CHAPTER - 3

3.1 BUILDING STONES

1. Source
Stone is a naturally occurring building material and is usually obtained from quarries for
construction purpose. It is one of the oldest materials used by man to construct different
parts of buildings such as foundation, floors, walls, and lintels. It is also used to construct
retaining walls, bridges and dams since the early ages of civilization.
Stones are derived from rocks, the portion of the earth's crust, having no definite shape
and structure. Most of the sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of broken up
materials from the primary rock due to weathering action like sunray, wind and water.
The particles are gradually deposited in layers for ages at the bottom of a river or sea,
where they solidify and in course of time come up by upheaval of the bed. Igneous rocks
are formed on solidification of various molten minerals coming up during volcanic
eruptions. Metamorphic rocks are formed as a result of metamorphosis. These formations
are caused by enormous heat and pressure.

2. Composition Of Stones
The principal constituents of stones are as follows:
Quartz: - is silicon dioxide or pure sand found in large quantities in sandstone, granite
and gneiss. It occurs in transparent crystals having specific gravity of 2.5 to 2.7.
It is indestructible, colored quartz (flint, agate etc) contained various metallic
oxides. The compact translucent mass of quartz is called hornstone. Rock crystal
is the transparent crystal of quartz.
Feldspar: - is silicate of aluminum with sodium or potassium silicates or with
combination of both. It is found in all igneous rocks. The specific gravity ranges
from 2.5 to 2.8. The presence of small quantities of iron oxides causes the red
color in granites.
Mica: - is silicate of aluminum with potassium. It brings the glistening appearance to
granite as the thin laminated transparent foils have metallic luster. Its specific
gravity varies from 2.8 to 3.2 .As mica readily decomposes; its presence in large
quantities in a stone is a source of weakness.
Hornblende: - is silicate of calcium and magnesium having specific gravity of 2.7 to 3.2,
the color being dark green or black. It occurs in heavy prismatic crystals and has
a glassy luster. It is strong and durable, but brittle. It is an essential component
of many igneous rocks and is found in abundance in green stone and syenite.
Augite: - is similar to hornblende. Its specific gravity ranges from 3.3 to as high s 3.6.
Diallage: - is the foliated silicate of magnesia and is a pale or green variety of hornblende
and dolomite. This is one of the constituents of soapstone and of some varieties
of syenite.
Calcium carbonate: - is the prime constituent of chalk, limestone and calcareous stones.
This is found in shale and sandstone, as binding material. In minute granular
crystals, it forms different kinds of marbles. The specific gravity of CaCo 3 is 2.7
to 2.9.
Magnesium carbonate: -is found in various limestones. Dolomite consists of 54% CaCo3
and 46% MgCo3.
Gypsum: - is the hydrated calcium sulphate.
Physically, stones are composed of various mineral earth's held by cementing material.
The mineral earth's are: Silica, Alumina, Lime and Magnesia.

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Chemically, stones are composed of the above-mentioned mineral earths and alkalis like
Soda and Potash.

3. Classification Of Stones
Stones may be classified in four different ways. These are:
I. Physical (depending on structure);
II. Geological (depending on mode of formation);
III. Chemical (depending on chemical composition of the prime constituent);
IV. Practical (depending on usage).

3.1 Physical Classification

Stones and rocks are classified in to three groups: Stratified and Unstratified.
(a) Stratified stones are derived from sedimentary rocks. These are limestone,
sandstone, slate etc. These are formed in layers one above another.
(b) Unstratified rocks or stones do not have sign of layers, as they are not formed of
stratified layers. Examples are granite, trap, marble, etc.

