The Reproductive System

The coordinated function of the nervous, endocrine, and reproductive system

Hormones that are involved in the joint function of the nervous, endocrine, and reproductive
system

 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: a trophic peptide responsible for the release of follicle-

stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, synthesized and
released from the hypothalamus
 Follicle-stimulating hormone: a gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone secreted in the anterior
pituitary that stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in female mammals and induces
spermatogenesis in male mammals
 Luteinizing hormone: a hormone, produced by a part of the pituitary gland, that stimulates
ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum in female mammals, and the production of
androgens by male mammals
 Inhibin: a peptide hormone secreted by the gonads, which inhibits the secretion of follicle-
stimulating hormone
 Prolactin: a gonadotrophic peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland; it stimulates the
growth of the mammary glands and lactation in females
 Androgen: the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone,
that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in
vertebrates.

How do the nervous, endocrine, and reproductive system joint function affect the male and
female reproductive systems?

 In males, FSH stimulates the production of sperm cells by signaling them to undergo meiosis. In
contrast, in females, FSH stimulates the ovum's growth inside the follicle of the ovary.
 In males, LH stimulates the Leydig cells within the testes to produce testosterone, which
encourages sperm production and leads to secondary sexual characteristics.
 The negative feedback loop of the male reproductive system: GnRH, secreted by the
hypothalamus, stimulates the production of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland. These
hormones encourage the development of sperm cells within the testicles, which then produce
inhibin and inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH production in a negative feedback loop.

Hormonal Regulation of the Reproductive System

 Regulation of the reproductive system is a process that requires the action of hormones from the
pituitary gland, the adrenal cortex, and the gonads.
 During puberty, in both males and females, the hypothalamus produces gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the production and release of follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
 These hormones regulate the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females); they are called
gonadotropins.
 In both males and females, FSH stimulates gamete production, and LH stimulates the production
of hormones by the gonads. An increase in gonad hormone levels inhibits GnRH production
through a negative feedback loop.

Regulation of the Male Reproductive System

 At the pituitary, GnRH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the gonadotropins FSH and LH.
These processes are controlled by the size and frequency of GnRH pulses, as well as by feedback
from androgens and estrogens.
 Low-frequency GnRH pulses lead to FSH release, whereas high-frequency GnRH pulses
stimulate LH release. In males, FSH stimulates primary spermatocytes to undergo the first
division of meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes, leading to the maturation of sperm cells.

Regulation of the Male Reproductive System

 FSH also enhances the production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes by
binding to FSH receptors on their basolateral membranes. FSH production is inhibited by the
hormone inhibin, which is released by the testes.
 LH stimulates the production of sex hormones (androgens) by the Leydig cells of the testes. It is
also called interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone.
  The most widely-known androgen in males is testosterone, which promotes the production of
sperm and masculine characteristics. The adrenal cortex also produces small amounts of
testosterone precursor, although the role of this additional hormone production is not fully
understood.

Regulation of the Female Reproductive System

 In females, FSH stimulates the development of egg cells (or ova) in structures called follicles.
Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH production in the female
reproductive system. LH also plays a role in developing ova, induction of ovulation, and
stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries.
 Estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol
produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and progesterone regulate
the menstrual cycle.

Regulation of the Female Reproductive System

 In addition to producing FSH and LH, the pituitary gland's anterior portion also produces the
hormone prolactin (PRL) in females.
 Prolactin stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands following childbirth.
Prolactin levels are regulated by the hypothalamic hormones, prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH),
and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) (which is now known to be dopamine). PRH stimulates
the release of prolactin, while PIH inhibits it.

Regulation of the Female Reproductive System

 The posterior pituitary releases the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions
during childbirth.
 The uterine smooth muscles are not very sensitive to oxytocin until late in pregnancy when the
number of oxytocin receptors in the uterus peaks.
 Stretching of tissues in the uterus and cervix stimulates oxytocin release during childbirth.
Contractions increase in intensity as blood levels of oxytocin rise via a positive feedback
mechanism until the birth is complete.
 Oxytocin also stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells around the milk-producing
mammary glands. As these cells contract, milk is forced from the secretory alveoli into milk ducts
and is ejected from the breasts in a milk ejection (“let-down”) reflex.
 Oxytocin release is stimulated by the suckling of an infant, which triggers the synthesis of
oxytocin in the hypothalamus and its release into circulation at the posterior pituitary.

How Does the Nervous System Maintain Homeostasis?

 The nervous system has direct control over every part of our body. The nervous system uses
electrical impulses to collect, process, and respond to information about the environment.
Together with the endocrine glands, it constantly changes and adjusts to continuously stay at or
near the setpoint (the normal level or range).

