Physics-II(PH-102) Credit- 3 (2-1-0)

Statistical dMechanics: Maxwell- Boltzmann, Molecular Energies in an idealgas, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac
statistics, Rayleigh-Jeans formula, Planck's law of radiation, specific heats of solids
Solid State Physics : Crystalline and amorphous solids, point defect, dislocations, Bonding in solids: ionic, covalent, Van der Waals
and metallic bond, band theory of solids, classification of solid on band theory, Intrinsic & Extrinsic semiconductors (with Fermi
leveldescription), Charge carriers in semiconductors, Hall effect, p-n junction in forward and reversed bias, Applications of
p-n junction (Solar Cell and LED). Superconductivity, Meissner effect, Type I and type II superconductors, bound electron
pairs, isotope effect.
Nuclear Physics: Nuclear structure, stable nuclei, binding energy, liquid drop model, Meson theory of
nuclear forces, radioactive decay: alpha, beta and gamma decay.

Essential Reading:

1. Arthur Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw Hill Education , 6th Edition

Supplementary Reading:

1. M. A. Wahab, Solid State Physics, Narosa Publishing House , 3rd edition

2. Donald Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices, McGraw Hill Education , 3rd edition
 Physics-II(PH-102)
Detail Chapters to be covered for Physics-II
(Book to be followed-A.Beiser,S.Mahajan,S.Rai Choudhury)
In chapter 9, we will be covering sections 9.1 to 9.6, 9.8.
In Chapter 10, we will be covering sections 10.1 to 10.7,10.9,10.10 (only classical Hall Effect part from 10.11 )
(Excluding the subsections 10.7.4, 10.7.5;10.10.1)

In Chapter 11, we will be covering sections 11.1 to 11.5, 11.7.

In Chapter 12, we will be covering sections 12.1 to 12.6.

(Excluding sub section 12.4.1)

 Statistical mechanics
It is a framework of mathematics which applies statistical methods and probability theory to
large assemblies of microscopic entities.

It does not assume or postulate any natural laws, but explains the macroscopic behavior of
nature from the behavior of such ensembles(Collection of systems).

System- Object of interest to be investigated

State- Condition of a system with given parameters
 Statistical mechanics
The dynamical state or microstate of the system at any instant is defined by the 6N
Cartesian and velocity coordinates, which span the dynamical space of the system.
The path/curve of the system in dynamical space is called a trajectory

Consider a system of an extremely large number N of microscopic constituents (often

referred to as particles), for example on the order of Avogadro's number 1023.

A micro-state corresponds to a precise and complete specification of each and every

one of these particles.

From the point of view of classical mechanics of point-like particles, a micro-state will
be described by the generalized positions qi(t) and their velocities
.
.
q i  1      3N
The evolution of a system can be represented by a trajectory in the multidimensional (configuration,
B(t
phase) space of micro-parameters.
A(t=0)
Each point in this space represents a microstate.
During its evolution, the system will only pass through accessible microstates without violating the
conservation laws.

A macrostate of a thermodynamic system is described by a few thermodynamic variables, such as P, V, T

and E, S etc. for a gas system. These quantities are the measure of collective behaviors of atoms in the gas.

A microstate, however, specifies the system with the physical quantities of the constituent particles.
For a single particle, we cannot speak of P, V, and T. But we can specified its physical state of motion.

In classical mechanics, the state of a single particle is specified by its position and momentum at a
moment, (r; p). For N particles in a box, a microstate is specified by a set of values of their positions and
momenta

Since each of these vectors has three components, the whole lot represents a 6N
-dimensional space. This is the phase space of the N-particle system.
 A Simple Example of microstates:

Suppose we have a 6×6 checkerboard. Each square of the board represents a localised spin-1/2 particle
with two possible spin orientations, one spin-up marked by X and the other spin-down marked by O.
A particular configuration of this up and down spins corresponds a microstate.
Many different patterns are possible, such as those shown below.

Define a macrostate here to be simply specified by the number,

n", of X’s (and hence (N − n") of O’s, here with N = 36).

Later we will make an assumption that every configuration is equally likely, i.e., each
one has the same probability 1/Ω where Ω= 236
Thus, this is just the common combinatorial problem of splitting a group of
N identical objects into two smaller groups n↑ and (N − n↑) without caring
about the ordering in each group. The number of ways is

the numbers N!/[n!(N − n)!] are called the binomial coefficients

 Basic statistical hypotheses

Classical thermodynamics describes macroscopic systems (i.e..ones which contain very large numbers of
atoms) in terms of a few thermodynamic variables P, V, T,E etc.