3.2 Geological Classification

Stones are classified under three major heads on the basis of their geological formation.
These are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
3.2.1. Igneous rocks or stones: These are the products of heat and pressure. At a greater
depth inside the earth, the temperature often reaches such a high degree that silicate,
feldspar and other constituent minerals of the earth melt. The cooling of the molten earth,
magma, then forms these rocks which are hard, closely grained, have good texture, strong
and durable. The igneous rocks are further classified in to two types
A. Intrusive rocks: These rocks are so heavy in their weight that they cannot force
themselves out on to the surface of the earth. They solidify under the earth’s crust.
E.g. Basalt and Trachyte
B. Extrusive rocks: These rocks are so light in their weight that they can force
themselves out on to the surface of the earth. They solidify on or near the surface
of the earth.
E.g. Pumice and Scoria
Igneous crystalline rocks are classified as under:
i. Acid rocks, with 70% to 80% silica.
ii. Intermediate rocks, with 60% to 70% silica.
iii. Basic rocks, with 45% to 60% silica
iv. Ultra-basic rocks, with 30% to 45% silica.
3.2.2 Sedimentary rocks or stones: These rocks are formed due to sedimentation or
deposition of weathered particles of igneous rocks. Natural agents like wind, rain, frost
etc carry away these particles from its origin and deposit somewhere else. The particles
within these rocks are bound by strong adhesion force which may be in one of the
following two forms:
 High pressure: The particles can be held by strong force, which is the
result of high pressure naturally present in the materials.
 Binding mineral: A natural binding mineral can be found in the rock,
which can keep the particles together so that they are having defined shape
and size.
Best examples for sedimentary rocks are sandstone and limestone.

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3.2.3 Metamorphic rocks or stones: Due to change in their physical and chemical
properties under intensive heat and pressure, igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks are
converted to metamorphic rocks. Pending the smooth finish and considerable strength,
these rocks are usually used for strength requiring works along with ornamental
requirements. Marble and Slate are some of the examples of metamorphic rocks. As a
result of 'Thermo'-'Dynamo'- or 'Hydro'-metamorphosis, the following changes occur:
 Basalt and trap are converted to schist;
 Limestone and marl are transformed to marble;
 Laterite and granite are changed to gneiss;
 Mudstone is reformed to slate;
 Sandstone is altered to quartzite.

3.3.3 Scientific or Engineering Classification

Under this classification, stones are divided into three classes based on their chemical
compositions.
1. Silicious rocks: have silica as the principal constituent. Examples are granite,
basalt, trap, sandstone, quartzite, gneiss and syenite. It is hardly affected by
weathering action. These stones are very hard and durable.
2. Argillaceous rocks: contain clay as the main constituent. The main constituent is
alumina with silicious and calcarious substances mixed together. These stones are
hard and durable, but brittle. Examples are slate and laterite.
3. Calcarious rocks have carbonate of lime as the principal constituent. Examples
are limestone, marble, kankar, gravel and dolomite.

3.4 Characteristics Of Good Stones

A good building stone should be hard, strong and durable to resist wear and tear due to
atmospheric actions and actions of acids, fumes and smokes. It should be close-grained
and homogeneous, and free from cracks, cavities, flaws, soft material patches, loose
organic matters, iron oxides, etc. It should be of uniform color and compact texture. As a
rule, it should not absorb more than 5 percent of water.
The salient characteristics of good stones may be explained under the following heads:
general structure, fitness of grain, compactness, weight, appearance, porosity and
absorption, durability, strength, hardness, natural bed, seasoning, weathering and facility
of working.
(a) General Structure: - Igneous rocks having unstratified structure are either crystalline
or amorphous depending upon the cooling time of molten lava. These are good
building stones. Rocks of stratified structure split up along the planes of stratification,
if not properly placed. Rocks of foliated structure do not have uniform layers.
(b) Fineness of Grain: - Fine-grained stones are suitable for carving and molding works.
The durability of these stones depends upon the extent of crystallization and the
cementing material. If the stone is non-crystalline or amorphous, it is liable to be
disintegrated.
(c) Compactness: - Compact stones are usually of old formations found at a great depth
being subjected to the pressure of the earth above. These are quite durable.
(d) Weight: - The weight of a stone indicates the porosity and density of the stone. For
structural stability, weight is a matter of importance. Again, on the other hand, for
arch, vault, dome, etc., light stones are preferred.
(e) Appearance: - For keeping up the appearance of a building the color and texture of
stones are of importance. Red and brown color in sedimentary rocks and also rust
stains (due to presence of iron oxides) lead to rapid disintegration of the stones.

