Mathematics in the Modern World
Data Management________________________________
Introduction to Statistics
Statistics is a branch of science pertaining
to the methods of collecting/obtaining,
organizing, presenting, analyzing,
interpreting data and then drawing
conclusions based on the data.
Descriptive Statistics tries to summarize or
describe a collection of data. It is a set of
methods to describe data that we have
collected.
Some of the most commonly used
statistical treatments used are
percentages, measures of central tendency
(such as the mean, median and mode),
measures of variation (such as range,
average deviation, standard deviation,
variance and coefficient of variation) and
measures of skewness and kurtosis.
Inferential Statistics is use to draw
conclusions and make predictions based
on the analysis of numeric data. It is a set
of methods used to make a generalization,
estimate, prediction or decision.
Page 1 of 12can be measured on a numeric or
A pair of one measure of central tendency
and one measure of variation can be used
to draw a conclusion, commonly used pair
are mean and standard deviation.
Population is defined as the complete or
entire collection of elements (person or
things) to be studied while sample refers to
the representative part or finite number of
elements chosen from the population.
In relation to population and sample, next is
to differentiate parameter from statistic.
Parameter is numerical value calculated
from a population.
Statistic is a number that describes a set of
observations in a sample.
Variables are characteristics or values that
vary across individuals. It can be
qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative Variables, also known as
categorical variables, are used to
represent character, class or kind but not
in amount. Some examples of qualitative
variables are gender, religion, nationality,
favorite color and birthplace.
Quantitative Variables are variables that
quantitative scale. It can be classified as
discrete or continuous.
Discrete uses natural numbers or counting
numbers. Some examples of discrete
variables are number of students enrolled
in STA111, number of iPad units in a store
and number of buildings in Metro Manila.
A quantitative variable is continuous if it
uses decimals or fractions. Some examples
of continuous variables are height, weight,
length, width and speed of a bullet.
Levels of measurement are used to
determine the statistical tool that can be
used to describe a data. There are four
levels of measurement; these are Nominal,
Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.
The first level is called the Nominal level.
In this level, names are assigned to objects
for the purpose of identifying or belonging
to a group or category. The data cannot be
arranged in an ordering system. Examples
of data under this level are religion,
nationality or race, gender, birthplace and
course.
The second level is the Ordinal level. In
this stage, the words or numbers are
assigned to objects to represent the rank
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or order between them. It implies ranking,
order or inequalities. Examples are class
rank, contest winners, degree of burn and
cancer stages.
Interval level is the third level of
measurement. It refers to quantitative
measurements used to identify and rank
but, in this scale, differences between two
items can be determined and operations
such as multiplication and division are
worthless. Interval scales do not have a
true zero point. Example of an interval
data is temperature.
Lastly, fourth level of measurement is the
Ratio level. It is similar to interval scale but
ratio has a true zero point and operations
such as multiplication and division are
therefore significant. Examples of data
under ratio are income, age, height, weight,
area and volume.
1. Gender
2. Land area
3. Contest winners
4. Kids height in cm
5. Athletes age in years
Exercise 17: State the level of measurement
of each of the following.
1. Blood type
 2. Doctors’ salary
3. Latin honors
SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TecHNIQUes
Sampling is the process of choosing elements,
such as person, objects or groups from a known
population of interest to be included in a study in
order to generate a fair result. Sampling is done
to reduce cost since it is less expensive conduct
survey in a sample than in whole population.
Another advantage of using a sample instead of a
population is that in sampling, data can be
obtained faster. Also, greater scope and accuracy
are expected since the volume of work in
encoding and computing will be reduced.
There are two types of sampling techniques:
probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.
Probability sampling or random sampling gives
all members of the population a known and
equal chance of being part in the sample. In
other words, the selection of individuals does not
affect the chance of anyone else in the
population being selected.
Simple random sampling is also called the lottery
or the fishbowl method. Simple random sampling
uses scientific calculator or computer program to
generate a random number or a table of random
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4. Temperature in Fahrenheit
5. Student number
numbers to select the numbers for the elements
to include in the sample.
In Systematic Skip Sampling, elements are listed
numerically and then every “kth” element from
the list is selected from a randomly selected
starting point.
Stratified Random Sampling is a method where
the population is divided into sub-groups (called
strata) base on some well-known characteristics of
the population, such as age, gender or socio-
economic status; then take a random sample from
each strata. The selection of elements is then
made separately from within each strata, usually
by random or systematic sampling methods.
In stratified random sampling, the number of
samples per strata may be equal or proportional.
Example 24: A study is conducted to 1,000
college students of the University of the East.
Two hundred students will be selected to be part
of the study. How many samples are needed per
year level using equal distribution?
 Year Level Population (Ni ) n
N = 1,000 (number of population) i

First Year 300 200  300

n = 4 (four groups: First Year, Second n I= = 60
1,000
Year, Third Year and Fourth Year)

Second year 250 200  250

n II = = 50
1,000

Third Year 250 200  250

n III = = 50
1,000

Each year level must be represented by 50

Fourth Year 200 200  200
students. n IV = = 40
1,000

Example 25: A study is conducted to 1,000

college students of the University of the East. Cluster Sampling is a method where the
Two hundred students will be selected to be part researcher divides the population into groups, or
of the study. The number of students per year clusters. Elements within a cluster are
level is presented on a table. How many samples heterogeneous or are dissimilar. Select clusters at
are needed per year level using proportional random then use all units in the selected clusters
allocation? as the sample.

