levels of violence

prosecution of
concept of revolution
Stormer, The (Der Stürmer) newspaper
Strasser, Gregor
middle-class background
arrested after putsch attempt
elected to Bavarian Parliament
a talented administrator
his idea of socialism
shocked at Hitler’s tough stance
Reich Propaganda Leader of the Party
1928 elections
and women’s organizations
and embryonic Nazi social order
and Himmler
prepared to criticize Hitler
disowns his brother
extravagant tastes
resignation
ideological position
Strasser, Otto
Strauss, Richard
The Egyptian Helena (opera)
Intermezzo (opera)
Streicher, Julius
Stresemann, Gustav
Stumm, Karl Ferdinand von
submarine warfare
Swakopmund, South-West Africa
swastika symbol
Sweden
Switzerland
Syllabus of Errors (1864)
Tanganyika
Tannenberg, Battle of
Tannenberg League
taxation
Taylor, Alan
‘Taylorism’
teachers
technology
Tempel, Wilhelm
Tempelhof field, Berlin
Tempo newspaper
Testament of Dr Mabuse, The (film)
Thälmann, Ernst
theatre
thieves
Third Reich
origins
electoral success
massive political violence
unleashing of a ruthless and destructive war of conquest
‘unpolitical German’ concept
three phases of research
radical right’s enthusiasm for
and the Thule Society
links to the First and Second Reichs
thought
secularization of
freedom of
Thule Society
Thuringia
Thurn und Taxis, Gustav-Franz Prince von
Thyssen, Fritz
Tietjen, Heinz
Tietz department store chain
Tietz family
Tille, Alexander
Tiller Girls
time-and-motion studies
Tirpitz, Alfred von
Togoland
Toller, Ernst
Torgler, Ernst
Toscanini, Arturo
totalitarianism
trade unions
Treblinka concentration camp
Treitschke, Heinrich von
Trier, Bishop of
Trotsky, Leon
Tsarist Empire
Tucholsky, Kurt
UFA (Universum-Film-Aktiengesellschaft, Universal Film Company) film
production company Uhu nightclub, Berlin
Ulbricht, Walter
Ullstein press empire
Ultramontane newspapers and magazines
Ultramontanism
‘un-German spirit’
unemployment
benefits
United Kingdom
war deaths
see also Britain
United Nations
United States of America
Jewish emigration to
failure of railway investments
in First World War
and Young Plan
influence of
New York Stock Exchange crash (1929)
investment by
cuts its foreign lending
jazz
United States Steel
United Steelworks
universal manhood suffrage
universities
University of Naples
upper class
bourgeois values
in Russia
outrage and disbelief at Versailles terms
Nazi Party members
Upper Silesia
vagrants
van der Lubbe, Marinus
Vatican
antisemitism
Concordat with Mussolini’s Fascist regime (1929)
support of Dolfuss’ ‘clerico-fascist’ dictatorship
support of the Spanish Nationalists
and the Enabling Act
Concordat
Verdi, Giuseppe: Rigoletto
Verdun, battle of
Vermeil, Edmond
Versailles: proclamation of the new German Empire (1871)
Versailles, Treaty of (1919)
terms of
restrictions on the army
Steel Helmets denounce
determination to overthrow its provisions
signatories
Nationalists’ demands
Weimar Republic blamed
national revision of
‘fulfilment’ policy
Hitler wants revision of
and Austro-German attempt at customs union
Hitler promises to fight it
security provisions of
veterans’ clubs
Vienna
Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra
Vienna Ring Theatre
Viennese Academy of Art
Viernstein, Theodor
violence
during inflation
in art and film
Röhm’s penchant for mindless violence
Hitler’s use of physical violence to further his ends
a way of life for Nazi activists
at the heart of the Nazi movement
celebration of brute physical force
statistics
severe at election times
sharp escalation of
people become inured to political violence
Virchow, Rudolf
Wäckerle, Hilmar
Wagener, Otto
wages
dispute in iron and steel industry
payment in kind
company spending
reduction
Wagner, Adolf
Wagner, Cosima
Wagner, Richard
epic music-dramas
a cultural antisemite
favours assimilation of Jews
increasingly racist
wants Jews excluded from German society
and Nietzsche
