155 LABORATORY 11 ‘THE SPECIAL SENSES Sensation can be defined as the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the internal or extemal environment. The body has general senses scattered throughout the body that include the ‘somatic senses - touch, pressure, pain, temperature and proprioception and the visceral senses which provide information about internal organs. The special senses - vision, hearing, equiliorium, taste and ‘smell, have distinct receptor cells that are restricted to the head and are localized in complex sensory structures (eye and ear) or in distinct epithelial structures (taste buds and olfactory epithelium). \ THE ANATOMY OF THE EYE The structural components of the human eye will be studied using models of the human eye and a dissection of the sheep eye. 4. External Features Note any adipose tissue on the surface of the eye, Adipose tissue functions as padding and insulation within the orbit to protect the eye. Locate the sclera or "white of the eye’. The sclera consists of dense fibrous connective tissue and forms a tough, extemal coat. The sclera protects and shapes the eyeball and provides a sturdy anchoring site for the extrinsic eye muscles, The cornea is the normally transparent, anterior portion of the sclera. The cornea allows light to enter the eye and it helps bend (refract) light rays so they are focused on the photoreceptors in the retina, The cornea of the dissection specimen is probably opaque as.a result of the preservative. Locate the optie. nerve (Il) on the posterior surface of the eye. It is a solid white cord of sensory nerve fibers. If possible, identify remnants of the six extrinsic eye muscles. These skeletal muscles provide rotary movements of the eye, focus the eye for ‘optimum vision and anchor the eye in the bony orbit. They appear as flat bands on the surface of the eye. 2. Internal Features ‘With sharp scissors, make a small incision into the comea and cut carefully all the way around the cornea, taking care not to squeeze the fluid out of the anterior portion of the eye. What this fd and where ist narmally found inthe intact eye? _CLGuCOus Wnunnor yafons of EAS, WerItan WAS CIARA ‘What is the function of this fluid? (1) Forms Tivid Cushion. @rares rebar eye Shape @erovides route for notaents & waste branspoct The wall of the eye is composed of three layers or tunics. You have already observed the ‘outermost layer, the sclera and the comea. The middle layer includes the itis, the ciliary body and the choroid. You can observe the brown-coloured iris in the sheep eyeball as you pull away the cut cornea. In ‘humans, the iris is the circular coloured portion of the eye that lies anterior to the lens. The iris consists of {wo layers of muscles ~ inner citcular and outer radial smooth muscles arranged around a central opening called the pupil, In close vision and bright light, the circular smooth muscles of the iis contract and the pupil becomes more constricted; as a result, less light enters the eye. In distant vision and dim light, the radial smooth muscles contract and the pupil diates, allowing more ight to enter the eye. Next, cut into the sclera about 10 mm behind the comea. Carefully cut all the way around the sclera so you can view the structures in the posterior of the eye. Observe the crystalline lens. The lens is186 normally flexible and changes its shape to focus light rays for close and far vision. It has been hardened ‘and has become opaque due to the preservative. What substance fils the space posterior to the lens?_VvitceGus ume Describe the consistency of this substance. What is the function of this substance?_Q\@\a nou Coasisttacy Foncunrs > beles sholoilte ene Shag awvis supper} FO FEHNA, “PPOTES Wve ASGAT PrESSAee, “The len is held in place by Suspensory ligaments which are attached to the ciliary body. The ciliary body is attached to the iris posteriorly and is made up of ciliary processes and ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles control the shape of the lens while the ciliary processes contain capillaries that produce the aqueous humor. The choroid is continuous with the ciliary body and extends around the posterior of the eye. The choroid is a highly vascular and darkly pigmented tissue. It functions to absorb excess light rays to prevent reflection and the scattering of light within the eyeball. However, in the sheep eye, the choroid has an iridescent portion ("rainbow’) that enhances night vision by reflecting light back onto the retina ‘The retina, which forms the innermost layer of the eye, is very thin and easily separated from the choroid. Itis the very thin yellow layer which most likely has fallen inwards onto the vitreous body/humor. ‘The retina is held in position up against the choroid by the vitreous body in the intact eye. The retina consists of two layers — an outer pigmented layer (next to the choroid), and the Inner neural layer. The Neural layer is composed of three main types of neurons: photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells. Photoreceptor cells, the rods and cones convert light energy into signals that are sent to the bipolar cells and then to the ganglion cells where action potentials are generated. The ganglion cell axons leave the back of the eye 2s the thick optic nerve. Observe