But such systems are really made of atoms, and a microscopic description would be in terms of the
underlining states of all of the atoms. Hence we need a bridge between the microstate and macrostate
description.
This bridge is provided by statistical mechanics.
As the atoms interact the microstates change very rapidly (maybe 1035 times/second).
We can in principle take two approaches in averaging:

Time-average. Suppose X is some observed macroscopic quantity (i.e., a state variable) e.g., internal
energy E, we could take a time average over some (long)
time :

at equilibrium
Average by distribution (ensemble). It’s clear that many different microstates all correspond to the
same macrostate.
Suppose we take a movie film of the progression in time of the system. Eventually we expect to see all
possible microstate configurations consistent with given macrostate (described, e.g., by E, V,N).

Suppose the value of the variable Xin microstate i is Xi, and let the probability that the ith microstate
appears in the movie of the system be pi. Then, we can average over microstates to get the observed
value <Xi> in the macrostate

This idea of taking an ensemble average is clearly much easier in practice than the much more
complicated time-averaging, provided we know the probabilities pi.
 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell-kinetic Theory of gas in 1859

Velocities among the gas

Ludwig Boltzmann Realized Maxwell’s finding in 1871

Expressed Kinetic Energy of gas molecules

N number of molecules, collide with each other and against the wall of container.
 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell-kinetic Theory of gas in 1859

Velocities among the gas

Ludwig Boltzmann Realized Maxwell’s finding in 1871

Expressed Kinetic Energy of gas molecules

N number of molecules, collide with each other and against the wall of container.
A molecule moving through a gas collides with other molecules in a random fashion.

This behavior is referred as a random-walk process.

The mean free path increases as the number of molecules per unit volume decreases.

The molecules move with constant speed along straight lines between collisions.

The average distance between collisions is called the mean free path.

Maxwell-Boltzmann’s Four assumption

1.Diameter of the atoms in the molecules are much smaller than their distance.

2.The collision between them conserve energy.

3.The molecules move in a straight line after collision.

4. The position & velocities of the molecules are random initially.

Maxwell Computed- A molecule chosen would have particular velocity

Raising the temperature- The most probable velocity shifts to the right.

The set of curves are Maxwell distribution

It provides the information of large number of molecules.

Lets consider a simple case of a 2-particle gas. Particles A and B are identical in a system which has 3 possible eigenstates.
The multiplicity function: Number of ways N objects to be arranged in n containers

Let’s consider the 12 letter “a b c d e f g h i j k l” to be arranged in 3 containers

c
3 letters in Container 1
4 letters in container 2
5 letters in container 3 c h
c h k

For 1st slot there are 12 possibilities

For 2nd slot there are 11 possibilities
For 3rd slot there are 10 possibilities

---------------------------------------------
Etc
There are 12 possible arrangements
12!
Divide the number of arrangements with each given container 3!4!5!
 27,720

So, there are 27,720 ways of partitioning 12 letters in 3 containers

Simillarly, the arrangements of N particle in n groups containing N1,N2,-----,Ni,Nn objects
N!
N1! N 2 !    N i !   N n !

The multiplicity
QN1 , N 2    N i ,  N n  
N! N!

N1! N 2 !    N i !   N n ! n

N !
i 1
i

(classically many particle in one state, but quantum mechanically not)

In general arrangements of Ni particles into gi sub-containers is g iNi

Therefore, the total multiplicity function is  

 N! 
Q N1 , N 2 ,  , N i  , N n    n  g iNi
 
 
 i 1
N i !

The probability of finding the phase point for a given system in any one region of phase
space is identical with that for any other region of equal extension or volume. This is known
as the equal a priori probability
The A Priori Probability (G) –The disatribution which is based upon the properties of each cell. ai
gi 
Thermodynamic Probability(Ω)- The distribution which is the number of different accessible sequence is A
which the events may be distributed among the cell without changing the number in each cell
N Balls in k cells
A  a1  a 2  a3         a k

g i  g1  g2  g3       gk  1
Two balls fall simultaneously in the ith cell
g i  g i  g i2
The a priori probability that ni balls simultaneously in the ith cell is (gi)ni

G  g1  1 g 2  2 .....g i  i ....g k  k

n n n n

N!
Number of ways in which any n1 ball out of N balls may fall in first cell
N
Cn1 
n!N  n1 !
Number of ways in which any n2 ball out of N-n1 balls may fall in second cell

N  n1 N  n1 !
Cn 2 
n3 !N  n1  n2 
Thermodynamic Probability

N! N  n1 ! N  n1  n2 ,.... nk !
Q   .......
n1!N  n1 ! n2 !N  n1  n2 ! nk !N  n1  n2 ....nk !

