الاتصالاتAnalog Communications Dr Moh

Class: 3rd year
University of Technology Subject: Communications and Digital Signal

Department of Electromechanically Engineering Processing
Navigation and Guidance Engineering branch Lecturer: Dr. Mohammed Q. Sulttan
Functional Elements of Communication System

1-1 Introduction to Communication System:
In general, the communication systems are designed to send messages or information from a source that generates
the messages to one or more destinations. In other words, the principle objective of a communication system is
to transmit information signals from one point to another. A communication system can be represented by the
functional block diagram shown in Figure 1. The information generated by the source may be of the form of voice
(speech source), a picture (image source), or plain text (‫ )نص عادي‬in some particular language, such as English,
Japanese, German, French, etc.
Information Output Signal/

Source / Input Transmitter Channel Receiver Output
Transducer Transducer
Message Transmitted Received

Signal Signal Signal
Figure 1. The Block Diagram of a Communication System

1.1.1 Input Transducer:
The wide variety of possible sources of information results in many different forms for messages. Messages may
be analog or digital. The message produced by a source must be converted by a transducer to a form suitable for
the particular type of communication system employed. For example, in electrical communications, speech waves
are converted by a microphone to voltage variations. Such a converted message is referred to as the message
signal. Input transducer such as microphone, camera, and keyboard.
1.1.2 Transmitter:
The transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission through the physical
channel or transmission medium. The transmitter must translate the information signal to be transmitted into the
appropriate frequency range that matches the frequency allocation assigned to the transmitter. Thus, signals
transmitted by multiple radio stations do not interfere with one another. The transmitter performs the matching of
the message signal to the channel by a process called modulation.
1.1.3 Channel:
The communications channel is the physical medium that is used to send the signal from the transmitter to the
receiver. In wireless transmission, the channel is usually the atmosphere (free space). On the other hand, telephone
channels usually employ a variety of physical media, including wire lines, optical fiber cables, and wireless
(microwave radio). The channel can have many different forms; the most familiar is the channel that exists
between the transmitting antenna of a commercial radio station and the receiving antenna of a radio. In this
channel, the transmitted signal propagates through the atmosphere, or free space, to the receiving antenna.
Some types of channels: Transmission lines (such as open two- wire systems and co-axial cables), Optical fiber
channels, and Guided electromagnetic – wave channels.
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Class: 3rd year
1.1.4 Receiver:
The receiver's function is to extract the desired message from the received signal at the channel output and to
convert it to a form suitable for the output transducer. Although amplification may be one of the important
operations performed by the receiver, where the received signal may be extremely weak, the main function of the
receiver is to demodulate the received signal. The main jobs of the receiver are: Extracts an estimate of the original
transducer output, Demodulator, and Amplifier.
1.1.5 Output Transducer:
The output transducer completes the communication system. The device converts the electric signal at its input
into the form desired by the system user. The most common output transducer is a loudspeaker. There are many
other examples, such as tape recorders, personal computers, meters, speaker, monitor and cathode – ray tubes.
1-2 Noise in Communication Systems:

In communication systems, Noise is an error or undesired random disturbance of a useful information signal. The
noise is a summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural and sometimes man-made sources. Noise is,
however, typically distinguished from interference, for example in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) and signal-to-noise plus interference ratio (SNIR) measures. Noise is also typically
distinguished from distortion, which is an unwanted systematic alteration of the signal waveform by the
communication equipment, for example in the signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SINAD) and total harmonic
distortion plus noise (THD+N).
In analog systems, noise deteriorates the quality of the received signal, e.g. the appearance of “snow” on the TV
screen, or “static” sounds during an audio transmission. In digital communication systems, noise degrades the
throughput because it requires retransmission of data packets or extra coding to recover the data in the presence
of errors.
2- Signal Analysis
A signal is simply a quantity that varies as a function of some independent variable (usually time), electrical
signals are voltage-or current-time variations that can be represented by a series of a sine or cosine waves. Or A
signal is defined as any function that carries information. A signal is represented by the symbol used for
mathematical functions, e.g. x(t) or f(t). 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒘𝒐 𝒕 + 𝜽)
2-1 Classification of Signals:
There are several classes of signals, here we consider only the following classes:
2.1.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time signals:
A signal that is specified for every value of time 𝒕 is a continuous-time signal 𝑠(𝑡) Figure 2, such as telephone
and video camera outputs. The signal that is specified only at discrete values of 𝒕 is a discrete-time signal 𝑠(𝑡)
Figure 3, such as the quarterly gross national product (GNP), monthly sales of a corporation, and stock market
daily averages. A discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by s[n], where n is an
integer.
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Class: 3rd year
Figure 2. Continuous-time sinusoidal signal Figure 3. Discrete-time sinusoidal signal

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒘𝒐 𝒕 + ∅) 𝒔[𝒏] = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝛀𝒐 𝒕 + ∅)
2.1.2 Analog and digital signals:
The concept of continuous-time is often confused with that of analog. The two are not the same. The same is true
of the concept of discrete-time and digital. If a continuous-time signal 𝑠(𝑡) can take on any values in a continuous
time interval, then 𝑠(𝑡) is called an analog signal. If a discrete-time signal can take on only a finite number of
distinct values 𝑠[𝑛], then the signal is called a digital signal. Figure 4. Shows examples of various types of signals.
It is clear that analog is not necessarily continuous time and digital need to be discrete time.
Figure 4. Examples of signals. (a) Analog, continuous time. (b) Digital, continuous time. (c) Analog,
discrete time. (d) Digital, discrete time.
2.1.3 Deterministic and random signals:
Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any given time. Random signals
are those signals that take random values at any given times. A signal whose physical description is known
completely, in either a mathematical form or a graphical form, is a deterministic signal. If a signal is known only
in terms of probabilistic description, such as mean value, mean squared value, and so on, rather than it’s compete
mathematical or graphical description, is a random signal. Most of the noise signals encountered in practice are
random signals.
2.1.4 Periodic and non-periodic signals:
A signal 𝑠(𝑡) is said to be periodic if for some position constant 𝑇𝑜 , 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠 (𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇𝑜 ) for all 𝑡 where 𝑇𝑜 is
called the period and the integer n > 0. The smallest value of 𝑇𝑜 that satisfies the above periodicity condition is
the period of 𝑠(𝑡).
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Class: 3rd year
The signal in Figure 5b, is a periodic signal with period 2. A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic. The signal in
Figure 5a, is aperiodic.
Hints: Periodic signal is almost power signal, Aperiodic signal is almost energy signal, and some of signals are
1
neither power nor energy (increasing or divergent signals like tan(𝑡), 𝑡 , 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 … 𝑒𝑡𝑐)
Figure 5. (a) Aperiodic signal, (b) periodic signal

2.1.5 Power and energy signals:
A signal with finite energy is an energy signal, and a signal with finite power is a power signal. In other words,
a signal 𝑠(𝑡) is an energy signal if
∞
𝐸 = ∫ |𝑠(𝑡) |2 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
Similarly, a signal with a finite and nonzero power (mean square value) is a power signal. In other words, a signal
is a power signal if
1 𝑇/2
0 < 𝑃 = lim ∫ |𝑠(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
Signals in Figure 5 (a and b) are examples of energy and power signals, respectively. Observe that power is the
time average of the energy. Since the averaging is over an infinity large interval, a signal with finite energy has
zero power, and a signal with finite power has infinite energy. Therefore, a signal cannot both be an energy and
a power signal. If it is one, it cannot be the other. On the other hand, there are signals that are neither energy nor
power signals. The ramp signal is such an example.
In other word; to find out the signal is Energy or Power signal. Simply calculate the average power 𝑃 and total
𝐸 = 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
energy 𝐸 of the signal. 𝐼𝑓 } 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑃=0
𝑃 = 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝐼𝑓 } 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐸=∞
If none of the above two cases are satisfied, the signal is nether energy nor power signal.
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Class: 3rd year
Deriving the Equation of Energy and Power Signals