the demonstration slide of the cells composing the neural layer of the retina. i ‘The area where the optic nerve leaves the retina is called the optic disc o “blind spot". Light focused on this area cannot be seen because it lacks photoreceptors. Lateral to the optic disc is a small yellowish area on the retina called the macula lutea. The central portion of the macula lutea has a small depression known as the fovea centralis. Photoreceptors are of two types, consisting of the rods and cones. The fovea centralis is the area of greatest visual acuity (sharpness of vision) containing only cones. Cones are stimulated by bright light and produce colour vision. Rods are absent in the fovea and are more plentiful on the periphery of the retina, Rods are stimulated by dimmer light and allow us to see in shades of black, white and grey. © Explain what can cause the eye condition, glaucoma, Tay develog if he, Acarnage OF ggvtous Womor is eloclud. AS Fluid accumulates, the. jntcaocular pressuce T which may damage blood vessels. Supplying Fhe phoborecéphor cle @ revit 15 bln dnesd © Whatisacataract?!_1s characterized by a loxs of Hransparanty or clouding of The as leading bo Obscured visor or evintval bhadness ‘© Identify and label the following on the sagittal section of the human eye, Figure 1. Choroid Ciliary body Optic dise Comea Optic nerve Fovea centralis Iris Pupil ‘Suspensory ligaments Lens Retina Solera Anterior cavity containing aqueous humor Posterior cavity containing Vitreous humor157 Fehaa, eiary bod 9 Rorca \ens centeaNis Onkeeior COW Contant apse Pepi Cornea iris posters Cav ycontamne Notrcous Wee or horand Scleray FIGURE 1: Sagittal Section of the Eye: ‘THE PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION ‘To demonstrate the function of the eye, you will perform several exercises. If you wear corrective lenses, you should remove them to do the following exercises. 4. Dominant or Directing Eye Most right handed people are right-eye dominant. Stand at least 6 feet from the corner of the room and focus your eyes on the vertical line of the comer. Place your index finger pointing upward so that it falls directly along the vertical line between your eyes and the corner. Now close your left eye. What do you observe?_Rngec Stays A Now open your left eye and close the right eye. What do you observe? _-Pinaec raoves b9. Ane righ Which eye is your dominant or directing eye?_Ci at €) €-158 2. The Optic Dise To locale the optic disc in your left eye, hold Figure 2 about 40 cm in front of your face with the black cross directly in front of your left eye. Close your right eye, You should be able to see both the ‘cross and the circle, even though the left eye is staring at the cross. Continue to stare at the cross and move the page slowly toward you unti the circle disappears. Why did the circle disappear?_Ciccl\, falls on ophé aise To locate the optic disc in your right eye, close your left eye and repeat this exercise while you stare at the circle. ‘Why is the optic disc aso referred to as the “blind spot"? WAX Ao Pootortu stirs’ Com} Rares an torane FIGURE 2. Optic Disc Test 3. Near Point Accommodation ‘The lens of the eye must become more rounded or convex in shane in order to view objects at close range. This adjustment is called accommodation. An eye model will be used to illustrate this process, ‘What role do the suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles play in the process of accommodation? For close ol ReETS’ ciliary must MS Contcact’, Y Tension of Sus sary Mrapments ', lens bulatS/rounder (Poucvatuce) , Tigh bendw Ferachos ‘The closest distance at which an object appears to be in sharp focus is called the near point. At 20 years of age, for example, the near point of vision is 10 cm. At 40 years of age, it is approximately 20 om and at age 60, it may be as much as 80 cm. This change is due to a loss of lens elasticity as one ages hence people generally will need glasses for reading after age 40 or if already wearing glasses, will require bifocals to adjust for both close and far vision. To determine the near point of vision in each of your eyes, use the letter" T" at the beginning of this paragraph. Close one eye and move the page up to your eye until the letter blurs; then move it away until you get a clear, undistorted image. Have your lab partner measure the closest distance at which your eye can see a clear, undistorted image. This is the near point of your vision. Test the other eye and record the data AS Tage, T near pont distance Right eye Left eye Visual Acuity Visual acuity refers to the degree of "sharpness" of eyesight. It is greatest in that portion of the retina containing a large number of cones, but not rods ~ the fovea centralis. One common test for visual159 acuity is the Snellen Test which determines the smallest standard-sized printed letter of the alphabet that ‘can be clearly seen by an individual at a distance of 20 feet. A person with normal vision is defined as one who can read standard-sized letters at a distance of 20 feet and normal visual acuity is recorded as a fraction -- 20/20. Ifyou examine the Snellen eye chart, a person with 20/20 vision should be able to clearly read line 8 at a distance of 20 feet. If, for example, only line 6 is visible at 20 feet, a