1.48 115 1.90 1.05 174 3.57 2.07
53 0.94 55 3.37 2.13 114 2.32 1.28 175 3.84 2.11
54 0.87 54 5.27 2.90 115 1.99 1.09 !76 3.58 1.97
55 0.14 55 4.56 2.52 116 2.19 1.20 177 4.04 2.22
56 0.18 56 5.99 2.19 117 3.52 1.83 178 4.99 2.74
57 0.46 57 4 . 3D 2.5B 118 2.15 I.IB 179 3.00 1.65
58 0.98 5B 5.79 2.OB 119 4.56 2.52 180 5.0] 2.57
59 1.87 39 4.85 2.66 120 2.85 i.56 181 4.30 2.57
60 2.15 60 4.5B 2.52 121 5.03 1.97 182 5.68 3.12
61 0.48 61 5.87 2.13 122 1.81 1.13 183 5.97 5.28
'IndicaMd bytrlangtooiFlgureS.
'MeasufstTwnt compiled from Jsssop et al (1976) and Anderson et al (1973).
^Indlotad by fWed drdeton Figure 8.
MeaaurementscompJI«dfr(HnRiitherfonlandQurestii(19B1), lajigXIn (1980), Oiao{1980), and Zangetal (1983).
Calculated by method described in text.
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