An electrical signal can be represented as
𝒗𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑷(𝒕) = or 𝑷(𝒕) = 𝒊𝟐 (𝒕)𝑹,
𝑹
where 𝑣(𝑡) is a voltage, 𝑖(𝑡) is a current, 𝑅 is a resistance and 𝑃(𝑡) is an instantaneous power across the resistor.
In communication systems, power is often normalized by assuming 𝑅 to be 1 𝛺. For as long as the two equations
of power have the same form. Therefore, regardless of whether the signal is a voltage or current waveform, the
normalization convention allows us to express the instantaneous power as
𝑷(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)
where 𝒙(𝒕) is either a voltage or a current signal.
The energy dissipated during the time interval (−𝑇/2, 𝑇/2) by a real signal with instantaneous power expressed
by 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) can then be written as
𝑻/𝟐
𝑬=∫ 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
−𝑻/𝟐
and the average power dissipated by the signal during the interval is
𝑬 𝟏 𝑻/𝟐 𝟐
𝑷 = = ∫ 𝒙 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻 −𝑻/𝟐
The performance of a communication system depends on the received signal energy; higher energy signals are
detected more reliably (with fewer errors) than are lower energy signals. On other hand, power is the rate at which
energy is delivered. The power determines the voltages that must be applied to a transmitter and the intensities of
the electromagnetic fields that one must contend with in radio systems.
In analyzing communication signals, it is often desirable to deal with the waveform energy. We classify 𝑥(𝑡) as
an energy signal if, and only if, it has nonzero but finite energy (0 < 𝐸 < ∞) for all time, where
𝑻/𝟐 ∞
𝑬 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∫ 𝒙 𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝟐(
𝑻→∞ −𝑻/𝟐 −∞
In the real world, we always transmit signals having finite energy. However, in order to describe periodic signals,
exist for all time and thus have infinite energy, and in order to deal with random signals that have infinite energy,
it is convenient to define a class of signals called power signals. A signal is defined as power signal if, and only
if, it has finite but nonzero power (0 < 𝑃 < ∞) for all time, where
𝟏 𝑻/𝟐 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∫ 𝒙 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻→∞ 𝑻 −𝑻/𝟐
Example 1: Is the signal shown in the Figure below Energy or Power signal?
𝒙(𝒕)
∞ 𝑇/2 A
Sol: 𝐸 = ∫−∞ |𝑥 (𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = ∫−𝑇/2 𝐴2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑇,
𝒕
If 𝐸 < ∞ then signal is energy signal. -T/2 0 T/2
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Class: 3rd year
Example 2: What is the type of the signal (Energy or Power) shown below?
∞ 5
Sol: 𝐴 = 5, 𝑇 = 5, 𝐸 = ∫−∞ |𝑥 (𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝐴2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑇 = (5)2 × 5 = 125 × 10−3 energy
signal. 𝒙(𝒕)
5
(𝐴𝑚𝑝.)2
Hint: The power of any sinusoidal wave is magnitude square divided by 2, i.e. 𝒕 (𝒎𝒔)
2
0 5
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) ⟹ 𝑃 = , 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡) ⟹ 𝑃 =
2 2
𝒙(𝒕)
Example 3: Find the Energy of the signal shown in the figure below? A
𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐵 𝒕
Sol: 𝑃 = = 𝐸/𝑇 , 𝐸 = 0 B
2 2
Example 4: Find the Power of the signal 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ), 𝑇 = 1/𝑓 ?

Sol:
𝑇/2 𝑇/2 1+cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑡) 𝐴2 1 sin(4𝜋𝑓𝑡) 𝑇/2
𝑃 = 1/𝑇 ∫−𝑇/2 𝐴2 cos 2(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2/𝑇 ∫−𝑇/2 = [ × 𝑡 + 1/2 × |−𝑇/2 ]
2 𝑇 2 4𝜋𝑓
0
𝐴2 𝐴 2 1 𝐴2
= + × [sin(2𝜋) − sin(−2𝜋)] =
2 𝑇 8𝜋𝑓 2
𝐴2
∴The power of 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)is .
2
𝐴2
In general, the power of 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + ∅) = , without the effect of the phase.
2
Example 5: Find the Power and Energy of the following signals:
1. 𝑥 (𝑡) = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠(10𝑡 + ∅) + 10sin (5𝑡 + ∅)
𝜋
𝑗(2𝑡+ 4 )
2. 𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑒
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
Sol: 1- 𝑥1 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠(10𝑡 + ∅) periodic signal, 𝑤1 = 10, 𝑇1 = = = ,
𝑤1 10 5
2𝜋
𝑥2 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝑡 + ∅) periodic signal, 𝑤2 = 5, 𝑇2 = .
5
𝐴𝑜 2 𝐴𝑜 2
𝐴𝑜 sin(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + ∅) ⇒ 𝑃 = , 𝐴𝑜 = 5, 𝐴𝑜 cos(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + ∅) ⇒ 𝑃 = , 𝐴𝑜 = 10
2 2
25 100
𝑃1 = = 12.5 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡, 𝑃2 = = 50 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
2 2
Total power is 𝑃 = 12.5 + 50 = 62.5 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 (finite), so power is finite and 𝐸 = ∞. So 𝑥(𝑡) is power signal.
2- 𝑦(𝑡) is periodic signal, so its power signal 𝑃 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒, 𝐸 = ∞, now we can prove that:
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 , complex number, |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , |𝑒 𝑖𝑥 | = √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ,

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 = 1), |𝑒 𝑖𝑥 | = √1 = +1, so 𝑥 = 2𝑡 + 𝜋/4 from 𝑦(𝑡), |𝑦(𝑡)| = +1
1 0 1 0 1 1
To calculate the average power: 𝑃 = ∫−𝑇 |𝑦 (𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−𝑇 1 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑡]0−𝑇 = [0 − (−𝑇)] = 1. So
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑃 is finite and 𝐸 = ∞.
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Class: 3rd year
2-2 Some Useful Functions:

2.2.1 Unit impulse function:
The unit impulse function, also known as the Dirac delta function (the Dirac delta function, or 𝛿 function, is a
generalized function, or distribution, on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero), 𝛿(𝑡) is
defined by:
∞
∫−∞ 𝑠(𝑡)𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠(0)
∞ ∞, … . . 𝑡 = 0
An alternative definition is:∫−∞ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1 and 𝛿 (𝑡) = {
0, … … 𝑡 ≠ 0
2.2.2 Unit step function:
It is a discontinuous function 𝑢(𝑡), whose value is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument.
1, … . . 𝑡 > 0
Also known as the Heaviside step function. 𝑢 (𝑡) = {
0, … … 𝑡 < 0
The unit step function is related to the unit impulse function by:
∞ 𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = ∫−∞ 𝛿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 and = 𝛿 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
2.2.3 Sinc function:

It is a function that arises frequently in signal processing and the theory of Fourier transforms. The full name of
the function is "sine cardinal," but it is commonly referred to by its abbreviation, "sinc." A sinc function is
denoted by:
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝑥 ) = {𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 Or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝑥 ) = .
𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝜋𝑥
𝑥
2.2.4 Rectangular function (Unit rectangle signal):

The rectangular function Π(𝑡) is a function that is 0 outside the interval and unity inside it. It is also
called the gate function, rectangle function, rect function, unit pulse, Pi function, pulse function, or window
function, and is defined by
1
0 𝑖𝑓 |𝑡| >
2
1 1
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡(𝑡) = Π(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑓 |𝑡| =
2 2
1
{1 𝑖𝑓 |𝑡| <
2
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Class: 3rd year
2.2.5 Triangular function:

A triangular function (also known as a triangle function, hat function, or tent function) is a function whose graph
takes the shape of a triangle. Often this is an isosceles triangle of height 1 and base 2 in which case it is referred
to as the triangular function. Triangular functions are useful in signal processing and communication systems
engineering as representations of idealized signals.
1 − |𝑡| 𝑖𝑓 |𝑡| < 1
𝑡𝑟𝑖(𝑡) = ∆(𝑡) = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
2.2.6 Unit Ramp:
The unit ramp is defined as:
𝑡, 𝑡≥0
𝑟(𝑡) = {
0, 𝑡<0
𝑡
The unit ramp is the integral of the unit step, 𝑟(𝑡) = ∫−∞ 𝑢 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2.3 Some Useful Signal Operations:

There are many useful signal operations, we discuss some of them like Shifting, Scaling, and Inversion. Since the
independent variable in our signal description is time, these operations are discussed as time shifting, time scaling,
and time inversion (or folding). This discussion is valid also for other functions like (frequency or distance).
2.3.1 Time Shifting:
Consider a signal 𝑔(𝑡) (Figure 6a) and the same signal delayed by 𝑇 seconds (Figure 6b) which we shall denote
by ∅(𝑡). Whatever happens in 𝑔(𝑡) (Figure 6a) at some instant 𝑡 also happens in ∅(𝑡) (Figure 6b) 𝑇 seconds later
at the instant 𝑡 + 𝑇. Therefore ∅(𝒕 + 𝑻) = 𝒈(𝒕) and ∅(𝒕) = 𝒈(𝒕 − 𝑻). To time-shift a signal by 𝑇, we replace 𝑡
with 𝑡 − 𝑇. Thus, 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑇) represents 𝑔(𝑡) time-shifted by 𝑇 seconds. If 𝑇 is positive, the shift is to the right
(delay). If 𝑇 is negative, the shift is to the left (advance). Thus, 𝑔(𝑡 − 2) is 𝑔(𝑡) delayed (right-shifted) by 2
seconds, and 𝑔(𝑡 + 2) is 𝑔(𝑡) advanced (left-shifted) by 2 seconds.
Figure 6. Time shifting a signal

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Class: 3rd year
2.3.2 Time Scaling:

The compression or expansion of a signal in time is known as time scaling. Consider the signal 𝑔(𝑡) of Figure 7a.
The signal ∅(𝑡) in Figure 7b is 𝑔(𝑡) compressed in time by a factor of 2. Therefore, whatever happens in 𝑔(𝑡) at
some instant 𝑡 also happens to ∅(𝑡) at the instant 𝑡/2, so that ∅(𝒕/𝟐) = 𝒈(𝒕) and ∅(𝒕) = 𝒈(𝟐𝒕). Observe that
because 𝑔(𝑡) = 0 at 𝑡 = 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 , the same thing must happen in ∅(𝑡) at half these values. Therefore, ∅(𝑡) =
0 at 𝑡 = 𝑇1 /2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 /2, as shown in Figure 7b. If 𝑔(𝑡) were recorded on a tape and played back at twice the
normal recording speed, we would obtain 𝑔(2𝑡). In general, if 𝑔(𝑡) is compressed in time by a factor 𝑎(𝑎 > 1),
the resulting signal ∅(𝑡) is given by ∅(𝒕) = 𝒈(𝒂𝒕). Using a similar argument, which is 𝑔(𝑡) expanded in time
by a factor of 2. Note that the signal remains anchored at 𝑡 = 0 during scaling operation (expanding or
compression). In other words, the signal at 𝑡 = 0 remains unchanged. This is because 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑎𝑡) = 𝑔(0) at
𝑡 = 0.
In summary, to time-scale a signal by a factor 𝑎, we replace 𝑡 with 𝑎𝑡. If 𝑎 > 1, the scaling is compression, and
if 𝑎 < 1, the scaling is expansion.
Figure 7. Time scaling a signal

2.3.3 Time Inversion (Time Reversal):
Time inversion may be considered a special case of time scaling with 𝑎 = −1 in Eq. ∅(𝒕) = 𝒈(𝒂𝒕). Consider the
signal 𝑔(𝑡) in Figure 8a. We can view 𝑔(𝑡) as a rigid wire frame hinged at the vertical axis. To invert 𝑔(𝑡), we
rotate this frame 180o about the vertical axis. This time inversion or folding [the mirror image of 𝑔(𝑡) about the
vertical axis] given us the signal ∅(𝑡) (Figure 8b). Observe that whatever happens in Figure 8a at some instant 𝑡
also happens in Figure 8b at the instant – 𝑡. Therefore, ∅(−𝒕) = 𝒈(𝒕) and ∅(𝒕) = 𝒈(−𝒕).
[9]
Class: 3rd year
To time-invert a signal we replace 𝑡 with – 𝑡. Thus, the time inversion of signal 𝑔(𝑡) yield 𝑔(−𝑡). Consequently,
the mirror image of 𝑔(𝑡) about the vertical axis is 𝑔(−𝑡). Recall also that the mirror image of 𝑔(𝑡) about the
horizontal axis is −𝑔(𝑡).
Figure 8. Time inversion (reflection) of a signal

Example 6: (Time inversion) For the signal 𝑔(𝑡) shown in Figure below, sketch 𝑔(−𝑡).
Sol: The instants -1 and -5 in 𝑔(𝑡) are mapped into instants 1 and 5 in
𝑔(−𝑡). If 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡/2 , then 𝑔(−𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡/2 . The signal 𝑔(−𝑡) is shown in
Figure below.
Example 7: (Time scaling) If we have a signal 𝑌(𝑡) = 𝛽𝑋(𝑡) where 𝑋(𝑡) is the original signal, and 𝛽 is the
scaling factor. Scaling 𝑋(𝑡) by using 𝛽 > 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 < 1?
Sol: If β > 1 implies, the signal is compressed or 0 < β < 1 implies, the signal is expanded.
[10]
Class: 3rd year
Example 8: (Time inversion or reflect) Make inversion (reflect) for the signal 𝑋(𝑡) that shown in Figure below.
Sol: The signal 𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋(−𝑡) represent the inversion or reflected signal of 𝑋(𝑡), if the reflected signal 𝑋 (−𝑡) =
𝑋(𝑡) ; then it’s called an even signal. Or 𝑋(−𝑡) = −𝑋(𝑡) ; then its known as an odd signal.
Even and Odd Symmetry Signals:

 An even signal is symmetric about the y-axis 𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝑋(−𝑡).
 An odd signal is symmetric about the origin 𝑋(𝑡) = −𝑋(−𝑡) as shown below:
Example 9: If we have a signal 𝑋(𝑡) and 𝑡𝑜 represents the shifted time as shown in Figure (A) below. How we
can do shifting to 𝑋(𝑡) with 𝑡𝑜 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4.
Sol: The shifted signal is 𝑌 (𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 ), if we shift 𝑋(𝑡) by 𝑡𝑜 = 3, that is mean the signal is said to be right
shifted or delayed by 3 units. In the same manner, if 𝑡𝑜 = −4, the signal is left shifted or delayed by -4 units. This
has been explained diagrammatically in the figure below. Where the original signal Figure (A) is right shifted and
also left shifted in Figure (B) and (C) respectively.
[11]
Class: 3rd year
Fourier Analysis
Fourier Series Fourier Transform
Complex and other signals (Periodic All signals (Aperiodic Functions)
Functions)
2-4 Fourier series (FS):

It is a way to represent a function as the sum of simple sine waves. Or it decomposes any periodic function or
periodic signal into the sum of a (possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines
(or, equivalently, complex exponentials).
Fourier’s Theorem: Any periodic function can be expressed by a constant term plus an infinite series of sines and
cosines with increasing frequency.
2.4.1 Periodic function:
A function 𝑥(𝑡) is said to have a period 𝑇 or to be periodic with period 𝑇 if for all 𝑡, 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡), where 𝑇
is a positive constant. The least of 𝑇 > 0 is called the period of 𝑥 (𝑡). There are some examples of periodic
functions:
1. The function 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) has period 2𝜋, since 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 + 2𝜋) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) .
2𝜋
2. The period of 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) or 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡), where 𝑛 is a positive integer, is 𝑛 .
3 0<𝑥<5 𝒙(𝒕)
3. The function 𝑥(𝑡) = { , the period=10
−3 − 5 < 𝑥 < 0
sin(𝑡) 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
4. The function 𝑥(𝑡) = { , the period=2π 𝟑
𝒙(𝒕)
0 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
𝒕
-𝟏𝟓 -𝟏𝟎 -𝟓 𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓
−𝟑
𝒕
-𝟑𝝅 -𝟐𝝅 -𝝅 𝟎 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟑𝝅
Example 10: find the smallest positive period of the following function: sin(𝑡), cos(2𝑡), sin(𝜋𝑡), cos(2𝜋𝑡),
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑛
sin(𝑛𝑡), cos( 𝑘 𝑡), sin( 𝑘 𝑡)?
1 2𝜋
Sol: 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = ,𝑤 = , 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝑤 .
𝑇 𝑇
2𝜋 2𝜋
sin(𝑡) → 𝑤 = 1, sin ( 1 ) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2𝜋, cos(2𝑡) → 𝑤 = 2, sin ( 2 ) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋
sin(𝜋𝑡) → 𝑤 = 𝜋, sin ( 𝜋 ) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2, cos(2𝜋𝑡) → 𝑤 = 2𝜋, cos (2𝜋 ) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 1
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
sin(𝑛𝑡) → 𝑤 = 𝑛, sin ( ) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2𝜋/𝑛, cos( 𝑡) → 𝑤 = , cos ( 𝑘) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑘
𝑛 𝑘 𝑘 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑘

sin( 𝑡) → 𝑤 = , sin (2𝜋𝑛 𝑘) → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑘/𝑛.
𝑘 𝑘
[12]
Class: 3rd year
2.4.2 Mathematical Expressions of FS:

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a bounded periodic signal with period 𝑇. Then 𝑥(𝑡) can be expanded as a weighted sum of sinusoids
2𝜋
with angular frequencies that are integer multiples of 𝜔𝑜 = 𝑇 :
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 cos(𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + 𝑎2 cos(2𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + 𝑎3 cos(3𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + ⋯
+ 𝑏1 sin(𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + 𝑏2 sin(2𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + 𝑏3 sin(3𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + ⋯
Or 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡)
This is the trigonometric Fourier series expansion of 𝑥(𝑡).
To understand the general case and special case of function when use Fourier series to solve them, we use the
period 𝜋 and 𝑇.
1 2𝜋
The general form of Fourier series when the period is 2𝜋: 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = ,𝑤 = =1
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2𝜋
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑡 ) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑡)
The coefficients 𝑎𝑜 , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 can be computed using:
1 𝜋
𝑎𝑜 = ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡, when 𝑛 = 0
2𝜋 −𝜋
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥(𝑡) cos(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥 (𝑡) cos(𝑛𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥 (𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥 (𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝜋 𝜋
1. For the Even function (cosine harmonic) with period = π: the function is symmetric with y-axis.
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞ 𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑡), 𝑏𝑛 = 0 𝒙(𝒕)
1 𝜋 We can see that 𝑎𝑜 and
𝑎𝑜 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ,
𝜋 𝑎𝑛 multiply by 2 to
represent two periods
2 𝜋 𝒕
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) cos(𝑛𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 . (−𝜋 → 0) and (0 → 𝜋) -𝝅 𝟎 𝝅
𝜋
𝒙(𝒕)
2. For the Odd function (sine harmonic) with period = π:
𝑥 (𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑡) 𝒕
𝟎
𝑎𝑜 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = 0, -𝝅 𝝅
2 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 .
𝜋
𝒙(𝒕)
3. Even harmonic: It is a function repeat itself each period π.
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎2𝑛 cos(2𝑛𝑡) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏2𝑛 sin(2𝑛𝑡),
𝑎2𝑛−1 = 0, 𝑏2𝑛−1 = 0, 𝒕
-𝝅 𝟎 𝝅
2 𝜋
𝑎2𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) cos(2𝑛𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡,
𝜋
2 𝜋
𝑏2𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡) sin(2𝑛𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝜋 0
[13]
Class: 3rd year
4. Odd harmonic: It is a function reverse itself each period π.

𝑥 (𝑡) = ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎2𝑛−1 cos((2𝑛 − 1)𝑡) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏2𝑛−1 sin((2𝑛 − 1)𝑡), 𝒙(𝒕)
𝑎𝑜 = 0, 𝑎2𝑛 = 0, 𝑏2𝑛 = 0,
2 𝜋
𝑎2𝑛−1 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡) cos((2𝑛 − 1)𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝜋 𝒕
2 𝜋
𝑏2𝑛−1 = ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡) sin((2𝑛
𝜋 0
− 1)𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. -𝝅 𝟎 𝝅
Some important functions: Let 𝑛 is an integer number.

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒏𝝅) = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒏𝝅) = (−𝟏)𝒏
If 𝒏 = 𝟏 → 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟖𝟎 = 𝟎 If 𝒏 = 𝟏 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟖𝟎 = −𝟏
If 𝒏 = 𝟐 → 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎 If 𝒏 = 𝟐 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝒏𝝅) = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒏𝝅) = 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧((𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏)𝝅) = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬((𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏)𝝅) = −𝟏
(𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)𝝅 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)𝝅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) = (−𝟏)𝒏+𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( )=𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
Now we discuss the function with period T instead of 𝜋, 𝑇 ≠ 𝜋.

1 2𝜋 𝜋
The general form of Fourier series when the period 2𝑇 is: 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = ,𝑤 = =
period 2𝑇 𝑇
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos ( 𝑡) + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin ( 𝑡)
𝑇 𝑇
The coefficients 𝑎𝑜 , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 can be computed using:
1 𝑇
𝑎𝑜 = ∫−𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡, when 𝑛 = 0
𝑇
1 𝑇 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡,
𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑇 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝑇 𝑇
1. For the Even function:
2 𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 0, 𝑎𝑜 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡, 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
2. For the Odd function:
2 𝑇 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑜 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = 0, 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝑇 𝑇
3. Even harmonic:
2 𝑇
𝑎2𝑛−1 = 0, 𝑏2𝑛−1 = 0, 𝑎𝑜 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡,
𝑇
2 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 2 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋
𝑎2𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, 𝑏2𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
4. Odd harmonic:
𝑎𝑜 = 0, 𝑎2𝑛 = 0, 𝑏2𝑛 = 0,
2 𝑇 (2𝑛−1)𝜋
𝑎2𝑛−1 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡,
𝑇 𝑇
2 𝑇 (2𝑛−1)𝜋
𝑏2𝑛−1 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡) sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝑇 𝑇
[14]
Class: 3rd year
Example 11: Find the Fourier series for 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 ; 0 < 𝑡 < 2, 2𝑇 = 2? 𝒙(𝒕)
2𝜋 2𝜋
Sol: , 2𝑇 = 2 → 𝑇 = 1, 𝑤𝑜 = = = 2𝜋
𝑇 1
𝒕
1 2𝑇 1 2 2 𝑡3 2 8
𝑎𝑜 = ∫0
𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫0
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = | = -𝟒 -𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒
𝑇 1 3 0 3
1 2𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 1 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑡 2 cos(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, (‫)هنا نستخدم طريقة التكامل بالتجزئة‬
𝑇 𝑇 1 0
0 1
sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) −cos(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) −sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) 2 4cos(2𝑛𝜋) 1
𝑎𝑛 = (𝑡 2 × − 2𝑡 × +2× )| = =
2𝑛𝜋 4𝑛2 𝜋 2 8𝑛3 𝜋 3 0 𝑛2 𝜋 2 2𝑛2 𝜋 2
0
1
2𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 1 2 − cos(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) − sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡)
𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑡) sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑡 2 sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡 × 2
− 2𝑡 × +
𝑇 𝑇 1 1 1 2𝑛𝜋 4𝑛2 𝜋2
cos(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) 2 −4cos(4𝑛𝜋) 2cos(4𝑛𝜋) 2 −2
2× | = + − = ,
8𝑛3 𝜋3 0 2𝑛𝜋 8𝑛3 𝜋 3 8𝑛3 𝜋 3 𝑛𝜋
8 1 2
𝑥(𝑡) = 3 + ∑∞
1 [ cos(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) − 𝑛𝜋 sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡)].
2𝑛2𝜋2
0 −5 <𝑡 <0
Example 12: Find the Fourier series corresponding to the function: 𝑥(𝑡) = { , assume T=10?
3 0<𝑡<5
𝒙(𝒕)
Sol: the period =10
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 = 10, 𝑤𝑜 = = = 5,
𝑇 10
𝒕
-𝟏𝟓 -𝟏𝟎 -𝟓 𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓
1 𝑇/2 1 5 1 0 5
3𝑡 5 3 3
𝑎𝑜 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = [∫ 0𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 3𝑑𝑡 = | = (5 − 0) =
𝑇 −𝑇/2 10 −5 10 −5 0 10 0 10 2
5
2 𝑇/2 2 5 𝜋 3 5 𝜋 3 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 3cos( 𝑛𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = × sin( 𝑛𝑡)| = [sin ( × 5𝑛) − sin(0)]
𝑇 −𝑇/2 10 0 5 5 𝑛𝜋 5 0 𝑛𝜋 5
3
= sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0
𝑛𝜋
2 𝑇/2 2 5 𝜋 1 5 𝜋 3
𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝑇/2 𝑥 (𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−5 𝑥 (𝑡) sin ( 𝑛𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 3 sin ( 𝑛𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ×
𝑇 10 5 5 5 5
5 𝜋 0
cos( 𝑛𝑡)| (‫)تم قلب الفترة للتخلص من السالب الذي يأتي من تكامل الجيب الى جيب تمام‬
𝑛𝜋 5 5
[1 − cos(𝑛𝜋)], cos(𝑛𝜋) = {+1 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⟹ b𝑛 = { 0 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