person is sald to have 20/30 vision, ‘This means that the person can see at 20 feet what people with normal vision can see at 30 feet. ‘Working with your lab pariner, determine the visual acuity for your eyes. Stand at the 20 foot mark. on the floor and examine the Snellen chart with one eye at a time. Determine the smallest line of letters. that you can see clearly, The visual acuity fractions for each line are given on the left hand side of the chart. Record the results for each eye Right eye Left eye crropia See POC, Nor NAM 5. Myopia and Hypermetropia (Hyperopia) My opilg:, Ske Near, NF FAM In the normal (emmetropic) eye, the lens focuses light rays on the retina. Figure 3 shows two eye conditions that may be due to abnormaities in the length of the eye or in the curvature of the lens. These abnormal eye conditions can also be demonstrated with the eye model. Condition | shows an error of refraction in which light rays from a nearby object have a focal point behind the retina. This condition may be the resuit of an eyeball that is too short in length of a lens that Is too flat. Individuals with this condition can see distant objects clearly, bul close objects appear blurry and out of focus. Condition II shows an error of refraction in which the eyeball is too long (or the curvature of the lens is too great), causing the light rays from distant objetts to have a focal point in front of the retina, Individuals with this condition can see close objects clearly but see distant objects are blurry . Indicate the name of each eye condition in Figure 3. Also, draw in the type of corrective'lens (converging or diverging) needed for each condition. need convex/ oavtrging, Kas Ploend Want Taword ae Condition | Opia Farsightt 3 Tebrachoy See Fae clearly, dear objects Blucre d -eye bat\ 100 Short ~\ens too Har need Concavt/ awergindy Ven, Condition :_ WYoma eae Neacsiqnted Beare = SuLnene clearly Far olgets blucred ZV exe art POO \ong =\eas too cound FIGURE 3. Errors of Retraction160 6 Astigmatism If the comea or Jens has irregularities in the surface curvature, this condition is known as astigmatism. Often, the comea or lens is spoon-shaped rather than spherical. Thus, objects may be in focus in one axis and blurred in another axis. Hold the Astigmatism Test Chart at arms length and test each eye while closing the other. Look at the centre of the chart. If al of the radiating lines are in sharp focus and equally black, no astigmatism exists. In some cases this testis impractical due to the presence of other refractive abnormalities. Fill in your results in the spaces provided. Right Eye: Astigmatic (Yes or No) Which lines are sharp? Left Eye: Astigmatic (Yes or No) Which lines are sharp? 7. Standard Pseudoisochromatic Colour Blindness Test The photoreceptor cells responsible for colour vision are the cones. There are three types of ‘cones found in the retina - blue, green and red cones. Each cone type is able to absorb light at specific wavelengths and colour vision thus results from the stimulation of various combinations of these three ‘cone types. Colour blindness is inherited as a sexdinked recessive trait. It results from the absence or deficiency of one or more of the three types of cone pigments. A series of slides will be projected to test for colour blindness. Observe each slide for a maximum of 3 seconds. Record the number observed first ‘and most clearly on each slide in the spaces provided below. If you wear corrective lenses you should keep them on unless the ienses are heavily tinted. The first few slides will be practice slides and you will be told when to start recording your responses in Table 1. After you have viewed all 10 test slides, check your responses with the answers provided. If the response is normal for 8 or more of the slides, colour vision is normal, TABLE 1. Observed Numbers in Colour Blindness Test Slides Test Slide Number Observed | Normal Response | _Red-Green Colour Blindness Response i L. 3 8 2 2 9 3 4 Blank 4 ea 7 4 5 8 7 8 4 3 7 2 : 4 & 7 5 9 é Biank 10 3. rezets Depth Perception Examine the testing apparatus and note that one “slider" is attached to a string. Have a subject sit approximately 8 feet from the testing apparatus with the apparatus at eye level. The arrows on the sliders. should face towards each other and the zero end of the scale should face the subject. While the subject has their eyes closed, move the unattached slider to a point on the scale, Give161 the string to the subject and have them align the two arrows by moving the slider that is attached to the string. When the subject is satisfied with the alignment, observe the position of the arrows. Record any difference in the distance observed between the arrows. Repeat this test with one eye at a time. Record the results. Right eye Left eye Was alignment achieved with both eyes open? ‘Was alignment achieved with only one eye open? ‘THE ANATOMY OF THE EAR ‘The structural components of the human ear will be studied using human ear models. The ear is divided into 3 main regions: the external ear which collects sound waves and channels them inwards, the middle ear which transfers sound vibrations to the oval window, and the internal ear which contains the receptors for hearing and equilibrium. 