Negative feedback loops

 In a negative feedback loop, feedback reduces an excessive response and keeps a variable within
the normal range. Examples of processes controlled by negative feedback include body
temperature regulation and control of blood glucose.

Blood Sugar Control

 Control of blood glucose levels is an example of negative feedback. Blood glucose concentration
rises after a meal (the stimulus). The pancreas releases the hormone insulin, and it speeds up the
transport of glucose from the blood and into selected tissues (the response). Blood glucose
concentrations then decrease, which then decreases the original stimulus. The secretion of insulin
into the blood is then decreased.

What if the glucose couldn’t be controlled?

 Diabetes affects how the body regulates blood glucose levels. Insulin helps to reduce levels of
blood glucose, whereas glucagon’s role is to increase blood glucose levels.
 In people without diabetes, insulin and glucagon work together to keep blood glucose levels
balanced.
 In diabetes, the body either doesn’t produce enough insulin or doesn’t respond properly to
insulin, causing an imbalance between insulin and glucagon effects.
 In type 1 diabetes, the body cannot produce enough insulin, so blood glucose becomes too high
unless insulin is injected.
  In type 2 diabetes, the body is unable to respond effectively to insulin, which can also result in
higher-than-normal blood glucose levels. Medications for type 2 diabetes include those that help
increase insulin sensitivity, which stimulates the pancreas to release more insulin, and other
medications that inhibit glucagon release.

Positive Feedback
 In a positive feedback loop, feedback serves to intensify a response until an endpoint is reached.
Examples of processes controlled by positive feedback in the human body include blood clotting
and childbirth.

The protein synthesis and genetic mutation

The central dogma of molecular biology and the types of mutations

What is Transcription?
 Transcription is the process in which a gene's DNA sequence is copied (transcribed) to make
an RNA molecule. RNA polymerase uses one of the DNA strands (the template strand) as a
template to create a new, complementary RNA molecule. Transcription ends in a process called
termination.

What is translation?
 The translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA)
molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the
relationship between base pairs' sequence in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence
that it encodes.

What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur?

 A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that
the sequence differs from what is found in most people.
 Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere from a single DNA building block (base pair)
to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes.

What is a chromosomal mutation, and how does it occur?

 A chromosome mutation is a mutation that changes the structure of an individual chromosome,
leading to an imbalance involving only a part of a chromosome, such as duplication, deletion, or
translocation. When homologous chromosomes misalign during meiosis, unequal crossing-over
occurs.
 The result is the deletion of a DNA sequence in one chromosome and a DNA sequence insertion
in the other chromosome.

What are the types of chromosomal mutation?

Substitution
 A substitution is a mutation that exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change in a single
"chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G), which alters a single amino acid in the protein
produced.
Deletion
 Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost or deleted.
Insertion
 Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in the DNA.
Frameshift mutation
 A frameshift mutation is a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA
sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read. Therefore, frameshift mutations result in
 abnormal protein products with an incorrect amino acid sequence that can be either longer or
shorter than the normal protein.

Trisomy:
 Gamete has 1
more chromosomes than it should
 The result is 47 chromosomes
 Ex: Down’s Syndrome
 Extra #21 chromosome

Chromosomal and Genetic Mutations

Down’s Syndrome (DS)
 Excess # 21 chromosome
 Prenatal testing can be done
 Result of chromosomal mutation
 1 in 900 people born with this
 The likelihood of having a child with DS increases with advancing maternal age
 Symptoms: mental retardation, an upward slant to eyes, small mouth, abnormal ear shape,
decreased muscle tone
 No cure

Patau’s Syndrome
 Trisomy 13, also called Patau syndrome, is a chromosomal condition associated with severe
intellectual disability and physical abnormalities in many parts of the body.
 Individuals with trisomy 13 often have heart defects, brain or spinal cord abnormalities, very
small or poorly developed eyes (microphthalmia), extra fingers or toes, an opening in the lip (a
cleft lip) with or without an opening in the roof of the mouth (a cleft palate), and weak muscle
tone (hypotonia).
 Due to the presence of several life-threatening medical problems, many infants with trisomy 13
die within their first days or weeks of life. Only five percent to 10 percent of children with this
condition live past their first year.

Edward’s Syndrome
 Trisomy 18, also called Edwards syndrome, is a chromosomal condition associated with
abnormalities in many parts of the body. Individuals with trisomy 18 often have slow growth
before birth (intrauterine growth retardation) and low birth weight.
 Affected individuals may have heart defects and abnormalities of other organs that develop
before birth. Other features of trisomy 18 include a small, abnormally shaped head; a small
jaw and mouth; and clenched fists with overlapping fingers.
 Due to the presence of several life-threatening medical problems, many individuals with trisomy
18 die before birth or within their first month. Five to 10 percent of children with this condition
live past their first year, and these children often have a severe intellectual disability.