influences Hitler
The Twilight of the Gods
Judaism in Music
Parsifal
Ring cycle
Tannhäuser
Wagner, Robert
Waldoff, Claire
Walter, Bruno
war disabled
War Ministry
War Office
war widows
Wartburg Festival
Wartburg, Thuringia
Waterloo, battle of (1815)
Weber, Helene
Weber, Max
Webern, Anton von
Wedding quarter, Berlin
Wedekind, Frank: Spring’s Awakening (play)
Weill, Kurt
The Silver Sea (opera)
The Threepenny Opera
Weimar
Weimar Art Academy
Weimar Republic
collapse of
and origins of the Third Reich
violence on the streets
Ebert steers it into being
constitution
Reich President
power to rule by decree (Article)
Ebert’s hasty compromises
Hindenburg elected President
frequent changes of government
coalition government
strengths in foreign affairs, labour and welfare
federal structure
‘Weimar coalition’
Communists’ opposition to
Kapp putsch (1920)
blamed for Versailles
inflation
and the press
growth of antisemitism
enters its final turbulent phase (1932)
better freedom and equality for Jews
political divisions
Nazi attacks on
Wels defends its achievements
musical modernism
 ‘cultural Bolshevism’
‘Jewish-Bolshevist success’
press conferences
Nazi determination to destroy it
Weimar School of Arts and Crafts
Weimar state museum
Weiss, Bernhard
Weissenfels
welfare agencies
welfare system
Welier-ter-Meer
Wels, Otto
Weng, Landshut District
Wertheim brothers
Wessel, Horst
West Prussia
Westarp, Countess Heila von
Westarp, Kuno Graf von
Western Front
‘Western League’
Westphalia
Wheeler-Bennett, John
‘white terror’
white-collar workers
unemployment
and 1930 elections
‘Whites’
Wiefelstede, Weser-Ems constituency
Wiesbaden
Wilder, Billy
Wilhelm, Kaiser
Wilhelm, Kaiser
personality
and Bismarck’s resignation
annual proclamation (1918)
claims that army was stabbed in the back
 abdication
war crimes issue
in exile
and German education
Wilhelmine Reich see also German Reich
Wilson, Woodrow
his ‘Fourteen Points’
Windthorst League
Wirth, Josef
Woltmann, Ludwig
women
suffrage
workers
and Italian fascism
Nazi Party membership
tendency to live longer than men
Woolworth’s
‘work-shy’
workers’ councils
working class
growing self-assertion
opposes antisemitism
impact of Versailles terms
and Marxism
industrial
Nazi Party members
support of Social Democrats
of Berlin
Working Community of Patriotic Fighting Leagues
World in the Evening (Welt am Abend) newspaper
World League for Sexual Reform
World Stage, The (Die Weltbühne)
magazine
Worms
Wuppertal
Württemberg
Young German Order
Young Plan
Youth League of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party
youth movement
youth welfare
Yugoslavia
Zander, Elsbeth
Zanzibar
Zemlinsky, Alexander von
Zweig, Arnold
1. The pseudo-medievalism of the Bismarck memorial in Hamburg, unveiled
in 1906, promises a revival of past German glories under a new national
leader.
2. Antisemitic postcard from ‘the only Jew-free hotel in Frankfurt’, 1887.
Such attitudes were a new phenomenon in the 1880s.
3. (top) The promise of victory: German troops advance confidently across
Belgium in 1914.
4. (middle) The reality of defeat: German prisoners of war taken by the
Allies at the Battle of Amiens, August 1918.
5. (bottom) The price to be paid: the skeletons of German warplanes
scrapped in fulfilment of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.
 6. (top) Descent into chaos: a street battle in Berlin during the ‘Spartacist
uprising’ of January 1919.
7. (right) Revenge of the right: a Free Corps lieutenant in charge of a firing
squad photographs his irregulars with the ‘Red Guardist’ they are about to
execute during their bloody suppression of the Munich Soviet, May 1919.
8. A racist cartoon in a German satirical magazine highlights the murders,
robberies and sex offences supposedly committed by French colonial troops
during the Ruhr occupation of 1923.
9. The hyperinflation of 1923: ‘So many thousand-mark notes for just one
dollar!’