4. External Ear Tho external or outer ear consists of two parts: the auricle/pinna and the external auditory canallmeatus. The pinna is the flap of skin and elastic cartilage fixed to the side of the head. What is its function? Collects Sound warts wr are § channels Them wird he Sxttrnal Autrey Meo ‘The external auditory canal is the passageway that leads into the head from the auricle. It functions to conduct airbome sound waves picked up by the auricle to the tympanic membrane. What special glands are located in the skin of this canal? C2cUnngua Qaods Name the secretion ofthese glands and give its function, SXucuFe Ceryrnen (wax) Htcags delbas f prevints setts From entecina eac canal ‘When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane, it vibrates back and forth at the same frequency as the waves. The eardrum vibrates slowly in response to low frequency (low-pitched) sounds and more rapidly in response to high frequency (high-pitched) sounds. 2. Middle Ear ‘This division of the ear is @ small air-filled chamber hollowed out of the temporal bone. It extends from the inner surface of the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. A chain of three bones or ossicles, the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup) connect the middle ear with the inner ear. The malleus contacts the tympanic membrane while the stapes fits snugly into the oval window of the inner ear. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are transferred and magnified by the ossicles to cause vibrations at the oval window. The anterior wall of the middle ear contains the opening of the auditory {pharyngotympanic) tube or eustachian tube. This structure connects the middle ear with the pharynx. What's its function? _@gvalvres prusure on etintc Side of Mymeanre memorane to _premtot cups, J162 3. Internal Ear The internal (inner) ear consists of two main divisions: the outer bony labyrinth and the inner membranous labyrinth (Figure 4). The bony labyrinth is a system of chambers within the temporal bone ‘of the skull which contains perilymph fiuid. The three regions of the bony labyrinth include the cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canais. The membranous labyrinth lies within the bony labyrinth and consists of interconnecting sacs and ducts filed with endolymph fluid. The cochlear duct, saccule and utricle, and semicircular ducts are the structures of the membranous labyrinth which have the same general form as the bony labyrinth. The receptors for hearing are located within the cochlear duct while the receptors for equilibrium are located within the saccule, utricle and semicircular ducts. ‘Semicireular ducts Ampull ‘Cochlear duct Utricle ——Saceule FIGURE 4. Membranous Labyrinth of the Internal Ear Identify the cochlea on the ear model. It is a spiral, bony chamber that resembles a snail's shell Running through the center of the cochlea is the part of the membranous labyrinth known as the cochlear duct. The cochlear duct contains the organ of Corti, the receptor organ for hearing. Special receptor hair cells, located in the organ of Corti are designed to convert sound waves into nervous impulses that are carried by the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (Vill) to the auditory area of the cerebral cortex. Observe the demonstration slide of a cross section through the cochlea, Note the cochlear duct and the presence of the organ of Corti which contains the hearing receptor cells (hair cells) between the tectorial and basilar membranes. Equilibrium sensations provide information about the position of the head in space by monitoring gravity, linear acceleration, and rotation. The sense of equilibrium has two components: static and dynamic equilibrium Identify the vestibule on the ear model. It is an egg-shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth that contains two sac-ke chambers of the membranous labyrinth, the saccule and utticle. The receptors involved in maintaining statie equilibrium are located here, These receptors evaluate the position of the head in space with respect to gravity. They also respond to linear acceleration forces, that is, straight-line changes in speed and direction of movement. The utricle and saccule each contain sensory hair cells that have cytoplasmic processes which extend into the cavily of the membranous labyrinth. The hair cell processes are embedded in a gelatinous layer which contains particles of calcium carbonate, called otoliths. When the head tips downward, the otoliths slide with gravity in a downward pull on the gelatinous mass which, in tum, exerts a downward pull on the processes of the hair cells and makes them bend. The movement of the processes stimulates the dendrites at the base of the hair cells. The impulse is then transmitted to the brain through the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve,163 Identify the three semicircular canals which contain the membranous semicircular ducts arranged at right angles to each other in three planes - the anterior duct, posterior duct, and lateral duct ‘The receptors involved in maintaining dynamic equilibrium are located within the ducts. These receptors evaluate the position of the head in response to angular (rotational) movements of the head. Due to the orientation of the ducts, movements