Angelman Syndrome
 Inappropriate laughter with convulsions
 Poor coordination
 Mental retardation
 Prader-Willi Syndrome
 Extremely floppy
 Obesity (constantly hungry)
 Mild mental retardation

Klinefelter’s Syndrome
 47, XXY
 1 in 1000 male live births
 Mild learning difficulties
 Taller than average with long lower limbs
 Show mild enlargement of breasts
 Infertile (absence of sperm)
  Treat with testosterone

Turner’s Syndrome
 45, X
 Low incidence
 Look normal
 Ovarian failure
 Normal intelligence
 Short stature
 Estrogen therapy

Fragile X Syndrome
 Most common inherited cause of mental retardation
 1 in 2000 males
 High forehead, prominent jaw, autism
 A gap in X chromosome

EVOLUTION, ADAPTATION, AND BIODIVERSITY

What is evolution, and how does it occur?

 Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on
natural selection.
 Evolution occurs when these heritable differences become more common or rare in a population,
either non-randomly through natural selection or random through genetic drift.
 Commercial fishing, angling, and hunting activities, as well as pesticides and antibiotic usage, are
all causing profound evolutionary shifts, according to mounting data.
 Human selection pressures aren't always as well-intentioned as those imposed by animal and
plant breeders. Many human behaviors, according to recent studies, have a huge inadvertent
effect on creatures. As the inexorable logic of Darwinian selection kicks in, such "unnatural
selection," as it has been dubbed, is triggering evolution in those populations. Antibiotic
resistance is perhaps the finest and most important example of accidental evolution as a result of
our activities. Antibiotics put a lot of strain on bacteria's ability to resist, thus any organism that
can resist has a tremendous advantage. Pesticides, on the other hand, are selected for pesticide
resistance. Commercial fishing is one of the most well-known examples of unnatural selection
and evolution. The larger fish are generally the ones that get snatched away, and the ones that do
get away are usually smaller.

Misconceptions in Evolution
 Many misconceptions exist about the theory of evolution—including some perpetuated by critics
of the theory. First, evolution as a scientific theory means that it has years of observation and
accumulated data supporting it. It is not “just a theory” as a person may say in the common
vernacular.
 Another misconception is that individuals evolve, though, in fact, it is populations that evolve.
Individuals simply carry mutations. Furthermore, these mutations neither arise on purpose nor do
they arise in response to environmental pressure. Instead, mutations in DNA happen
spontaneously and are already present in individuals of a population when selective pressure
occurs. Once the environment begins to favor a particular trait, then those individuals already
carrying that mutation will have a selective advantage and are likely to survive better and
outproduce others without adaptation.
 Finally, the theory of evolution does not address the origins of life on this planet. Scientists
believe that we cannot repeat the circumstances that led to life on Earth because at this time life
already exists. 

MISCONCEPTION: Natural selection is about the survival of the very fittest individuals in a
population.
 Though "survival of the fittest" is the catchphrase of natural selection, "survival of the fit enough"
is more accurate. In most populations, organisms with many different genetic variations survive,
reproduce, and leave offspring carrying their genes in the next generation.
 It is not simply the one or two "best" individuals in the population that pass their genes on to the
next generation. This is apparent in the populations around us: for example, a plant may not have
the genes to flourish in a drought, or a predator may not be quite fast enough to catch her prey
 every time she is hungry. These individuals may not be the "fittest" in the population, but they are
"fit enough" to reproduce and pass their genes on to the next generation.

MISCONCEPTION: Natural selection gives organisms what they need.

 Natural selection has no intentions or senses; it cannot sense what a species or an individual
"needs." Natural selection acts on the genetic variation in a population, and this genetic variation
is generated by random mutation — a process that is unaffected by what organisms in the
population need.
 If a population happens to have a genetic variation that allows some individuals to survive a
challenge better than others or reproduce more than others, then those individuals will have more
offspring in the next generation, and the population will evolve. If that genetic variation is not in
the population, the population may survive anyway (but not evolve via natural selection) or it
may die out. But it will not be granted what it "needs" by natural selection. 