Total Probability of distribution

k
g i  i n

P  QG 
N!
g1  g 2  ......g k   N!
n1 n2 nk

n1!n2 !...nk ! i ni !
  
or  0
n
  N  N Constant-Constraint 1 , so 0
i 1
i
N N
n
 
  i 1
Ei N i  E Constant-Constraint 2, so N
0 or 
N
0

k
g i n i

P  QG  N!
The multiplicity function
i ni !
Taking logarithmic of above equation (The multiplicity function)
n n
ln P N1 , N 2 .......N n   ln N !  N i ln g i   N i
i i

Applying Stirling Approximation ln x!  x ln x  x

n n n
ln PN1 , N 2 .......N n   N ln N  N+ N i ln g i   N i ln N i   N i
i i i
To maximize, let’s use constraints and take derivatives

 ln P  
  0
N j N j N j
 Substituting for ln Q, constraint 1 and 2

  n n n
   n    n 
 N ln N  N   N i ln g i   N i ln N i   N i      Ni      N i Ei   0
N j  i 1 i i  N j  i  N j  i 

Taking derivatives with N is constant and i=j are non zero

 1 
ln g j  1. ln N j  N j .   1    E j  0
 Nj 
 
ln g j  ln N j     E j  0
Nj
ln    E j
gj

nE j    exp  E j 
Nj
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution function
gj
1 
Where  and 
k BT k BT

 EF  E j 
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution function nE j   exp  =f(Ej) For T=0, μ=EF
 k BT 
 Derivation of α and β

And we know

Using Stirling’s approximation we have

Then Or

If we substitute the value of α and β in

the following equation
We introduce the notation - =n(Ei)


Then we can write  1
kT n( E i ) 
E 
exp i  1
 kT 
 Density of states g(ε)
We will find the density of states in k-space, g(k), and then convert to the
density of states as a function of energy. IS THAT K CORRESPONDS TO WAVE NUMBER

In k-space, states lie on a 3-dimensional rectangular grid of points with

spacing /L between points

The number of points in the region bounded by k and k+dk is:

The first factor is the volume between spherical shells of radius k and k + dk, and the second factor is the
number of grid points per unit volume of k-space.
Ε=p2/2m We know P=ħk So,
 Writing

Density of states
Quantum Statistics
Bose- Einstein (BE) Statistics
Postulates of B-E statistics are:-:
(i)The associated particles are identical and indistinguishable.
(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles.
(iii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant
(iv)The particles have zero or integral spin,i.e. 0 ħ , 1 ħ ,2 ħ , 3 ħ ,4 ħ ,5 ħ
(v) The wave function of the system is symmetric under the positional exchange of any two
particles.
Examples: photon, phonon.
Symmetric and Anti-symmetric wave function:
The allowed wave function for a n-particles system is ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n), where the integers
within the argument of ψ represent the coordinates of the n-particles relative to some fixed
origin.

If the positions of any two particles are interchanged, say, r and s, the resulting wave function
becomes ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n). The wave function ψ is said to be symmetric

If we interchange the positions of any two particles, say, r and s, the resulting wave function
becomes -ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n). The wave function ψ is said to be anti-symmetric
 Derivation of Bose-Einstein Distribution Function
The Ni number of identical, indistinguishable, non-interacting particles are to be
distributed among gi quantum states each having energy Ei. So, in the ith energy level,
there are (Ni + gi) total objects. Keeping the first quantum state fixed, the remaining
(Ni + gi - 1) objects can be permuted in (Ni + gi - 1)! Possible ways.

Since particles and the quantum states are indistinguishable, deduct Ni! ways and (gi – 1)! ways from
the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements.

Then total number of possible ways of arrangement for the ith state is

EXPLAIN !!!!

The total number of ways of the entire distribution of N particles in n number of energy levels of the
system is
For Ni and gi are very large

Taking natural logarithm of both the sides

For most probable distribution

 Multiplying with –α and –β and adding, we get

Since Ni ’s are independent of one another

B-E distribution function =n(Ei)

 Fermi-Dirac (FD) Statistics
Postulates of F-D statistics:-
(i)Particles are identical and indistinguishable.
(ii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant.
(iii)Particles have half-integral spin, i.e 1/2 ħ,3/2ħ, etc.
(iv)Particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, i.e. no two particles in a single system can
have the same value for each of the four quantum numbers.
(v) The wave function of the system is anti-symmetric under the positional exchange of
any two particles.
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Law
A system of N indistinguishable, non-interacting particles that obeys Pauli’s exclusion principle.
For N1, N2, N3, ….Ni ,….Nn particles in the system have energies E1, E2, E3, ….,Ei ,…En.
The gi is the number of degenerate quantum states in the energy level Ei .