of the head and body can be detected in all dimensions of space. The ampulla is the dilated portion of each duct which has a small elevation called the erista. Each crista is ‘composed of a group of hair cells covered by a mass of gelatinous material called the cupula, When the head moves, the endolymph inside the semicircular duct flows over the hair cell processes and bends them, as water in a stream bends the plants growing at its bottom. ‘The movement of the hair cell processes stimulates sensory neurons, and the impulses pass over the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve. The impulses then reach the brain where they are integrated with inputs from visual receptors and proprioceptors. Commands are then sent to motor centers that control the extrinsic, eye muscles and neck, limb and trunk muscles. The muscle movements that occur allow one to remain focused on the visual field and adjust one’s body position to maintain or regain balance. . Name in sequence the structures involved in the conduction of sound waves from the auricle to the oval window. ; de (onda) external avdstdy canal Nyerpant Ws membrane + mae > Wes Shapes — Oral Wino . Identify and label the following on the human ear, Figure 5. Malleus \Vestibulocochlear nerve Tympanic membrane ‘Auditory tube Cochlea Auricle ‘Semicircular canals Vestibule Incus Cochlear nerve External auditory canal Nasopharynx Stapes Vester nerve ; oxic Sees vese Code™ RENE Yaudy ¢ cana : Cext Geovshe treats) FIGURE 5. TheEar NOLophacynx164 ‘THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM ‘You will perform several exercises to observe the processes of hearing and equilibrium. 1. Tests for Hearing Acuity Have a subject sit in a quiet place with a finger over one ear and the eyes closed. Hold a ticking watch near the uncovered ear and move it away slowly until the subject can no longer hear the watch Measure the distance from the ear at which the subject can no longer hear the watch. Now hold the watch too far away to be heard and bring the watch slowly toward the ear. Measure the distance at which the subject first hears the watch. Repeat these tests with the other ear. Hold the watch within hearing range while the subject's eyes are closed. Is there any difference in hearing ‘acuity when the watch is in front, behind, or to the side of the subject? Distance till sound disappears: Distance where sound returns: front back side front back side ‘Tests for Middle Ear Deafness and Nerve Defects A loss of hearing may result from a failure to conduct sound waves and vibrations from the outer to inner ear ~ middle ear deafness, also called conduction deafness. This may be due to damage to the tympanic membrane or auditory ossicles. Hearing loss may also be due to a neurological fallure such as damage to the hair cells of the cochlea, to the cochlear nerve or to the neural pathway that transmits nerve impulses from the vestibulocochlear nerve to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. This is known as sensorineural deafness. You will conduct two common hearing tests: the Weber test and Rinne test which examine for some degree of conductive or sensorineural deafness. Weber Test - Have a subject sit in a quiet place. Strike a tuning fork with a percussion hammer and place the handle of the vibrating fork against the middle of the forehead and the sound of the tuning fork reaches both inner ears by travelling through bone. Have the subject indicate the direction from which the sound seems to come. Is the tone heard equally loud in both ears, or is it louder in one ear? ‘With hearing that is normal or with loss of hearing in both ears, the tone will be the same loudness in both ears. If sound is louder in the right ear, this indicates conduction deafness in the right ear or sensorineural deafness in the left ear. if sound is louder in the left ear, there is conduction deafness in the left ear or sensorineural deafness in the right ear, With middle ear conduction deafness, the vibrations will be sensed in the defective ear. With nerve defects, there is better detection of sound in the normal ear. Rinne Test - Have a subject sit in a quiet place. -Locate the mastoid process of the temporal bone behind one ear. Strike a tuning fork with a percussion hammer and place the handle of the vibrating fork against the mastoid process. The sound should be heard by bone conduction. Be sure you do not touch the vibrating tines or you will stop them. When your partner indicates the sound is no longer heard, hold the siillvibrating tines parallel to the external auditory meatus. Now the sound should be heard by air conduction.165, Does your partner hear the sound again when it Is moved to this position? If so, their hearing is not impaired. Repeat the test. But this time, place the vibrating fork by the ear canal first. When the tone is no longer heard by air conduction, hold the handle of the tuning fork on the mastoid process. Does your partner hear the sound again when it is moved to the mastoid? If the subject hears the tone again by bone conduction after hearing is lost by air conduction, there is some conductive deafness. Repeat the test for the opposite ear. 3. Acoustic Fatigue Like other sensory receptors, your ear does not "hear" repeated sounds after a while. Hold a vibrating tuning fork near one ear. When the sound fades away, move the fork to arm's length for several seconds then bring it back to your ear. Can you hear it again? 