DETOXIFICATION OF POISONOUS

NARDOO AND CYCAD SEEDS

WITHIN ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER CULTURES

Abstract
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have developed traditional methods to detoxify poisonous food items such as
nardoo and cycad seeds, which are important sources of food in their cultures. This report investigates the chemistry and
traditional methods behind these detoxification processes, and why it is necessary.

Tahlia Fisher
tfisher24@strathcona.vic.edu.au
Prompt Question

 Why is detoxification necessary for cycad and nardoo seeds in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander food cultures, and what is the chemistry behind it?
Instruction

 Write an 800-word essay on why is detoxification necessary for cycad and nardoo seeds in
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander foods, and what is the chemistry behind it? Use APA-6
in-text citation.

ChatGPT

Cycad and nardoo seeds have been important sources of food for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander communities in Australia for thousands of years. However, these seeds contain toxins that
can cause serious health problems, such as neurological damage and even death. To make these
seeds safe for consumption, Indigenous communities have developed a range of detoxification
techniques that have been passed down through generations. In this essay, I will discuss why
detoxification is necessary for cycad and nardoo seeds in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander foods,
and the chemistry behind the detoxification processes.

Cycad seeds contain a number of toxic compounds, including glycosides and neurotoxins such as
BMAA (beta-methylamino-L-alanine).

Figure 1: Skeletal structures of two bonds sharing an oxygen atom.

Glycosides, an organic compound (natural carbohydrate structure) has a sugar (a.k.a. glycone) and non-sugar (a.k.a. genin)
component. The two are connected via a glycosidic linkage, which breaks apart by 'acid or enzyme hydrolysis' (Mistry,
2021), in which the genin and glycone are separated.

Neurotoxins destructive substances that ‘damage, destroy, or impair the functioning of the central and/or peripheral
nervous system’ (Holloman, 2018), and have the ability to damage neurons, axons, and/or glia. Many neurotoxins
enter the body from external environments, absorbed through inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or injections. The impacts
of neurotoxins can cause neurons to ‘malfunction or [disrupt] interneuron communication.’ (Levine, 2018).

BMAA (C4H10O2) is a non-proteinogenic amino acid produced by cyanobacteria (one of the earliest known life forms,
algae). Out of 20 amino acids that are used as proteins, BMAA is one of few that is non-proteinogenic. However, discussion
is ongoing based on the linkage between BMAA being misconstrued by the body as a protein due to its very similar form
to other proteinogenic hydrocarbon amino acids such as l-serine, as ‘BMAA alone can act as L-serine’ (Remick, 2017)
which can be seen in figures 2,3.

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Figure 2 (left), figure 3 (right), presenting structural similarities between two different amino acids, one proteinogenic and
non-proteinogenic (toxic).

BMAA has been linked to a range of neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and
motor neuron disease (Chen & Marsden, 2016). Nardoo seeds also contain a toxic compound called
thiaminase, which breaks down thiamin, an essential B-vitamin, into its inactive form. Thiamin
deficiency can lead to a range of health problems, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and
neurological damage (Spencer & Schaumburg, 1987).

Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins, such as thiaminase. Thiaminase is a toxic plant enzyme that ‘catalyses
the hydrolysis of thiamine into derivatives’ (Chemical Book, n.d.). On the other hand, thiamine (C12H17CIN4OS) or vitamin B1
is a water-soluble vitamin, used by the body to generate energy, develop, grow, and function. Thiamine plays a role in
‘metabolising glucose (sugar), which is part of the process used by the body to provide cells with energy.’ (Tresca, 2022).
However, carbohydrate metabolism cannot function properly with interference by thiaminase. Further, thiaminases split the
thiamine molecule, and the 'consequent absorption of the analogs produced and enhanced tissue needs for the vitamin
conspire to produce a thiamine-responsive polioencephalomalacia.’ (Lonsdale, 2018). Thiamine-responsive
polioencephalomalacia is a disease that results from a disturbance in thiamine metabolism. Thus, the impacts of thiamine
breakdown due to thiamine catalysing hydrolysis could be harmful, and fatal if thiamine deficiency becomes too great.