3 𝜋 3
= [1 − cos ( × 5𝑛)] = 6/𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝜋 5 𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
The corresponding Fourier series is: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡)
3 6 𝜋 1 3𝜋 1
𝑥 (𝑡) = + [sin ( 𝑡) + sin ( 𝑡) + sin(𝜋𝑡) + ⋯ ]
2 𝜋 5 3 5 5
[15]
Class: 3rd year
2.5 Complex Fourier series:

The Fourier series for 𝑥(𝑡) with period = T can be written in complex notation as: 𝑥(𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒
𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡
1 𝑇/2
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑇 ∫−𝑇/2 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …. and 𝐶𝑛 ; Complex Fourier coefficient of 𝑥(𝑡).
1 2𝜋
For a function of period is 2𝜋, 𝑤𝑜 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = period , 𝑤𝑜 = 2𝜋 = 1 our reasoning gives the complex FS:
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑥 (𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑗𝑛𝑡
, 𝐶𝑛 = ∫−𝜋
𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝐶𝑜 = ∫−𝜋 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋
2𝜋
1 2𝜋 𝜋
For a function of period is 2𝑇, 𝑤𝑜 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = period , 𝑤𝑜 = = our reasoning gives the complex FS:
2𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑥 (𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑗𝑛𝜋𝑡/𝑇
, 𝐶𝑛 = 2𝑇 ∫−𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜋𝑡/𝑇 𝑑𝑡, 𝐶𝑜 = 2𝑇 ∫−𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Some useful functions:
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 = cos(𝑛𝑡) − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡), 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑡 = cos(𝑛𝑡) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) (Euler's Equation)

𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡
cos(𝑛𝑡) = , sin(𝑛𝑡) =
2 2𝑗
Example 13: Compute the complex FS of 𝑥(𝑡)shown in figure below;
1 2𝜋
Sol: 𝑛 is an integer number and 𝑛 ≠ 0, period = 2𝜋, 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓 = period , 𝑤 = 2𝜋 = 1
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝐴 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝐴
𝐶𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑜 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ ] = [1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 ]
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 0 2𝜋𝑗𝑛
0 0 𝜋 0
𝐴 𝐴
= [1 − (cos(𝑛𝜋) − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜋))] = (1 − (−1)𝑛 ), 𝑛 ≠ 0
2𝜋𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑗𝑛
𝒙(𝒕)
1 𝜋 𝐴
When 𝑛 = 0, 𝐶𝑜 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝐴𝑑𝑡 = 2 , 𝑨
𝐴 𝒕
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0, 𝟎 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟑𝝅
2
∴ 𝐶𝑛 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑛 ≠ 0,
𝐴
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
{ 𝜋𝑗𝑛
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
The complex FS of 𝑥(𝑡) is: 2 + 𝜋𝑗 𝑒 𝑗𝑡 + 𝜋𝑗(−1) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑡 + 𝜋𝑗3 𝑒 𝑗3𝑡 + 𝜋𝑗(−3) 𝑒 −𝑗3𝑡 .
[16]
Class: 3rd year
0, 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
Example 14: Determine the complex FS for the function defined by: 𝑥(𝑡) = { , the function
2, 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
is periodic outside of this range of period = 2𝜋.
𝒙(𝒕)
Sol: 𝟐
1 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥(𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑗𝑛𝑡
, 𝐶𝑛 = 2𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑤𝑜 = period = 2𝜋 = 1 −𝝅 𝟎 𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒕
𝜋
1 0 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 1 𝑗
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝜋 {∫−𝜋 0𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 2𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡} = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 [ −𝑗𝑛 ] = − 𝑗𝜋𝑛 [𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 − 𝑒 0 ] = − 𝑗 2 𝜋𝑛 [𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 − 1] =
0 0
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
(𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 − 1) = 𝜋𝑛 [cos(𝑛𝜋) − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝜋) − 1] = 𝜋𝑛 [cos(𝑛𝜋) − 1], for all integer values of 𝑛.
𝜋𝑛
𝑗
Hence, 𝑥(𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑗𝑛𝑡
= ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝜋𝑛 (cos(𝑛𝜋 ) − 1)𝑒
𝑗𝑛𝑡
.
1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐶𝑜 = 2𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 2𝑑𝑡] = 2𝜋 = 1,
𝑗 2 𝑗
𝐶1 = 𝜋 (−1 − 1) = −𝑗 𝜋 , 𝐶2 = 2𝜋 (1 − 1) = 0, and all even terms will be zero.
2 2
𝐶3 = −𝑗 3𝜋 , 𝐶5 = −𝑗 5𝜋 , and so on.
𝑗 2 𝑗 2 2
𝐶−1 = −𝜋 (−2) = 𝑗 𝜋 , 𝐶−3 = −3𝜋 (−2) = 𝑗 3𝜋 , 𝐶−5 = 𝑗 5𝜋, and so on,
2 2 2 2 2 2
Thus: 𝑥 (𝑡) = 1 − 𝑗 𝜋 𝑒 𝑗𝑡 − 𝑗 3𝜋 𝑒 𝑗3𝑡 − 𝑗 5𝜋 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 − ⋯ + 𝑗 𝜋 𝑒 −𝑗𝑡 + 𝑗 3𝜋 𝑒 −𝑗3𝑡 + 𝑗 5𝜋 𝑒 −𝑗5𝑡 ,
2 1 1 2 1 1
𝑥(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑗 𝜋 (𝑒 𝑗𝑡 + 3 𝑒 𝑗3𝑡 + 5 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 + ⋯ ) + 𝑗 𝜋 (𝑒 −𝑗𝑡 + 3 𝑒 −𝑗3𝑡 + 5 𝑒 −𝑗5𝑡 + ⋯ ).
2.6 Fourier Transform (FT) and Invers Fourier Transform (IFT)

The FT is a tool that breaks a waveform (a function or signal) into an alternate representation, characterized by
sine and cosines. The Fourier Transform shows that any waveform can be re-written as the sum of sinusoidal
functions. This has a multitude of applications, aides in the understanding of the universe, and just makes life
much easier for the practicing engineer or scientist. The Fourier series showed us how to rewrite any periodic
function into a sum of sinusoids. The Fourier Transform is the extension of this idea to non-periodic functions.
∞
FT 𝐹 (𝑤 ) = ∫−∞ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡, transform from the time domain to frequency domain.
1 ∞
IFT 𝑓 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑤 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡, transform from the frequency domain to time domain.
2𝜋 −∞
2.6.1 Aperiodic Signals:

The opposite of a periodic signal is an aperiodic signal. An aperiodic function never repeats, although technically
an aperiodic function can be considered like a periodic function with an infinite period.
Figure 9. Show us some examples of aperiodic signals, part (a) represent a Rectangular pulse, T=4
|𝑡|
𝑡 1, |𝑡| < 𝑇/2 𝑡 1 − 𝑇 , |𝑡| ≤ 𝑇
𝑔𝑎 (𝑇 ) = { , part (b) represent Triangular pulse, T=2 𝑡𝑟𝑖 (𝑇 ) = { ,
0, |𝑡| > 𝑇/2 0, 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
[17]
Class: 3rd year
𝑡
𝑡 𝑒 −𝑇 , 𝑡 > 0
part (c) represent One-sided (decaying) exponential pulse, 𝑒𝑥1 (𝑇 ) = {1, 𝑡 = 0 , and part (d) represent Two-
0, 𝑡<0
𝑡
𝑒 −𝑇 , 𝑡 > 0
𝑡
sided (symmetrical) exponential pulse, 𝑒𝑥2 (𝑇 ) = { 1, 𝑡=0 .
𝑡
𝑒 𝑇, 𝑡<0
Figure 9. Some examples of aperiodic signals