10. The balance-sheet of reparations, 1927: 14,000 suicides in Germany are

the result, according to a satirical periodical, of economic hardship caused
by the financial burden imposed on the country by the Treaty of Versailles.
11. The Roaring Twenties in Berlin: artist Otto Dix’s bitter view of German
society in 1927-28; war veterans are forced out to the margins, while women
of easy virtue and their clients live it up at a jazz party.

12. The beer-hall putsch: armed Nazi stormtroopers wait outside Munich
city hall, November 1923, for the takeover that never came.
13. Hitler relaxing, but not drinking, with his friends in a Munich beer-cellar
in 1929. Gregor Strasser is on the far left.
14. Hitler leads a street march at an early Nazi Party rally in Weimar, 1926,
while stormtroopers clear the way. A hatless Rudolf Hess can be seen to his
left, with Heinrich Himmler directly behind.
 15. The face of fanaticism: stormtroopers listen to a speech at an open-air
rally, 1930.
16. The Communist threat: criminality, poverty and extreme left-wing
commitment often went together, to the alarm of middle-class voters, as in
this slum district of Hamburg during an election campaign in 1932.
17. The futility of Brüning’s ban on uniforms (December 1930): the
brownshirts wear white shirts instead, and the effect is the same.
 18. A pacifist poster warns in 1930 that ‘anyone who votes for the right
votes for war’, and Nazism can mean only death and destruction. ‘German,’
it asks rhetorically, ‘shall he grab you again?’
19. The violence of the visual image: where the Nazis lead in 1928, other
parties follow in later elections. (a) ‘Smash the world-foe, International High
Finance’ - Nazi election poster, 1928. (b) ‘An end to this system!’ -
Communist election poster, 1932. (c) ‘Clear the way for List 1!’ - the Social
Democratic worker elbows aside the Nazi and the Communist, 1930. (d)
‘Against civil war and inflation’ - the People’s Party knocks down its rivals
to right and left, an example of wishful thinking from 1932.
 20. The choice before the electorate in September 1930: the parties target
women, benefit claimants, young people and other specific social groups.

21. ‘Harbinger of the Third Reich’. A Social Democratic poster warns

against the violence of the Nazis, January 1931. After scrawling ‘Germany,
awake!’ and daubing swastikas on the walls, the figure of Death, dressed in a
brownshirt uniform and holding a pistol, kills an opponent and marches on.

22. (top) Drowning out the opposition: Nazis use loudhailers to shout ‘Hail,
Hitler!’ during the election campaign of March 1933.
23. (below) The respectable face of Nazism: Hitler, in formal attire, meets
leading businessmen shortly after his appointment as Reich Chancellor in
January 1933.
24. The reality on the streets: Communists and Social Democrats arrested by
stormtroopers acting as ‘auxiliary police’ await their fate in a torture cellar
of the brownshirts in the spring of 1933.

25. The first concentration camps, 1933: Social Democrats are registered on
their arrival at the Oranienburg camp.
26. ‘The noble Communist in the concentration camp’. Nazi propaganda
gave wide publicity to the camps but tried to give them a positive image.
According to this cartoon from 14 May 1933, ‘arrest’ was followed by a
‘clean-up’, a ‘cut (hair and beard)’ - the German word is the same as that for
circumcision - an ‘airing’ and a ‘photograph’. In Berlin’s ‘Romanesque
Café’ and the ‘Café Megalomania’, well-known haunts of modernist artists
and radical writers, the supposedly Jewish regulars lament their friend’s
transformation six weeks later: ‘What the poor man must have gone
through!’
27. Hitler’s cultural revolution: out of a mass of squabbling pygmies,
‘Germany’s sculptor’ creates a new giant German ready to take on the
world.
28. The exiles: the Nazi satirical journal The Nettle portrays the flight of
Germany’s most eminent writers and intellectuals as a triumph for the
German nation: while Thomas Mann works the hurdy-gurdy, others, mostly
Jewish, slink away from Germany to his tune. Among those caricatured are
Albert Einstein, Lion Feuchtwanger and Karl Marx. ‘What is gone, won’t
return.’
29. ‘Against the un-German spirit’: Nazi students burn Jewish and leftist
books outside Berlin University on 10 May 1933.
 30. ‘Germans! Defend yourselves! Do not buy from Jews!’ Stormtroopers
paste stickers onto a Jewish shop window during the boycott of I April 1933,
while shoppers look on.
 31. Continuity in the National Socialist Revolution: a postcard from 1933
draws a direct line from Frederick the Great of Prussia through Bismarck to
Hitler.