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 Always, stones of light shades are to be preferred. The color of stones speaks of the
durability. Sometimes, highly colored stones are used to bring the architectural effect
in a composition.
(f) Porosity and Absorption: - More or less, almost all stones are porous. The porosity
depends upon the mineral constituent, cooling time and structural formation. Porous
stones are easily decomposed and disintegrated. The more the porosity, the lesser is
(g) Compactness: - If sandstone, after 24hours immersion, absorb more than 10 percent
of water it is not suitable for use as a building stone. Similarly, lime stones should not
absorb more than 17 percent of their volume of water. In case of granites and slates,
the absorption must not exceed 1 percent.
(h) Durability: - The durability of a stone depends upon the structural formation,
homogeneity, chemical composition, grains and cementing material and the power of
resisting natural wear and tear. A stone being hard and strong may not be durable.
(i) Strength; - The resistance to crushing of stones varies in a range from 150 to
1000Kg/cm2. The compressive stress to which a stone is to be subjected in a structure
should not exceed 1/10 to 1/20 of the crushing load found by experiment.
(j) Hardness: - Hardness is a quality of building stones, which peaks of natural wear and
tear. Igneous rocks normally give the guarantee for solidity and hardness. If the
stones are free from cracks, flaws and cavities, then amongst the stones of the same
kind the heaviest one is invariable the strongest. The hardness is determined by
(k) Mohr's scale of hardness: - A rock not scratched by a knife, represents a hardness of
7, and a scratch with fingernail indicates a hardness of 2.
(l) Natural Bed: - It is the original plane of stratification found in sedimentary rocks and
in some metamorphic rocks. In stratified rocks of good quality, this cannot be
detected by the bare eye, but good masons can detect it by feeling the direction of
grain. Under a powerful magnifying glass, flattened surfaces are obtained in stones.
These are parallel to the natural bed of stones. In some sandstone, the planes of mica
flakes speak of the natural bed of stones. Sometimes, natural beds are detected by
noticing the thin greenish or blackish bands of vegetable origin in some stones.
The planes of stratification (natural beds) have a reduced cohesion. Therefore, stones
derived from stratified rocks should be placed with their planes of stratification at
right angles to the pressure.
In walls, these stones should be placed with their planes of cleavage horizontal. In
arches, these should be placed at right angles to the thrust. The planes of stratification
should be vertical in the keystone for an arch.
(m) Seasoning: - After quarrying, stones are found to have moisture content, which is
called 'quarry sap'. This sap makes the stones soft and easy to cut. Stones containing
sap disintegrate rapidly. It takes 6to 12 months to dry out the sap. Therefore, the
stones after quarrying are seasoned by keeping them exposed to the sun and wind and
protecting them from rain. On seasoning, stones become hard. The quarry sap must
be expelled prior to using in constructional works.
(n) Weathering: - It is the power of stones to resist wear and tear due to atmospheric
actions. Stones having poor weathering decompose and disintegrate. The appearance
of facing stones gradually becomes defaced. The finished surfaces of stones should
not, therefore, be disturbed during construction. When the quarry sap dries out, it
leaves a hard crystalline skin on the surface that helps in good weathering.
(o) Facility of Working: - This speaks of ease in working. From economical point of view
and convenience, stones selected for construction should have the qualities to
facilitate easy cutting, dressing and bringing into the required shape and size.

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3.5 Testing Stones
Prior to testing stones, the quality of stones can be judged by appearance, weight,
structure and texture. Then, the following tests can be carried out.
(a) Smith's Test: Break off freshly quarried stone chippings about the size of one rupee
coin and put them in a glass of clean water, one-third full. Stir briskly for half an hour
and notice the colour of water. Slight cloudiness of water will prove that the stone is
good and durable. If the water is too dirty, it will indicate that the stone contains too
much of soluble earthy and mineral matters.
(b) Brad’s Test: Weigh a few small pieces of stones when damp (i.e., having sap or
moisture content) and immerse these chips in a boiling solution of sulphate of soda
(Glauber's salt). Then, after removal, the stone pieces are suspended for a few days
and reweigh. The loss in weight will indicate the probable effect of frost.
(c) Acid Test: This test confirms the power of stones to withstand atmospheric actions,
gases and acid fumes. Keep 100gms of stone chippings in a 5 percent solution of
dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid for three days. After the chippings are taken
out and dried, if the edges and corners remain sharp as they were before and if the
grains remain firm, it indicates that the stones is quite sound to resist weathering
action.
(d) Absorption Test: Absorption reflects greatly on quality of stones. Place 50gms of
specimen (chippings) in an oven at 1050C for three days and then cool in a desicator.
Next, immerse the specimen in distilled water for three days. Let W1 be the weight of
the dry sample after being cooled in a desicator and W2 be the weight of the wet
sample on taking out from distilled water. Then, absorption of water

This is expressed in percentage.