1 − 𝜏/2 < 𝑡 < 𝜏/2
Example 15: Find the Fourier Transform of the signal 𝑓(𝑡) shown in Figure below 𝑓(𝑡) = { .
Sol: 𝒇(𝒕)
𝟏
𝒕
−𝝉/𝟐 𝟎 𝝉/𝟐
∞ 𝜏/2 𝜏/2
−𝑗𝜔𝑡 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 1
𝐹 (𝑤 ) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 1𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = | = [𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝜏/2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝜏/2]
−𝑗𝑤 −𝜏/2 −𝑗𝑤
−∞ −𝜏/2
2 −𝑗𝜔𝜏/2 𝑗𝜔𝜏/2
2 [𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝜏/2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝜏/2] 1 𝑤𝜏
= [𝑒 −𝑒 ]= [ ] = 𝑤 sin ( )
−2𝑗𝑤 𝑤 2𝑗 2
2
𝑤𝜏
𝜏 𝑤𝜏 sin ( )
= 𝑤𝜏 sin ( ) = 𝜏 2 = 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝑤𝜏)
2 𝑤𝜏 2
2 2
Example 16: Sketch the following aperiodic waveform in the time domain and calculate its FT,
3 −2 ≤𝑡 ≤2 𝒇(𝒕)
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = { 𝟑
Sol: 𝒕
-𝟐 𝟎 𝟐
[18]
Class: 3rd year
∞ 2 3 2 3
𝐹(𝑤 ) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫−2 3𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]−2 = [𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 ] =
−𝑗𝑤 −𝑗𝑤
3 3 2 6 6 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 −𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
[−𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 + 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 ] = [𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 ] × = [𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 ] = [ ]=
𝑗𝑤 𝑗𝑤 2 2𝑗𝑤 𝑤 2𝑗
6 2𝑤 sin(2𝑤)
sin(2𝑤 ) × = 12 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐(2𝑤).
𝑤 2𝑤 2𝑤
Example 17: Find the FT for the function 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑎 > 0?
∞
∞ ∞ 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝑤)𝑡 0−1 1
Sol: 𝑋 (𝑤 ) = ∫−∞ 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒−𝑎𝑡 × 1 × 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ ] =[ ]= .
−(𝑎+𝑗𝑤) 0 −(𝑎+𝑗𝑤) 𝑎+𝑗𝑤
1 |𝑤| < 𝑎
Example 18: Find the IFT for the function 𝑋 (𝑤) = { ?
0 |𝑤| > 𝑎
Sol:
𝑎
1 ∞ 1 𝑎 1 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝑥 (𝑡) = ∫−∞
𝑋(𝑤 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑤 = ∫−𝑎
1𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑤 = [ ] =
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑗𝑡 −𝑎
1 𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑎𝑡 1
[ ]= sin 𝑎𝑡.
2𝜋 𝑗𝑡 𝜋𝑡
Example 19: Find the FT for 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡), 𝑎 > 0 that shown in Figure below?
𝒙(𝒕)
Sol: 𝟏
𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
∞
𝑋(𝑤) = ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒕
𝟎
0 ∞ 0 ∞
−𝑗𝜔𝑡 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑒 (𝑎−𝑗𝑤)𝑡 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑗𝑤)𝑡 1−0 0−1
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑢(−𝑡)𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = [ ] + [ ] =[ + ]
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑤 −∞ −(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑤) 0 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑤) −(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑤)
−∞ 0
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑤 + 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑤 2𝑎
= = 2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0.
(𝑎 − 𝑗𝑤)(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑤) 𝑎 + 𝑤 2
3- Modulation and Demodulation

For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any external interferences or noise addition and
without getting faded away, it has to undergo a process called as Modulation. It improves the strength of the signal
without disturbing the parameters of the original signal.
3.1 Access to Modulation concept

3.1.1 What is Modulation?
A message carrying a signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a reliable communication,
it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should not affect the original characteristics of the
message signal. The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.
Hence, it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a longer distance,
without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high frequency signal which is called
as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal. Such a process is simply called as Modulation.
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with the instantaneous
values of the modulating signal.
[19]
Class: 3rd year
3.1.2 Why we use Modulation

The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced. The range of
communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a distance without getting distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication systems.
 Reduction of antenna size
 No signal mixing
 Increased communication range
 Multiplexing of signals
 Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
 Improved reception quality
3.1.3 Types of signals in the modulation process: there are three types of signals.
Message or Modulating Signal: The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message
signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is
also called as the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal: The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and phase but contains no
information is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty signal and is used to carry the signal to the receiver after
modulation.
Modulated Signal: The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as a modulated signal. This
signal is a combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.
3.2 Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they are classified as
shown in Figure 10, below.
Figure 10. The types of modulation
[20]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.1 Amplitude modulation (AM)

It is a form of modulation used for radio transmissions for broadcasting and two-way radio communication
applications. Although one of the earliest used forms of modulation it is still used today, mainly for long, medium
and short-wave broadcasting and for some aeronautical point to point communications.
A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message signal, which
contains the information. This wave has to be modulated. According to the standard definition, “The amplitude
of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which
means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal
containing information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the following Figures 11, the first shape is
the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency
signal and contains no information. While, the last one is the resultant modulated wave..
Figure 11. The shape of signals in AM modulation

3.2.1.1 Mathematical Expressions of AM:
Time-domain Representation of the Waves: Let the modulating signal be, 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), and the
carrier signal be 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), where 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑐 are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the
carrier signal respectively. 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑐 are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
The equation of Amplitude Modulated wave is: 𝑠(𝑡) = [𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), …. (1)
[21]
Class: 3rd year
Modulation Index: A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier wave
undergoes.
𝐴𝑚
Rearrange the Eq,1 as. 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + ( ) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡),
𝐴𝑐
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), ….. (2)
𝐴𝑚
where 𝜇 = , …. (3) is Modulation index.
𝐴𝑐
Now, let us derive the formula of Modulation index by considering Eq, 1. We can use this formula for calculating
modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.
Let 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave. The maximum
amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) is 1.
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 , …… (4)
The minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) is -1.
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 , …… (5)
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
Add Eq, 4 and Eq, 5. 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝐴𝑐 ⟹ 𝐴𝑐 = , …. (6)
2
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
Subtract Eq, 5 from Eq, 4. 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 − (𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 ) = 2𝐴𝑚 ⟹ 𝐴𝑚 = , . (7)
2
𝐴𝑚 (𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 )/2 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴 −𝐴
The ratio of Eq, 7 and Eq, 6 will be as follows.
𝐴𝑐
=
(𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 )/2
⟹ 𝜇 = 𝐴 +𝐴
𝑚𝑖𝑛
… (8)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
So, Eq, 3 and Eq, 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The modulation index or modulation depth is
often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of Modulation. The percentage of modulation, just by
multiplying the modulation index value with 100. For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should
be 1, which implies the percentage of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated output would look
like the Figure 12. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an under-modulated wave.
Figure 12. Under-modulated wave

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an over-modulated
wave. It would look like the Figure 13.
[22]
Class: 3rd year
Figure 13. Over-modulated wave

Bandwidth of AM Wave (BW): is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, write as: 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ⟹ 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
𝐴 𝜇 𝐴 𝜇
⟹ 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑐 cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡] + 𝑐 cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡]
2 2
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 , upper sideband
frequency 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and lower sideband frequency 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 .
Here, 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 . Substitute, 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 values in bandwidth formula.
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 ) = 2𝑓𝑚
So, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the frequency of the
modulating signal.
Power Calculations of AM Wave: Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
𝐴𝑐 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡] + cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡]
2 2
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband frequency
components.
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 (𝑣𝑚 /√2)2
If the standard formula for power of cos signal is 𝑃 = = .
𝑅 𝑅
Where 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 : is the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value of cos signal, and 𝑣𝑚 : is the peak value of cos signal.
Now we need to find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
𝐴𝑐 2
( ) 𝐴𝑐 2
√2
𝑃𝑐 = = , ….. (Carrier power)
𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴𝑐 𝜇 2
( ) 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2
2√2
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = , …... (Upper sideband power)
𝑅 8𝑅
[23]
Class: 3rd year
𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = , ….. (Lower sideband power)
8𝑅
𝑃𝑐 𝜇2
The formula for total side band power is 𝑃𝑆𝐵 =
2
Now, we can find the power of AM wave.
𝐴𝑐 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = + + =( ) (1 + + ) ⟹ 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 2𝑅 4 4 2
We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the modulation
index are known. If the modulation index 𝜇 = 1then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power.
So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.
Example 20: A modulating signal 𝑚(𝑡) = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡) is amplitude modulated with a carrier
signal 𝑐(𝑡) = 50𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋 × 105 𝑡). Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the power required for
transmitting AM wave. Assume R=1Ω.
Sol: the standard equation of modulating signal is 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) and the given modulating signal
is 𝑚(𝑡) = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡), by comparing this two equations, we will get.
Amplitude of modulating signal as 𝐴𝑚 = 10 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,

3
Frequency of modulating signal is 𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝐻𝑧 = 3𝐾𝐻𝑧,
the equation of carrier signal is 𝑐(𝑡) = 50𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋 × 105 𝑡), The standard equation of carrier signal is 𝑐(𝑡) =
𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), by comparing these two equations, we will get.
Amplitude of carrier signal as 𝐴𝑐 = 50 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
and Frequency of carrier signal as 𝑓𝑐 = 105 𝐻𝑧 = 100𝐾𝐻𝑧.