MISCONCEPTION: The fittest organisms in a population are those that are strongest, healthiest,
fastest, and/or largest.
 In evolutionary terms, fitness has a very different meaning than the everyday meaning of the
word. An organism's evolutionary fitness does not indicate its health, but rather its ability to get
its genes into the next generation. The more fertile offspring an organism leaves in the next
generation, the fitter it is.
 This doesn't always correlate with strength, speed, or size. For example, a puny male bird with
bright tail feathers might leave behind more offspring than a stronger, duller male, and a spindly
plant with big seed pods may leave behind more offspring than a larger specimen — meaning that
the puny bird and the spindly plant have higher evolutionary fitness than their stronger, larger
counterparts. 

Is there any provided evidence to prove that evolution occurs?

 Fossil records are preserved animals and plants, this is used to trace and reconstruct the
transformation of an organism over a period.
 Comparative anatomy has two types: homologous structure and analogous structure. It is used
to compare and analyze the similarities and origins of the different structures of a living
organism.
- Homologous structures share a similar embryonic origin. Analogous organs have a similar
function. For example, the bones in a whale's front flipper are homologous to the bones in the
human arm. These structures are not analogous. A butterfly or bird's wings
are analogous but not homologous.
- A "vestigial structure" or "vestigial organ" is an anatomical feature or behavior that no
longer seems to have a purpose in the current form of an organism of the given species.
Often, these vestigial structures were organs that performed some important functions in the
organism at one point in the past.

 Genetic information is also used to provide evidence for evolution by analyzing the sequence of
amino acids from a wide variety of organisms to make it possible to show evolutionary
relationships.
 Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and
through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion
along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation, and habitat area.
 Microevolution refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a few genes and happen in
populations over shorter timescales.

How do fossil records, comparative anatomy, and genetic information provide evidence for evolution?
 Fossils provide a clearer view that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today;
fossils show a progression of the occurred evolution. Fossils, along with present-day organisms'
comparative anatomy, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the
anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the species' lineages. This
approach is most successful for organisms with hard body parts, such as shells, bones, or teeth.
The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions
of years.

How species diversity increases the probability of adaptation and survival of organisms in changing
environments?
  Increased genetic diversity leads to an increased chance of species survival. Species with a
limited variety of phenotypes and where all species of the species are similar to one another have
a smaller chance of coping with environmental variability than a species with greater diversity.

A comparison of species with high genetic diversity and one with lower genetic diversity:
 If a disease is introduced to the area and both species
can contract the disease, species 1 is better situated to
survive. Even if some phenotypes are not well-adapted
to the disease and are wiped out, other phenotypes are
remaining in species 1.
 This is not true for species 2. A loss of one phenotype
dramatically reduces diversity. All it would take is for a
single event that the remaining phenotype is poorly
adapted to, say, a drought, for this species to go extinct.

Carrying Capacity

 Carrying capacity refers to the number of individuals who can be supported in a given area within
natural resource limits, and without degrading the natural social, cultural, and economic
environment for present and future generations.
 The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed. It can be altered by improved technology,
but mostly it is changed for the worse by pressures that accompany a population increase. As the
environment is degraded, carrying capacity shrinks, leaving the environment no longer able to
support even the number of people who could formerly have lived in the area on a sustainable
basis.
 No population can live beyond the environment's carrying capacity for very long.
 Carrying capacity is the portion of the graph in
which the population plateaus; the rate at which
the replenished resources of an ecosystem is
equal to the number of organisms being born.
 If the population exceeds the carrying capacity
of its environment, it is called overshoot. One
reason for the overshoot is when the
reproductive lag time — the time it takes for
the birth rate to decrease and the death rate to
increase in response to limited resources-
occurs.
 When this happens, a population can collapse or dieback since there are limited resources and
space unless a large number of individuals migrate to other areas with more favorable conditions.
 When the population of the organisms is below the carrying capacity, the available resources can
sustain the needs of the population.

Emigration means an animal leaves its home because the habitat is no longer ideal for them and they
need to find a more suitable environment

Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity

 The factors that limit the biotic potential of an organism are called environmental resistance.
These factors include abiotic and biotic factors that limit the organism from endlessly increasing
its population.
 Biotic factors include predation, competition, parasitism, and diseases. Abiotic factors include
climatic conditions, fire, and temperature.
Examples of Environmental Resistance
 Some of the common examples of environmental resistance include the availability of water and
the predator-prey relationship.
 Water is an important resource that producers need for growth. If the producers do not grow in
an ecosystem, then the consumers cannot be sustained in such an ecosystem.
 The dynamics of predator-prey populations contribute to environmental resistance. For
instance, if the predator population is low, we can expect that the prey population is high.
 Biotic potential and environmental resistance affect the carrying capacity, which is defined as
the maximum population of a species an ecosystem can sustain indefinitely without being
degraded due to deterioration and damage.