Since Ni particles are to be distributed among gi degenerate states , the same energy Ei , Ni states will be
filled up and (gi - Ni) states will remain vacant.

Now gi states can be arranged in gi! possible ways, .

However, the particles and the quantum states are indistinguishable, it has to be deducted Ni! ways and (gi
– Ni)! ways from the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements.

Then total number of possible ways of arrangement for the ith state is

Therefore, total number of ways for the entire distribution of N particles in n number of EXPLAIN !!!!
energy levels of the system is
Now taking natural logarithm on both sides and applying Stirling approximation, we get,

For most probable distribution

 Considering the conservation of total energy and total number of particles

Multiplying by α and by β and then adding

Since Ni ’s are independent of one another, the expression in the bracket is zero for each Ni .

Then the following is the Fermi-Dirac distribution function

=n(Ei)
 Differences in M-B,F-D and B-E

M-B F-D B-E

(i)Particles are identical and indistinguishable. (i)The associated particles are identical and indistinguishable.
(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles.
Identical, distinguishable particles (ii)Total energy and total number of particles of (iii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire
the entire system is constant. system is constant
Classical,any spin, no overlap of
(iv)The particles have zero or integral spin,i.e. 0 ħ , 1 ħ ,2 ħ , 3
wave function. (iii)Particles have half-integral spin, i.e 1/2 ħ,3/2ħ, ħ ,4 ħ ,5 ħ
etc. (v) The wave function of the system is symmetric under the
Molecules of a gas
positional exchange of any two particles
(iv)Particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, i.e. no
No limit to number of particles per
state. two particles in a single system can have the same
value for each of the four quantum numbers.
(v) The wave function of the system is anti-
 EF  E j 
nE j   exp  symmetric under the positional exchange of any
 k BT  two particles.
 Molecular Energies in an Ideal Gas
M-B statistics to find out the distribution of energies among the molecules of an ideal
gas of molecules N.

For n(E)dE is the number of molecules whose energies lies between E and E+dE
Then we can write

nE dE  DE dE  f E  EXPLANATION !!!

D(E) is the density of states

 Density of States

This represents the surface of a sphere with radius k in k-space

A constant energy surface in k-space: (a) three-dimensional view,

(b) lattice points for a spherical band in two-dimensional view.

36
          
3

Volume of a single state “cube VSingleStat e        

 a  b  c   V 

4 3
Volume of a “Fermi-sphere VFermiSphere  k F
3

A “Fermi-Sphere” is defined by the number of states in

k-space necessary to hold all the particles(electrons) needed
to add up to the average energy.
37
Number of filled states in a Fermi-sphere:

VkF3
3 2

how it comes?

Correction for redundancy in counting identical states resulting from

+/- kx, +/- ky, +/- kz.
Specifically, sin(-π)=sin(+π) so the state would be the same.

38
  2 k F2
We know for a free particle EF 
2m
Vk F3
N 
3 2
or
1
 3 N 2
 3
kF 
 V 

 
Substituting for kF we get
2
 3 N 
2 3
 
2
 3

  VkF3  V  2mE 
2 2
 2 3 2 n So N  2   2  2 
EF   
V 3
 3  3   
2m 2m

Density of states –Number of Energy states per volume

 3  V  2mE  12  2m  
dN   2  2   2  
D( E )  dE   2  3         m 2m E
V  V   2 3
 
 
39
 The number of molecules with energies between E and E+dE

OR
nE dE  C E e
E m m 
kT
dE where C e

 
2 3


Using normalization condition

 n( E)dE  1 
N   nE dE  C  E e
E 0
1 

dE
kT
Following standard integral xe x dx 
0 0 0
2a a
2N
N
C
 kT  2
3
so C
kT  2
3
2

2N
nE dE 
E
kT
Ee dE
Then molecular energies distributions kT  2
3
 Average Molecular Energies
 
2N E
E av   EnE dE 
3
 E 2e
dE
kT

kT  2
3
0 0


3 3 
Using standard integral  e dx 
0
x 2 x
4a 2 a

Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution for

molecules of an ideal gas. The average energy
E=3/2kT
This is the average molecular energy and is independent
of the molecular mass.

At Room Temperature its value is 0.04 eV.