𝐴𝑚 10
Now calculate modulation index as 𝜇 = = = 0.2, so the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage
𝐴𝑐 50
of modulation is 20%.
𝐴𝑐 2 (50)2
The carrier power is 𝑃𝑐 = = = 1250 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2𝑅 2(1)
𝜇2 (0.2)2
The power of transmitting AM wave is 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + ) = 1250 (1 + ) = 1275 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠.
2 2
Example 21: The equation of amplitude wave is given by 𝑠(𝑡) = 20[1 + 0.8 cos(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)] cos(4𝜋 × 105 𝑡).
Find the carrier power, the total sideband power, and the band width of AM wave. Assume R=1Ω.
Sol:
Re-write the equation of AM wave as 𝑠(𝑡) = 20[1 + 0.8 cos(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋 × 2 × 105 𝑡), then
compare this equation with the equation of AM wave 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) to get.
Amplitude of carrier signal as 𝐴𝑐 = 20 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
[24]
Class: 3rd year
Modulation index as 𝜇 = 0.8

Frequency of modulating signal as 𝑓𝑚 = 103 𝐻𝑧 = 1 𝐾𝐻𝑧
5
Frequency of carrier signal as 𝑓𝑐 = 2 × 10 𝐻𝑧 = 200 𝐾𝐻𝑧
𝐴𝑐 2 (20)2
The Carrier power 𝑃𝑐 = = = 200 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2𝑅 2(1)
𝑃𝑐 𝜇2 200×(0.8)2
The total side band power is 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = = = 64 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2 2
The bandwidth of AM wave is 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 2(1𝐾 ) = 2 𝐾𝐻𝑧.

3.2.1.2 AM Modulators (square law modulator):
In this part we learn how to generate amplitude modulated wave by using Square law modulator, we can follow
the block diagram of the square law modulator in Figure 14.
Figure 14. The block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as 𝑚(𝑡) and 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) respectively. These two signals are
applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block produces an output, which is the addition of
the modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as 𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡)+𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡). This
signal 𝑉1 (𝑡) is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics of the diode are closely
related to square law. 𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑉1 (𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝑉1 2 (𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 is constant.
Substitute 𝑉1 (𝑡) in the last equation as . 𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 [𝑚(𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)] + 𝑘2 [𝑚(𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)]2 =
𝑘1 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝑚2 (𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 2𝑘2 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2𝑘2
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝑚2 (𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 [1 + ( ) 𝑚(𝑡)] 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑘1
The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms of the above equation
are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the first three terms.
2𝑘2
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 [1 + ( ) 𝑚(𝑡)] 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑘1
The standard equation of AM wave is 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), where 𝑘𝑎 is the amplitude sensitivity.
By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we will get the
2𝑘2
scaling factor as 𝑘1 and the amplitude sensitivity 𝑘𝑎 as .
𝑘1
[25]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.1.3 AM Demodulators (square law demodulator)

The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known as detection or
demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as the demodulator.
To explain the Square law demodulator that use to demodulate low level AM wave. Figure 15, shown the block
diagram of the square law demodulator.
Figure 15. The block diagram of the square law demodulator

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave 𝑉1 (𝑡) is applied as an input to
this demodulator.
The standard form of AM wave is 𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
The mathematical relationship between the input and the output of square law device is 𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑉1 (𝑡) +
𝑘2 𝑉1 2 (𝑡), where, 𝑉1 (𝑡) is the input of
the square law device, which is nothing but the AM
wave 𝑉2 (𝑡) is the output of the square law device
Substitute 𝑉1 (𝑡) in last Equation of 𝑉2 (𝑡)
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 (𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)) + 𝑘2 (𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡))2

1 + cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑚2 (𝑡) + 2𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)] ( )
2
𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘 2 𝐴 𝑐 2 𝑘 𝑎 2 𝑚 2 (𝑡 )
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘1 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + + cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) +
2 2 2
𝑘 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 2 𝑚 2 (𝑡 )
+ cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) + 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2
In the above equation, the term 𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted by
𝑘2 𝐴𝑐 2
passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC component can be eliminated with the help of
2
a coupling capacitor.
3.2.1.4 Advantages of Amplitude Modulation
There are several advantages of amplitude modulation, and some of these reasons have meant that it is still in
widespread use today:
 It is simple to implement
[26]
Class: 3rd year
 it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components

 AM receivers being very cheap as no specialized components are needed.
3.2.1.5 Disadvantages of amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is a very basic form of modulation, and although its simplicity is one of its major
advantages, other more sophisticated systems provide a number of advantages. Accordingly, it is worth looking
at some of the disadvantages of amplitude modulation.
 It is not efficient in terms of its power usage.
 It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice that of the highest
audio frequency.
 It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and obviously AM detectors are
sensitive to it.
3.2.1.6 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Modulation
In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two sidebands. The
modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is a band of frequencies, containing power,
which are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.
The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed as Double Sideband
Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the Figure 16.
Figure 16. The signal shape of DSBFC

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the carrier, which
carries no information. If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then
such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown
in the Figure 17. In DSBSC modulation, unlike in AM, the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, much of the
power is distributed between the sidebands, which implies an increase of the cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM,
for the same power used. In Figure 17, can see that the carrier is suppressed and sidebands are allowed for
transmission.
Figure 17. The signal shape of DSBSC

[27]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.1.7 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) Modulation

In the previous part, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and demodulation. The DSBSC modulated signal has
two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same information, there is no need to transmit both sidebands.
We can eliminate one sideband. Single sideband, SSB modulation is basically a derivative of amplitude
modulation, by removing some of the components of the ordinary AM signal it is possible to significantly improve
its efficiency. The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the
Figure 18.
Figure 18. The signal shape of SSBSC

In Figure 18, can see that the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed and a signal sideband is allowed for
transmission. Hence, the upper sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper
sideband while transmitting the lower sideband. This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high
power, as the power allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single
Sideband.
Advantages of SSBSC:
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.
Disadvantages of SSBSC
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an excellent frequency
stability.
3.2.1.8 Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) Modulation
In the previous parts, we have discussed SSBSC modulation. SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband
frequency. Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass
filter. However, practically we may not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some
information gets lost. To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen as a compromise between DSBSC and SSBSC.
This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique. The word “vestige”
means “a part” from which, the name is derived.
[28]
Class: 3rd year
VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated along with one
sideband. The signal shape of VSBSC is shown in the Figure 19.
Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this technique. Similarly,
we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper sideband. A guard band of very small width is
laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television
transmissions.
Figure 19. The signal shape of VSBSC

Advantages of VSBSC
 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
 Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.
Disadvantages of VSBSC
 Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
 Demodulation is complex.
3.2.1.9 The spectrum of an AM signal