(e) Resistance to Crushing: - The crushing strength of stones may be tested in a
universal testing machine. Testing blocks are usually 10cm cubes. The crushing
strength of various stones varies in a wide range of 150 to 1000kg/cm2.
(f) Attrition Test: This indicates the resistance to abrasion, i.e., the power of stones to
withstand the effect of the grinding action of traffic. It is conducted in 'Devil's
Attrition Test Machine'. A weighed quantity of broken stones (6cm Size) is put inside
an iron drum inclined at 300 to the horizontal, revolving at 2000 revolutions per hour.
After five hours the stones are taken out and sieved through a 2mm sieve. Then, stone
pieces retained on the sieve are weighed. The loss in weight of stones is abrasion loss,
i.e., the percentage of wear. The loss must not exceed 2 percent for a good stone. The
computation is as follows:
Let w1 = initial weight; and
w2 = final weight of stone pieces

Then, % of wear
(g) Hardness: This may be tested by scratching the stone with a knife.
(h) Toughness: This is tested by breaking the stone under a hammer.
Toughness is the resistance to hammering.
(i) Geologists' Test: It is the microscopic examination of stones to observe the
brightness, cleanliness, sharpness and grain structure of stones.

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3.6 Stone Quarrying
'Quarrying' is taking out stones from natural rock by (a) excavating (b) heating
(c) Wedging and (d) blasting.

3.6.1 Selection of Site for Quarrying

The following points govern the location of a quarrying site:
1. Availability of the desired quality of stone.
2. Proximity to transportation facilities.
3. Scope of providing adequate drainage from the pit.
4. Nature of the rock or hill, as regards safety.
5. Health hazards, if any.
6. Availability of slope and space for installing crushers and for dressing work.
7. Important structures, waterlines. Etc., should not be close to the quarrying site.
8. Economy in quarrying.

3.6.2 Methods of Quarrying

(a) Excavating: - With the help of pick-axes and crowbars detached stones buried in earth
or in rocky soil are brought upon the surface. Coral stones found in seashores are dug
out during low tides and are brought on the shores.
(b) Heating: - Piles of wood are fired on the rock surface for a few hours. When the
upper layers of the rock expand due to heat, they separate out from the lower ones
with a dull bursting sound.
(c) Wedging: - The method of quarrying stones by wedging is applied to sedimentary
rocks and other soft rocks like sandstone, limestone, slate, laterite and marble. In
quarrying block stones for building, the wedging method is preferred to blasting as in
the former case there is least chance of any damage.
'Wedging' is done by inserting steel wedges and pins into the vertical fissures in rocks
and by hammering. Usually, vertical holes are made in the rock (to be quarried) at
certain intervals and then wedges or pins are inserted by hammering. The rock cracks
along the line of least resistance through the holes and with the help of crowbars and
rollers it is taken out.
In some cases, plugs and feathers are used in place of conical steel pins. The plug is
nothing but a conical wedge and the feathers are flat wedges. The plug is placed
between the two feathers and it is driven in by hammering. The plugs and feathers are
placed a few centimeters apart in a series of holes. When all the plugs are hammered
simultaneously, the rock cracks along the line of the holes due to enormous pressure.
The holes are made by the drilling or boring tools.
(d) Blasting: -This is a method of quarrying stones with explosives. Blasting is chiefly
employed in quarrying and removing rocks and stones. The operations involved in
blasting are boring, charging, tamping and firing. For boring, percussive and rotary borers
are used. Suitable holes are drilled or bored to the required depth in the rock to be
dislodged. Then, the required amount of gun powder or dynamite (explosives) are put
into the holes, tamped with sand or earth and fired by a fuse.