4. Test for Balance Test balance by having the subject stand perfectly stil with hands at the sides and feet close together. Note any swaying movements. It might be helpful if the subject stands in front of a light, $0 that swaying movements can be detected by observing the subject's shadow. Now have the subject repeat this ‘est with the eyes closed. Note any swaying movements, 5. Cold Test ‘A cold test serves to evaluate the semiciicular ducts. When a cold swab is placed in an ear, it increases the density of the fluid (endolymph) inside the semicircular ducts. This increase in the density of the endolymph stimulates the hair cells within the semicircular ducts causing a sensation of rotation called nystagmus. The subject should be seated for this test and should be watched closely for dizziness. Place a cotion swab in an ice bath for several minutes and then carefully insert it into one of your ears, noting the results. Test your other ear using a second cooled swab. ‘THE SENSE OF SMELL The sense of smell is considered to a chemical sense as airborne odorant molecules dissolve in the mucous of the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is a patch of pseudostratfied epithelium located in the uppermost portion of the nasal cavity that covers the inferior surface of the cribriform plate {ethmoid bone area) and exiends over the superior nasal concha, Receptors ate actually neurons that contain an olfactory hair that is stimulated by the odorant. Impulses travel from these ells via the olfactory nerve (|) to the olfactory bulbs located below the frontal lobes of the cerebrum. Olfactory bulb neurons extend via olfactory tracts to the primary olfactory area of the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe, See the demonstration slide of the nasal epithelium. The following exercise will demonstrate the phenomenon of “olfactory adaptation”. Obtain a small vial of oil of cloves and peppermint. Plug one of your nostrils. Hold the bottle of peppermint directly under the open nostril, breathing In through the open nostril and exhaling through the mouth, unti! you no longer smell the peppermint. Determine the time required for olfactory adaptation to occur. As soon as olfactory adaptation has ‘occurred, smell the oil of cloves,166 Do you detect this new odor? Determine the time it takes for olfactory adaptation to occur again. Repeat this exercise with the other nostil, Time for olfactory adaptation to occur (minutes): Left Nostril Right Nostril Pepper Oil of Cloves Explain what is meant by olfactory adaptation. Q0_adaptahyr of olfactory receptors Poa Certara Smell OFC you “smell Something Por cwhile You stop detechog The Smell Ciena Chonnels Close afer a Fela mashes) ‘THE SENSE OF TASTE The sense of taste is also a chemical sense that relies on the interaction of dissolved molecules with taste receptors. The receptors for taste sensations are located in taste buds found mainly cn the tongue, but also scattered on the soft palate, and walls of the pharynx. Each taste bud is an oval structure containing taste cells, supporting cells and basal cells. Examine the demonstration slide of taste buds located on the tongue papillae which are peg-like projections of the tongue mucosa. A “chemical” taste first dissolves in saliva and then stimulates the hairs of taste cells that emerge from a taste pore. Impulses are sent over a branch of the facial nerve (Vil) which transmits impulses from taste receptors in the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. A glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) branch serves the posterior third of the tongue and the pharynx in behind. Taste impulses from the few taste buds in the epigiottis and lower pharynx are conducted by the vagus nerve (X), These sensory fibers synapse in the medulla oblongata, where they are relayed to the thalamus and finally the taste impulse is carried to and perceived in the primary taste area in the insula (fith lobe of the cerebral cortex). Five primary or basic tastes are present in humans: sweet, sour, bitter, salt, and umami, Sweet taste is elicited by many organic substances such as sugars, alcohols and some amino acids. Sour tastes are produced by hydrogen ions as found in the citric acid of lemon juice. Salty foods taste salty due to the presence of metal ions such as sodium and potassium. Bitter flavors are often due to nitrogen-containing ‘compounds such as caffeine, quinine, and nicotine. Umami is described as a meaty or savory taste produced by glutamate or other amino acids. There may also be @ possible sixth taste that accounts for a liking of fatty foods. All other flavors of foods are combinations of the primary tastes, plus the accompanying ofactory and touch sensations that foods evoke, Taste buds generally respond to a mixture of the five basic tastes. However, a single taste cell has receptors for only one of the basic taste sensations, Taste maps were originally developed for certain tastes being concentrated in certain tongue areas. Recently, it has been ascertained that all areas of the tongue can detect all five taste sensations.