In AM, the input modulating signal is a continuous time low-frequency analog signal. For simplicity, we use a
sinusoidal waveform, which is periodic and continuous with respect to time. It has one frequency component. For
example, the cosine wave is described by the following time domain equation: 𝒎(𝒕)=𝑨𝒎𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝒕+𝜽).
Now, we try to draw the spectrum of AM signal for single sideband and double sideband:
a) Single Sideband Spectrum
b) Double Sideband Spectrum
[29]
Class: 3rd year
Hints:
1. The amplitude ( 𝐴𝑚 ) is always positive.
2. The phase ( 𝜃 ) is always measured from the real axis.
3. If we use the angular frequency ( 𝑤 ), the amplitude is multiplied by 2𝜋.
Example 22: Plot the amplitude and phase (single and double sided) for the following signal: 𝑚(𝑡) =
4𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (4𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
Sol: The signal must rewrite as 𝑚(𝑡) = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 90𝑜 ) and then we can draw
the amplitude and phase for single and double sided:
a) single side spectrum:
b) double side spectrum:
If the x-axis is 𝑤 (not 𝑓 ), the amplitude is multiplied by 2𝜋:
H.W: Plot the amplitude and phase (single and double sided) for the following signals:
1. 𝑚(𝑡) = 5 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 20𝑜 ).
2. 𝑚(𝑡) = −2 + 10𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋 × 105 𝑡 + 20𝑜 ) − 14𝑐𝑜𝑠(6𝜋 × 105 𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) + 7𝑠𝑖𝑛 (4𝜋 × 105 𝑡 − 50𝑜 ).
[30]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.2 Angle Modulation

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle Modulation is the
process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies according to the message signal.
The equation of the angle modulated wave is 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) , where, 𝐴𝑐 is the amplitude of the
modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier signal. 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) is the angle of the modulated
wave.
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the message
signal.
3.2.2.1 Frequency Modulation (FM)

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant. This can be
better understood by observing the following Figures 20.
Figure 20. The signal shape of FM

In Figure 20, we can see that the frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the
modulating or message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant
and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.
[31]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.2.1.1 Mathematical Representation of FM:
The equation for instantaneous frequency 𝑓𝑖 in FM technique is 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
Where, 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency.
𝑘𝑓 is the frequency sensitivity.

𝑚(𝑡) is the message signal.
𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)

The relationship between angular frequency 𝜔𝑖 and angle 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) is 𝜔𝑖 = ⟹ 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 = ⟹
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑡.
Substitute, 𝑓𝑖 value in the above equation. 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
Substitute, 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡) (The equation of FM wave)

If the modulating signal is 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), then the equation of FM wave will be
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

∆𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚
Where, 𝛽, is the modulation index. 𝛽 = = .
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚
The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier frequency is
termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 , which is equal to the product of 𝑘𝑓 and 𝐴𝑚 .
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of modulation index 𝛽 .
Narrowband FM
The features of Narrowband FM.
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
 The modulation index 𝛽 is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.
Wideband FM
The features of Wideband FM.
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index 𝛽 is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
[32]
Class: 3rd year
3.2.2.2 Phase Modulation (PM)

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of
the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant. This can be
better understood by observing the following Figure 21.
Figure 21. The signal shape of PM

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take place. The
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier signal. When the amplitude is
positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is negative, the phase changes in the opposite
direction.
3.2.2.2.1 Mathematical Representation of PM
The equation for instantaneous phase ∅𝑖 in phase modulation is ∅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡),
Where, 𝑘𝑝 is the phase sensitivity, and 𝑚(𝑡) is the message signal.
The equation of angle modulated wave is 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅𝑖 )
Substitute, ∅𝑖 value in the above equation. 𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)) (The equation of PM wave)
If the modulating signal, 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), then the equation of PM wave will be
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + βcos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
[33]
Class: 3rd year
Where, β= modulation index=∆∅ = 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑚 , and ∆∅ is phase deviation. Phase modulation is used in mobile
communication systems, while frequency modulation is used mainly for FM broadcasting.
Example 22: A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM
generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index,
and bandwidth?
Sol: The amplitude of modulating signal is 𝐴𝑚 = 5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.
Frequency of modulating signal, 𝑓𝑚 = 2 𝐾𝐻𝑧.
Frequency sensitivity, 𝑘𝑓 = 40 𝐻𝑧/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡.
Now, calculate the Frequency deviation: ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 = 40 × 5 = 200 𝐻𝑧

∆𝑓 200
The modulation index β = = = 0.1.
𝑓𝑚 2×1000
Here, the value of modulation index, β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence, it is Narrow Band FM.
The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM wave.
𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 2 × 2𝐾 = 4𝐾𝐻𝑧. So the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4𝐾𝐻𝑧.
Example 23: An FM wave is given by 𝑠(𝑡) = 20 cos(8𝜋 × 106 𝑡 + 9 sin(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)). Calculate the frequency
deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave. Assume, R=1Ω.
Sol:
Compare the given equation 𝑠(𝑡) = 20 cos(8𝜋 × 106 𝑡 + 9 sin(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)), with the standard equation of an
FM wave 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)) to get the following values:
Amplitude of the carrier signal, 𝐴𝑐 = 20 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.
Frequency of the carrier signal, 𝑓𝑐 = 4 × 106 𝐻𝑧 = 4𝑀𝐻𝑧.
Frequency of the message signal, 𝑓𝑚 = 1 × 103 𝐻𝑧 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧.
Modulation index, 𝛽 = 9.
Here, the value of modulation index is greater than one. Hence, it is Wide Band FM.
∆𝑓
To find the frequency deviation we can use the formula of modulation index as β = ⟹ ∆𝑓 = β𝑓𝑚 = 9 ×
𝑓𝑚
1𝐾 = 9𝐾𝐻𝑧.
The formula for Bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is 𝐵𝑊 = 2(β + 1)𝑓𝑚 = 2(9 + 1)1𝐾 = 20𝐾 𝐻𝑧.
𝐴2𝑐 (20)2
Formula for power of FM wave is 𝑃𝑐 = = = 200 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠.
2𝑅 2(1)
[34]

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Class: 3rd year

University of Technology Subject: Communications and Digital Signal

Functional Elements of Communication System

Information Output Signal/

Message Transmitted Received

Figure 1. The Block Diagram of a Communication System

1-2 Noise in Communication Systems:

Figure 2. Continuous-time sinusoidal signal Figure 3. Discrete-time sinusoidal signal

Figure 5. (a) Aperiodic signal, (b) periodic signal

Deriving the Equation of Energy and Power Signals

Example 4: Find the Power of the signal 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ), 𝑇 = 1/𝑓 ?

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 , complex number, |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , |𝑒 𝑖𝑥 | = √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ,

2-2 Some Useful Functions:

2.2.3 Sinc function:

2.2.4 Rectangular function (Unit rectangle signal):

2.2.5 Triangular function:

2.3 Some Useful Signal Operations:

Figure 6. Time shifting a signal

2.3.2 Time Scaling:

Figure 7. Time scaling a signal

Figure 8. Time inversion (reflection) of a signal

Even and Odd Symmetry Signals:

2-4 Fourier series (FS):

2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑘

2.4.2 Mathematical Expressions of FS:

2. For the Odd function (sine harmonic) with period = π:

4. Odd harmonic: It is a function reverse itself each period π.

Some important functions: Let 𝑛 is an integer number.

Now we discuss the function with period T instead of 𝜋, 𝑇 ≠ 𝜋.

[1 − cos(𝑛𝜋)], cos(𝑛𝜋) = {+1 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⟹ b𝑛 = { 0 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

2.5 Complex Fourier series:

Some useful functions:

𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑡 = cos(𝑛𝑡) − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡), 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑡 = cos(𝑛𝑡) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) (Euler's Equation)

2.6 Fourier Transform (FT) and Invers Fourier Transform (IFT)

2.6.1 Aperiodic Signals:

Figure 9. Some examples of aperiodic signals

3- Modulation and Demodulation

3.1 Access to Modulation concept

3.1.2 Why we use Modulation

3.2 Types of Modulation

Figure 10. The types of modulation

3.2.1 Amplitude modulation (AM)

Figure 11. The shape of signals in AM modulation

Figure 12. Under-modulated wave

Figure 13. Over-modulated wave

Amplitude of modulating signal as 𝐴𝑚 = 10 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,

and Frequency of carrier signal as 𝑓𝑐 = 105 𝐻𝑧 = 100𝐾𝐻𝑧.

Modulation index as 𝜇 = 0.8

The bandwidth of AM wave is 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 2(1𝐾 ) = 2 𝐾𝐻𝑧.

Figure 14. The block diagram of the square law modulator

3.2.1.3 AM Demodulators (square law demodulator)

Figure 15. The block diagram of the square law demodulator

𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 (𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)) + 𝑘2 (𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡))2

 it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components

Figure 16. The signal shape of DSBFC

Figure 17. The signal shape of DSBSC

3.2.1.7 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) Modulation

Figure 18. The signal shape of SSBSC