HEAT AND THERMODYNAMIC ‘Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship between heat and other forms of energy. Heat is a form of energy which is in transition from a hot body to a cold body ‘Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body. (Change of temperature affects the physical state of matter. Major types of thermometer: (Mercury glass thermometer Gi) Bimetallic thermometer. © Any substance that changes uniformly with temperature can be used as thermometric substance in thermometer, © Mercury is preferred as thermometric substance because (1) Ris non-wetting (2) Its expansion is quite linear (3) Boiling point is quite linear Temperature scal ‘© Temperature scale depends upon two fixed points whose values are always same aver si conditions, © There are three different temperature scales which are generally used Fahrenheit scale: 2‘© Lower fixed point = melting point of ice = 32 °F © High fixed point = boiling point of water = 212°F © Scale is divided into 180 divisions. ade scale: ‘© Melting point of ice = 0°C © Boiling point of water = 100°C © Scale is divided into 100 divisio in or Absolute scale (SI Scale): © Melting point of ice = 273K © Boiling point of water = 373 K © Scale is divided into 100 divisions. Relation between different temperature scales: (C-0_F-32_K-273 100" 780 100 Conversion formulas of temperature scales: s © t=3c,-s9 o pelnen am61, © Qamesaj-m o hen-2 Pn Ro I rs 373 100 212 Freezing point of water 273 0 32 Normal body temperature | 310 a7 98.6 Absolute zero 0 -273 = 460© Absolute zero is a temperature at which if gases remain ‘and have zero volume. gaseous form, exert zero pressure ‘© Heat flows from one body to another due to temperature difference. © Temperature determines the direction of natural flow of heat, ‘© Internat energy or thermal energy is the sum of K.E and PE of all molecules of a body, When exces af thermal energy flows from one by to anober heat, then it is converted into internal energy. © Internal energy is state function, Postulates of kinetic theory of gases: Main points of K.M.T of gases are given as: (i) A finite volume of gas consists of very large senber of acierian | i). Molecules move randomly and do not exert force on one another Molecules collide with each other elastically, {iv). The collisions with ‘walls’ give rise to gas pressure, (¥) Gravity does not affect the molecular motion, (vi). Volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to the actual volume of the gas. Gas Pressure from Kinetic Theory: Uneler the assumptions of kinetic theory, the average force on container walls is to be determined. © Average velocity of molecules in a container < v> = 0 © Average square velocity # 0 because (v7)? = +7 ‘And bence the pressure in 2 © Absolute temperature of a gas is measure ofits average translational K.E of all gas molecules, Pa 2N(K.E) Pa(KE) or Paty?) POR od $ in air at STP is 461 ms"and that for nitrogen is 493 msWork and Heat: © Work and heat are interconvertible. ‘© Heat supplied to system is taken positive and heat rejected by the system is taken as negative. ‘Work done by the system is taken positive anc! on the system is taken as negative, ‘© At constant pressure (isobaric process) Y W=PAV=P(V:= Vi) © Area under PV diagram = work done Ideal gas law (Ideal gas equation or general gas n © By combining Boyle’s law, Charles's law and Avogadro's law, we get equation which is given below, PV =nRT Where P = pressure of gas, v= volume of gas, n = number of molecule R-= Molar ideal gas constant, T = Temperature of gas, © This equation is completely obeyed by the ideal gases. Yove LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS ‘Thermal Equilibrium: It is observed that a higher temperature object which is in contact with a lower temperature ‘object will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will approach the same temperature, and in the absence of loss to other objects, they will then maintain a constant temperature. They are then suid to be in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is the subject of the Zeroth law thermodynamics. ‘Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: ‘The “Zeroth law” states that if two systems are at the same time in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.If A and C are in thermal equilibrium with B, then A. is in thermal equilibrium with B. practically this means that all three are at the same temperature, and it forms the First and second Laws of Thermodynamic. First Law: ‘When heat is transformed into other forms of energy total heat remains constant. AQ= AU+ AW Where AQ is + ve when heat is added and vice-versa AW is + ve when work is done by system and vice versa Work negative > Inferences from Ast Law of thermodynamics: AUs AQ- AW ‘Changein in internal’ _ (Heatenergyflowingout ( oe ) =e energy flowing in) ( ee Internal energy is a state function i.e. depends on initial and final states, Fora cyclic process, we have- AUSO . UsUs AQ= AW Applications of Ist law of thermodynamics: © Isothermal process in that in which temperature remains constant ‘* Here Boyle’s law is applicable © AsT = constam So U = constant and AU isothermal expansion, +Q = +W heat supplied to the system is equal to the work done by the system. © In isothermal compression, - Q = -W i.e., work done on the system is equal to the heat rejected by the system. © Examples are slow processes. ‘© Isothermal process should be slow for transfer of heat. '® Isochoric process is that in which volume remains constant. AQ=AU as AWS © Isobaric process is that in which pressure remains constant, AQ= AU+PAY ‘© Adiabatic process is that in which no heat enters or leaves the system such that temperature remain constant AU = WExamples are rapid escape of air from burst tire and cloud formation etc. ‘Adiabatic process should be rapid to stop transfer of heat and system should have an heat insulator boundary ‘Cooling is produced when adiabatic expansion takes place and heating is produced during adiabatic compression. Adiabatic process is also termed as isentropic process ie. a process in which the entropy of the system remains constant, Rapid escape of air from automobile tire is a example of adiabatic expansion, hical Representation: Did you know? During adiabatic expansion work is done at the expense of dropConstant_Temperature | PV = constant Constant pressure WT = constant ‘© Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance through 1 K is called heat capacity, denoted by C. Q=CmaT ‘Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass Q=Cy AT Cis greater in value than Cy AQ CAT ‘(Heat supplied at constant volume). © AQp=nG, AT (Heat supplied at constant pressure), © CGR. + er © Cy> Cy because at constant pressure, heat supplied not only increases internal energy (Temp). But also some work is done, while at constant volume (Isochoric process), no work is done. Latent Heat: Its the amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of substance from liquid to ‘vapor or solid to liquid without changing the temperature. © Ihis of two types ‘© Latent heat of fusion —> solid to liquid. latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal /g Latent heat of vaporization —> liquid to vapor. Latent heat of vaporization of water = 540 cal / g Heat of sublimation: is the amount of heat required to convert a solid of unit mass directly to vapor or gas. Reversible and Irreversible Processes: . ‘Sequence of processes carried out in such a manner that the values of thermodynamic variables are retrieved at the end of processes then this process is called reversible process. Otherwise called irreversible. Liquefaction, evaporation and compression performed slowly are reversible processes. AAll changes that occur suddenly or involve friction or dissipation of energy through ‘conduction, convection or radiation are irreversible processes, ‘Thermodynamics scale of temperature: ‘Thermodynamics scale of temperature is Kelvin Scale. It is independent of thermometric property (Volume) of working substance. 1 cmens Sai Triple point of water. It is the temperature (273.16 K = 0°C) at which the three states of water (Solid ice, liquid water and vapors) co-exist in equilibrium. ‘Unknown source temperature = Where Qu to Q: are heat supplied and heat rejected during carnot cycle. ‘This scale is independent of property of working substance. So it can be applied at low temperature. = Bos a Did you know? ee Eee ent oe rR anh