Figure 4: Thiamine before thiaminase breakdown, and after. Thiamine is split into two substances, and therefore no longer
an active vitamin.

To make these seeds safe for consumption, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities have
developed a range of detoxification techniques. For example, cycad seeds are washed and soaked in
running water for several days, which leaches out the toxic compounds. The seeds are then pounded
into a paste and placed in a basket made of palm leaves. The basket is suspended over a fire and the
paste is roasted, which not only removes any remaining toxins but also enhances the flavor of the
seeds. The resulting product is a nutritious and safe food source (Jansen & Lamontagne, 2019).

Hydrolysis is a ‘double decomposition reaction with water as one of the reactants’ ( (T. Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica,
2023), as water is used to break down a compound into smaller molecules. Therefore, since cycad seeds are washed and
soaked in water, the term ‘leaching’ describes the process in which glycosides are hydrolysed. This breaks the bond
between sugar molecules and the toxic compound, after which the toxic compound is released after washing and through
heat in fire.

Similarly, nardoo seeds are traditionally ground into a paste and mixed with water to make a bread-
like substance. The paste is then cooked on hot coals or in the ashes of a fire. The heat of the fire
deactivates the thiaminase enzyme, which prevents the breakdown of thiamin and makes it available

2|Page
for digestion. The resulting bread is a safe and nutritious food source (Australian Government
Department of Health, n.d.).

The chemistry behind the detoxification processes is complex and varies depending on the specific
toxin and detoxification technique. However, in general, detoxification involves the breakdown of
complex compounds such as glycosides and enzymes through hydrolysis and denaturation.

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which water is used to break down a compound into smaller
molecules. For example, in the detoxification of cycad seeds, the glycosides are hydrolyzed, which
breaks the bond between the sugar molecule and the toxic compound. This results in the release of
the toxic compound, which can then be removed from the seeds through washing or leaching
(Jansen & Lamontagne, 2019).

Denaturation, on the other hand, is a process in which a protein or enzyme loses its shape and
function due to external factors such as heat or pH. In the case of thiaminase in nardoo seeds, the
heat of the fire denatures the enzyme, which alters its structure and causes it to lose its activity. This
prevents the breakdown of thiamin and makes it available for digestion (Australian Government
Department of Health, n.d.).

In addition to detoxifying cycad and nardoo seeds, traditional Indigenous food preparation
techniques also involve a range of other processes that enhance the nutritional value and safety of
foods. For example, some Indigenous communities soak seeds and grains in water before cooking
them to increase their digestibility and remove anti-nutrients that can interfere with nutrient
absorption. Others use smoke to preserve meat or fish, which not only extends their shelf life but
also adds flavor and enhances their nutritional value (Lee, Nieman, & Miller, 2009).

The importance of traditional food practices in Indigenous communities goes beyond the nutritional
and health benefits. These practices are deeply rooted in cultural traditions and have important
social and spiritual meanings. For example, the sharing of food is an important way of building and
maintaining social relationships, and traditional food practices are often tied to spiritual beliefs and
practices (Elliott & Gauthier, 2018).

Despite the importance of traditional food practices, many Indigenous communities have been
forced to abandon them due to colonization, displacement, and the introduction of Western food
systems. This has had significant negative impacts on the health and well-being of Indigenous
peoples, who are now facing high rates of diet-related chronic diseases such as diabetes and
cardiovascular disease (Swinburn et al., 2011).

Recognizing the importance of traditional food practices, many Indigenous communities are now
working to revitalize and promote them. This includes efforts to preserve traditional knowledge and
skills, to promote access to traditional foods, and to educate both Indigenous and non-Indigenous
peoples about the importance of traditional food systems (Elliott & Gauthier, 2018).