Year Level Population (Ni )

Unlike probability sampling, non-probability
First Year 300
sampling does not give everyone an equal chance
Second year 250 of being selected to be part of the sample. Non-
Third Year 250 probability sampling procedures are much less
Fourth Year 200 desirable, as they will almost certainly contain
sampling biases.

Use the formula: ni n  Ni

= Some of the methods under non-probability
N
where ni is the number of sample per year level, sampling are quota, convenience and purposive
of student per year level, Ni is the population, N is sampling.
total number of population of the high school
students and n is the total sample needed.

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DescRIPTIVe MeASURES
Measures of Central Tendency are descriptive
measures that are used to describe the center of a
set of data, arranged numerically. The three
different types of “average” will be discussed, the
mean, the median and the mode.
The most commonly used to measure the central
tendency is the mean. It is also called the
computed average. It is defined as the sum of the
values divided by the total number of items.
The median is the middle value in a set of data.
The value which divides the distribution into two
equal parts, with one half of the values is lower
than the median and other half are higher than the
median.
The third measure on central tendency is the
mode. It is easily found by inspection. It is a point
on the distribution in which the frequency is
higher than any other value.
A distribution with only one mode is called
unimodal while f it has two modes, then it is
called bimodal. If it has more than two modes, the
distribution is called multimodal. The mode does
not exist in a distribution if no value is repeated
Exercise 33: Determine the mean, median and
mode of the given set of data.
1. 8, 10, 13, 13, 16
2. 2, 5, 3, 8, 5, 7, 2
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3. 12, 10, 15, 14, 11, 18
4. 1, 9, 10, 2, 9, 4, 2, 1
5. 3, 6, 4, 4, 6, 3, 6, 3, 4
Remark 34: Best use of the mean, median and
mode.
The mean is computed if the values are in
interval or ratio scale. The mean is influenced by
outliers that may be at the extremes of the data set.
The median is used for ordinal scale. Unlike the
mean, the median is not influenced by outliers at
the extremes of the data set. The mode is practical
for nominal data. In such cases, the mode may
not exist or may not be very meaningful.
Now, consider the given set of data:
Set A: 9, 12, 13, 15, 15, 17, 24
Set B: 7, 11, 15, 15, 17, 19, 21
Set C: 11, 11, 15, 15, 15, 18, 20
Using the measures of central tendency, it seems
that the sets are equal (that is, 15). But obviously,
the sets of data are different. Like, the values of
Set A are more disperse or scattered than of Set B
and C. Using only these measures are not enough
to describe a given set of data, we need to use
other descriptive measures to further describe a
distribution.
Definition 35: Measures of Dispersion or
Variability describes the spread or the scatterings
of the values around the mean.
Definition 36: The range is the difference Exercise 41: Using the above data, compute the
between the highest and lowest value/observation. variance and the standard deviation of set A.

Definition 42: In a symmetrical or normal

Example 37: Using the data above, the range of
Set A is 24 − 9 = 15. distribution the mean, median, and mode all fall
at the same point or equal.

Definition 38: The average deviation is the

measure of the distance of each value to the mean. Definition 43: In a positively skewed
distribution, the extreme scores are larger, thus
The formula is given by:
AD =
 x−x the mean is larger than the median.
n

where 𝑥̅ is the mean, 𝑥 are the values and 𝑛 is Definition 44: In negatively skewed
number
distribution, the order of the measures of central
of values. tendency would be the opposite of the positively
skewed distribution, with the mean being smaller
Exercise 39: Compute the average deviation of set
A in the data above. than the median, which is smaller than the mode.

Definition 40: Variance measures how much

variability there is in the entire distribution. The
standard deviation is the most commonly used
measure of dispersion. It is the positive square
root of the variance. The formulas are as follows:
Remark 46: When Sk = 0, the distribution is
Normal or Symmetrical, when Sk > 0, the
distribution is Positively Skewed and when Sk <
0, the distribution is Negatively Skewed

Variance
HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Definition 47: A statistical hypothesis is a

conjecture concerning one or more population
whose veracity can be stablished using sample

Standard Deviation data.

Definition 48: Parametric tests are applied to

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data that are normally distributed. Moreover, it is Moment Correlation Coefficient. The formula
assumed that the measurement of variables is is given by
either interval or ratio level.

Definition 49: Nonparametric tests do not

require a normal distribution and the variables of
interest are on nominal or ordinal level.

where 𝑋 = the observed data from the

Table 50: Below is the summary of some of the independent variable, 𝑌 = the observed data from
different statistical tests.
the dependent variable, 𝑁 = sample size and 𝑟 =
degree of relationship of x and y

Remark 53: The range of the correlation

coefficient is -1 and +1. If the value of the
coefficient is close to -1.00, it represents a perfect
negative correlation while a value of +1.00
represents a perfect positive correlation. If the
value is equal to 0.00, it means that there is no
relation between the variables.

Number of Final Grade

CORRELATION Absences (x) (y)
6 82
Definition 51: Correlation measures the strength 2 86
15 43
of the linear association between two quantitative
9 74
variables: the independent variable and the 12 58
dependent variable. The independent variables 5 90
8 78
are variables that can be manipulated or
controlled while dependent variables are those
that cannot be controlled.

Definition 52: The most commonly used

technique to calculate the coefficient of
correlation is by using the Pearson Product
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