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3.7 Composition, Characteristics And Use Of Various Stones
Different stones have different compositions and characteristics and they are suitable for
specific purposes. These are presented in tabular form.

Name of Composition Characteristics Uses

stone
Composed of feldspar Possesses hardness Pavement, road
Basalt and pyroxene; a compact and great resistance to metal and
igneous rock. crushing. Grey or manufacture of
black in colour. artificial stone
Contains carbonates of Metamorphic rock Pavement and light
Dolomite lime and magnesia. acted upon by road metal.
sulphuric acid.
Reddish colour. Can Pavement, stone
Gneiss Metamorphic and be split into thin slabs masonry work and
Stratified granite. and can easily be Aggregate for
worked. concrete.
Consists of 50 to 60 % It has mottled Construction of bridge
Granite quartz, 30 to 40 % appearance. It is piers, sea walls,
feldspar and 10% mica. durable, heavy and hard lighthouses and other
with close crystalline marine works; plinths,
structure. Its cost is steps and polished
high. Its colour is white, columns in building.
grey pink or red.
Water-borne pebbles of Road metal and
Gravel various stones. aggregate for
concrete.

Sandy clay stone Deep brown or red in

containing high colour; has protective Buildings, culverts
Laterite percentage of oxides of coating against decay. and road metals.
iron. It has porous and
cellular structure.

Columns, staircase,
White, Grey, blue, steps, floors, dados,
pilasters, etc in building.
Comprises crystalline brown and pink in Compact limestone is
grain of CaCo3 cemented color. Granular the principal source of
Lime stone by a matrix of silica, limestone is fairly fat lime and it is used in
magnesium carbonate, hard and not subjected blast furnaces, in
iron and clay. to acidic actions. It is tanning. Bleaching and
other industries. Shelly
soft, light and limestone is used for
absorbent. pavements.
Crystallized limestone Hard, durable and Columns, pilasters,
Marble takes a good polish; floors, dados,

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 can easily be carved.
Silicon dioxide with Crystalline, compact,
Quartzite various metallic oxides. hard and brittle.
Colour may be whitish,
yellowish, red, grey,
greenish gey
Sand grains cemented Brown and all shades of
together by calcium or blue. It is strong under
magnesium carbonate or pressure but is flaky when
silicic acid, alumina and it contains mica. It is
Sandstone oxide of iron. usually hard and non-
absorbent. Tile stones and
flagstones can easily be
split into thin slabs.
Freestones can be cut
easily. Great varieties of
sandstones are strong and
heavy.
Shingle Water-borne pebbles. Dark grey to black in
colour.
Hydrated silicate of Mottled appearance.
magnesia mixed with Resembles the skin of a
Serpentine soapstone, hornblende serpent. Available in all
and dolomite. shades of red and green.
It takes fine polish and it
can be worked easily.
Composed chiefly of Colour varies from
silica and alumina; purple to green. Hard,
Slate metamorphic clay rocks. tough, compact, fine
grained and durable.
Can be split into thin
slabs. Gives metallic
sound when struck.
Composed of crystals of Dark green in colour,
quartz, feldspar and but it may be pink, grey,
Syenite hornblende. or pinkish brown. It
takes fine polish. Hard,
tough, compact, durable
and fine grained.
Trap Fine-grained crystals of Hard and tough.
feldspar and hornblende. Colour is greenish
grey, black, or
greenish black.
staircases, steps, table
tops, ornamental
works, etc.
Road metal and
aggregate concrete.
Flagstones are used for
paving; tile stones are
used for roofing;
freestones are used for
ornamental works; grit
variety of stones are
used in heavy
engineering works; fine-
grained sandstones are
used in caving work and
in buildings; hard
sandstones are used for
ashlars work; steps etc.
Road metals and
concrete aggregate.
Shafts of columns,
pilasters, jamb, table
tops and ornamental
works.
Roofing, paving,
wall decoration,
bathroom partitions,
steps, landing, thin
shelves and as a
damp proof course.
Exterior ornamental
works of buildings,
road metal and
pavements.
Building works and
pavements.