In conclusion, detoxification is necessary for cycad and nardoo seeds in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander foods to remove toxic compounds and make them safe for consumption. Traditional
Indigenous food preparation techniques involve a range of detoxification processes, such as
leaching and denaturation, which are based on a deep understanding of the chemistry of the toxins

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and the food components. These techniques not only make the food safe to eat but also enhance
their nutritional value and flavor. However, the importance of traditional food practices goes beyond
the nutritional and health benefits, and includes social, cultural, and spiritual dimensions. Revitalizing
and promoting traditional food systems is crucial for the health and well-being of Indigenous
peoples and for the preservation of their cultural heritage.

Chat GPT requested to rewrite irrelevant paragraphs-

Cyanogenic glycosides are the primary toxic substances in cycad and nardoo seeds, which are found
in various plant species and can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) upon hydrolysis in the gut. HCN is
a potent poison that can cause a range of adverse effects, including headache, nausea, and
dizziness, and in severe cases, it can lead to respiratory failure and death (Wojcik & Fowler, 2016). In
cycad seeds, the toxic compounds are cycasin and beta-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), which are a
glucoside and an amino acid, respectively. Cycasin releases methylazoxymethanol (MAM), a potent
carcinogen, upon hydrolysis. BMAA can cause neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and
Parkinson's, by acting as a misfolded protein (Cox et al., 2018). Nardoo seeds contain thiaminase, an
enzyme that breaks down thiamine (vitamin B1), rendering it unusable by the body, which is
essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system and carbohydrate metabolism (Ross,
1984).

Hydrogen cyanide acts as a cellular asphyxiant. By binding to mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase, it prevents the
utilization of oxygen in cellular metabolism. The CNS and myocardium are particularly sensitive to the toxic effects
of cyanide (Agency for Toxic Substances and DIsease Registry, n.d.).

The traditional methods used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to detoxify cycad and
nardoo seeds involve various physical and chemical treatments that remove or reduce the levels of
cyanogenic glycosides and thiaminase in the seeds. These methods include soaking, washing,
grinding, leaching, roasting, and fermentation (Olsen & Brown, 2013; Singh, 2015). For instance, the
preparation of cycad seeds involves several stages of leaching and roasting, which remove the
majority of the toxic compounds (Jaramillo-Morales et al., 2019). Similarly, nardoo seeds are
traditionally soaked in water, which removes the thiaminase and makes the seeds edible (Ross,

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1984). These traditional methods have been proven to be effective in reducing the toxicity of the
seeds, making them a safe source of food for Indigenous communities.

In conclusion, the use of cycad and nardoo seeds in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander foods is
deeply rooted in their culture and traditions, and these seeds provide a valuable source of nutrition
for these communities. However, the seeds contain toxic compounds that can be harmful if not
properly detoxified. The traditional methods used by Indigenous communities to detoxify these
seeds have been developed over centuries and are effective in reducing the toxicity of the seeds. It
is essential to preserve and promote these traditional practices to ensure the safety and well-being
of Indigenous communities and to recognize their valuable contributions to the world's food
diversity. Furthermore, it is crucial to continue researching and understanding the chemistry behind
the toxicity of these seeds to develop more efficient and sustainable detoxification methods and to
ensure the long-term availability of this important food source.