Application of Bose-Einstein Statics
Application of Fermi-Dirac Statistics

EF
 
kT

EF
 f F  D E  
Then 1
 E  EF  1
kT
e
Case I: for T=0 E  E  E  EF
F  
kT
E  EF    E  EF
kT

For
E  EF

f F  D E  
1
1
e   1
E  EF

f F  D E  
1
0
e  1
Thus at T=0, for E  EF all energy states from E  0 to E F

are occupied as f F  D E   1

Thus at T = 0, all energy states for which E  E F are vacant

f F  D E   0
At E  EF

f F  D E  
1 1

e0  1 2
Probability of finding a fermion (i.e. electron in metal) having
energy equal to fermi energy E F is 1/2 at any temperature
Black body Radiation
 Photons
The electromagnetic field has an infinite number of modes (standing

T
waves) in the cavity. The black-body radiation field is a superposition of
plane waves of different frequencies. The characteristic feature of the
radiation is that a mode may be excited only in units of the quantum
of energy h (similar to a harmonic oscillators) :

Photons are quanta of the electromagnetic field. The state of the electromagnetic
field is specified by the number n for each of the modes or with each frequency.

According to the quantum theory of radiation, photons are massless E ph  h

bosons of spin 1 (in units ħ). They move with the speed of light : E ph  cp ph
The photons do not interact with each other. E ph 
p ph  h
But when large-intensity radiation interacts with matter, non-linear c c
optical phenomena are observed.

The mechanism of establishing equilibrium in a photon gas is absorption and emission

of photons by matter. Photons can be treated as an ideal photon gas which follows
B-E statistics.
In equilibrium, the chemical potential for a photon gas is zero:  ph  0

For  = 0, the BE distribution reduces to the Planck’s distribution:

n ph  f ph E , T  
1 1 Planck’s distribution provides the average

 E   h  number of photons in a single mode of
exp   1 exp   1 frequency  = /h.
 k BT   k BT 

h
The average energy in the mode: E  n h 
 h 
exp   1
 k BT 

In the classical (h << kBT) limit: E  k BT

Density of States for Photons

In order to calculate the average number of photons per small energy interval d, we
need to know the density of states for photons as a function of photon energy.

1 4 / 3 k 3 k 3 volume
N k   
8    6 2
Lx Ly Lz

dN E  E3 E2
D E   /V E  cp  ck N E   D E  
3D

6  2 c  2  2 c 
3 ph 3
dE

D    D E 
3D 3D dE 
h 2
h  8 2
2
 3
d  c 
ph ph 3
c

8 2
D    3
3D
ph
c
Spectrum of Blackbody Radiation h D  n   d  u S  , T d
The average energy of photons with frequency photon average number
between  and +d (per unit volume): energy of photons

h D( ) n( )
n( )

h D( )
8 2
D ph    3
3D

c
 3
 =
  
- the spectral density of the
8 h 3
u s  , T   h D  f    3 black-body radiation
c exp h   1 (the Plank’s radiation law)

u E , T dE  u  , T d u  , T   u E , T   u h , T  h

dE
u as a function of the energy:
d

8 E3
u E , T  
hc 3  E 
exp   1
 B 
k T

u(E,T) - the energy density per unit photon

energy for a photon gas in equilibrium with
a blackbody at temperature T.
This is Planck’s Radiation formula in terms wave Length

3
 c
h 
 dE hc  8    hc  8 hc
u  , T d  u E , T dE   1
 d   u  , T    
2  hc 3 exp hc   1  2  5 exp hc   1
k T  k T 
 B   B 
Classical Limit (small f, large ), Rayleigh-Jeans Law

At low frequencies or high temperatures:  h  1 exp h   1   h

8 h 3 8  2
u s  , T   3
- purely classical result (no h), can be
 3 k BT
c exp h   1 c obtained directly from equipartition

Rayleigh-Jeans Law

This equation predicts the so-called

ultraviolet catastrophe – an infinite
amount of energy being radiated at
high frequencies or short
wavelengths.
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law (cont.)

1
4

In the classical limit of large :

8 k BT
u  , T  large  
4
 High  limit, Wien’s Displacement Law
At high frequencies/low temperatures:  h  1 exp h   1  exp h 

8 h 3
u s  , T    exp   h  Nobel 1911
c3

The maximum of u() shifts toward higher frequencies with increasing temperature. The
position of maximum:  3

 h 
   
du d   B k T   3x 2 x 3e x 
 const   const   x  2
0
d  h  
d 
 h  
  exp   1  e  1 x

e  1 
 max  2.8
k BT  k BT    k BT  
h
3  x  e x  3  x  2.8

h max Wien’s displacement law

 2.8 - discovered experimentally
k BT
by Wilhelm Wien
u(,T)

- the “most likely” frequency of a photon in a

blackbody radiation with temperature T
Numerous applications
(e.g., non-contact radiation thermometry)