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ChatGPT References

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In-text Reference Checking
(Chen & Marsden, 2016).
Support or disputing
statement:
(Spencer & Schaumburg,
1987)
Support or disputing
statement:
(Jansen & Lamontagne, 2019)
Does this article exist? Is the Main ideas/concept(s) Key concept(s) cited/quoted by Briefly justify ChatGPT’s
reference reliable? presented in this article? ChatGPT accuracy and reliability about
this citation
Source not included in N/A BMAA has been linked to a Reliable information, as seen in
bibliography. Undisclosed. range of neurological supporting statement.
diseases, including
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and
motor neuron disease
 ‘BMAA is a naturally occurring amino acid with a possible link to neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease,
Alzheimer’s Disease and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis’ (Stockholm University, 2015).
 How BMAA can lead to the onset of neurodegenerative diseases is unclear.
o ‘The cyanobacterial metabolite β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has been proposed as a causative or contributory factor in the
development of non-familial neurodegenerative diseases.’ (Downing, 2017)
o The origin of this proposed connection between neurodegenerative diseases and BMAA is referred to as “The BMAA Hypothesis”.
Source not included in N/A Thiamin deficiency can lead to Information is reliable, as seen in
bibliography. Undisclosed. a range of health problems, supporting statement.
including muscle weakness,
fatigue, and neurological
damage.
 Thiamin (vitamin B1) is one of the eight essential B vitamins.
 ‘Symptoms can range from fatigue to nerve damage, heart issues, and paralysis’ (Warwick & Panoff , 2023).
 Deficiency is known as beriberi if it’s severe and chronic, in which this causes damage to the nerves (i.e., neuropathy).
Source not included in N/A  The resulting product Information is reliable, as seen in
bibliography. Undisclosed. [from cycad supporting statement.
detoxification] is a
nutritious and safe
food source.
 This results in the
release of the toxic

Support or disputing
statement:
(Australian Government
Department of Health, n.d.)
Support or disputing
statement:
(Wojcik & Fowler, 2016).
Support or disputing
statement:
1|Page
compound, which can
then be removed from
the seeds through
washing or leaching.
 ‘…. All techniques (brief leaching, prolonged leaching, aging) are equally effective at removing cycasin and providing food…’ (Beck,
1992).
 This group of Aboriginal technologies represents a complex adaptation to Cycas and its toxicity, providing a rich starch resource that
not only contains nutritional value to meet needs but also social and cultural needs too.
Source not included in N/A  The resulting Information is reliable, as seen in
bibliography. Undisclosed. [detoxified nardoo] supporting statement.
bread is a safe and
nutritious food source.
 [Denaturation]
prevents the
breakdown of
thiamine and makes it
available for digestion
 First key concept from reference is similarly discussed above.
 ‘…Nardoo contains an enzyme called thiaminase that breaks down thiamine (Vitamin B1), making it unavailable to the body.’
(Thomas, 2007).
 ‘Denaturation involves the breaking of many of the weak linkages, or bonds (e.g., hydrogen bonds), within a protein molecule that
are responsible for the highly ordered structure of the protein in its natural (native) state.’ (T. Editors of Encyclopedia, 2023).
These two sources support the statement in which thiamine is available for digestion due to denaturation, as thiaminase is said to break
down thiamine, but is prevented via the breaking of bonds within the protein molecule so that thiamine can still be digested, as the
thiaminase is later released through the heat of fire and thus released.
Source not discovered. N/A HCN is a potent poison that Information is reliable, as seen in
Information undisclosed. can cause a range of adverse supporting statement.
effects, including headache,
nausea, and dizziness, and in
severe cases, it can lead to
respiratory failure and death.
 ‘Hydrogen cyanide is highly toxic by all routes of exposure and may cause abrupt onset of profound CNS, cardiovascular, and
respiratory effects, leading to death within minutes.’ (CDC, 2014)
  ‘Exposure to lower concentrations of hydrogen cyanide may produce eye irritation, headache, confusion, nausea, and vomiting
followed in some cases by coma and death.’
(Cox et al., 2018). Source not included in N/A BMAA can cause Reliable information, as seen in
bibliography. Undisclosed. neurodegenerative diseases, supporting statement.
such as Alzheimer’s and
Parkinson’s, by acting as a
misfolded protein.
Support or disputing  Amino acids lead to the production of proteins – there are 20 amino acids often used in making proteins, but BMAA is not one of
statement: these.
 Although how BMAA leads to the onset of neurodegenerative diseases is unclear, it is potentially due to BMAA being ‘mistakenly
incorporated into proteins during synthesis’ (Stockholm University, 2015) because although BMAA is an amino acid, it is non-
proteinogenic.
 In turn, the BMAA proceeds to ‘change their normal shape and function leading to the onset or the speeding-up [of] the progress of
neurodegenerative diseases’ (Stockholm University, 2015).
Note, this is a proposed reason that has been discussed, but does support the statement that BMAA acts as a misfolded protein.
(Ross, 1984) Source undiscovered. N/A  Nardoo seeds contain Information is reliable, as seen in
Information not disclosed. thiaminase, an enzyme supporting statement.
that breaks down
thiamine (vitamin B1),
rendering it unusable
by the body, which is
essential for the
proper functioning of
the nervous system
and carbohydrate
metabolism.
 Similarly, nardoo seeds
are traditionally
soaked in water, which
removes the
thiaminase and makes
the seeds edible.
Support or disputing  ‘…Nardoo contains an enzyme called thiaminase that breaks down thiamine (Vitamin B1), making it unavailable to the body.’
2|Page
statement: (Thomas, 2007).
 ‘The body’s cells need thiamine in order to generate energy, develop, grow, and function.’ (Tresca, 2022), meaning it is conclusively
also a vital nutrient for the nervous system.
 ‘Thiamine plays a role in metabolising glucose (sugar), which is part of the process used by the body to provide cells with energy.’
(Tresca, 2022).
 ‘Thiamine, although needed in only tiny amounts, is essential for energy metabolism, nerve and brain function.’ (Thomas, 2007).
 Second key concept discussed previously.
(Olsen & Brown, 2013; Singh, Source not included in N/A These methods [of detoxing Information is reliable, as seen in
2015). bibliography. Undisclosed. cycad and nardoo seeds] supporting statement.
include soaking, washing,
grinding, leaching, roasting,
and fermentation.
Support or disputing  ‘There are three traditional methods used to treat these seeds: brief leaching in water, prolonged leaching in water, and aging.’
statement: (Beck, 1992).
 ‘The Yandruwandha roasted the nardoo spores, ground with flour and water [soaking and grinding], and exposed the cakes to ash
[roasting], each step making the thiaminase less toxic.’ (Harford, 2019).
(Jaramillo-Morales et al., Source not included in N/A The preparation of cycad Information is reliable, as seen in
2019). bibliography. Undisclosed. seeds involves several stages supporting statement.
of leaching and roasting,
which remove the majority of
the toxic compounds
Support or disputing  Elements of key concept proven correct throughout table.
statement:

Reference and fact checking proved all discussed information is correctly stated, thus there are no disputable statements to otherwise
correct or disprove.

3|Page
Bibliography
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Beck, W. (1992, April - June). Aboriginal Preparation of Cycas Seeds in Australia. Economic Botany, Vol. 46, No. 2, 133-147.

CDC. (2014, October 21). Medical Management Guidelines for Hydrogen Cyanide. Retrieved from Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry:
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Chemical Book. (n.d.). Thiaminase. Retrieved from Chemical Book: https://www.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_EN_CB41436217.htm

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48859333

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thiaminase#:~:text=Thiaminases%20split%20the%20thiamine%20molecule%2C%20and%20the%20consequent,3.5.99.2%29%20are%20naturally
%20occurring%20enzymes%20that%20destroy%20thiamin.

Mistry, S. (2021, August 25). Glycosides. Retrieved from Solution Pharmacy: https://solutionpharmacy.in/classification-of-glycosides/

Remick, A. (2017, September 5). Amino Acid L-Serine in Preventing Neurodegenerative Diseases Associated with BMAA. Retrieved from Pharmacy Times:
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4|Page
Thomas, A. (2007, March 8). Nardoo, the desert fern. Retrieved from ABC Science: https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/03/08/2041341.htm

Tresca, A. J. (2022, December 20). What Is Thiamine? Retrieved from Very Well Health: https://www.verywellhealth.com/thiamine-6835525

Warwick, K. W., & Panoff , L. (2023, March 14). What Is Thiamine Deficiency? All You Need to Know. Retrieved from Healthline:
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/thiamine-deficiency-symptoms#8-symptoms

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