UNIT –I

Data Communication
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between individuals, local
communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance. The term
telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraph, and television, means communication at a distance. The term
telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 Four Fundamental Characteristics of Data Communications
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.
1) Delivery :- The primary task of a data communication system is to deliver or transfer data from sender to
receiver. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. . Data must be received by the intended device
or user and only by that device or user. No other receiver should receive the data. This characteristics includes the
security of the system, that is, the protection of data.
2) Accuracy :- The data communication system must deliver data to the receiver without being altered or damaged.
The receiver should receive the exact same data which was sent by the sender. The protocol might require to alter
the sent data to protect and optimize the process. However, the protocol should also reverse and restore the data
back to its original form before representing it to the receiver. The accuracy must be maintained.
3) Timeliness :- The system must maintain timeliness. It must deliver data in a timely manner. Delayed delivery can
make the data useless to the receiver. Data must be delivered as they are produced, in the order they are produced
and without any significant delay.
4) Jitter :- Jitter refers to the variation of packet arrival time. Data is sent as packets, that is, a chunk of the whole
data is sent in each turn. These packets get re-joined back in the target device to represent the complete data as it
is. Each packet is sent with a predefined delay or acceptable amount of delay. If packets are sent without
maintaining the predefined delay then an uneven quality in the data might result.It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of
the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

 Components of Data Communication

A data communications system has five components.

1) Message :- The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2) Sender :- The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3) Receiver :- The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
 4) Transmission medium :- The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
5) Protocol :- A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

 Data Representation of Data Communications

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video
1) Text :- Text is represented as a bit-pattern. (Bit-pattern - sequence of bits: 0s or 1s). Different sets of bit-patterns
are used to represent symbols (or characters).Each set is called a code. The process of representing symbols is
called encoding. Popular encoding system: ASCII, Unicode.
2) Numbers :- Number is also represented as a bit-pattern. ASCII is not used to represent number. Instead, number
is directly converted to binary-form
3) Images :- Image is also represented as a bit-pattern. An image is divided into a matrix of pixels (picture-
elements). A pixel is the smallest element of an image. (Pixel - Small dot).The size of an image depends upon
number of pixels (also called resolution). For example: An image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels.
a. Two types of images:
i. Black & White Image - If an image is black & white, each pixel can be represented by a value
either 0 or 1. For example: Chessboard
ii. Color Image - There are many methods to represent color images.RGB is one of the methods to
represent color images. RGB is called so called ‘.’ each color is combination of 3 colors: red,
green & blue.
4) Audio:- Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text,
numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to
an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
5) Video:- Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.

 Digital communication
 Digital communication is made from two words digital and communication.Communication refers to the exchange
of information between two or more sources. Digital communication refers to the exchange of digital information
between the sender and receiver using different devices and methods.
 A sender is also known as transmitter that transmits the data. A communication channel between the transmitter and
receiver acts as intermediate source to carry the information to the receiver.
 Digital communication is a popular technology used today in electronics. It allows us to access video conferencing,
digital meetings, online education, etc. The data can travel upto long distances within a second with the help of the
internet and other modes of digital communication. It not only saves money but also saves time and effort. It has
also raised the standard of an individual's social, political, and economic life.
 Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit
stream or a digitized analogue signal) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Ex:
optical fibres , wireless channels, computer buses.

 Component Digital Communication System

Input/Source signal :-The source signal refers to the input signal applied to the digital communication system. It
is also known as the input signal. Digital communication is generally used as a conversion system from analog to
digital. Thus, the input signal is generally an analog signal. It can be analog or digital. In case of the analog signal
as the input source signal, the digital communication system also works as an analog to digital converter by
converting the analog input to the digital output.

Input Transducer :- The transducer is a device used to convert one form of energy to another. In a
communication system, it converts the non-electrical energy to electrical energy to make it suitable for
transmission within the system. In the case of the analog input, the block also contains an ADC (Analog to digital
converter) to convert analog to the digital signal for further processing.

Source Encoder :- The source encoder compresses the data to the reduced number of bits from the original bits.
It helps in effective bandwidth utilization and also removes unnecessary bits. It means that the compressed data
is in the form of binary digits. We can also say that the source encoder converts the waveforms to binary data.
The output data is further passed to the channel encoder.

Channel Encoder :-The information in the signal may get altered due to the noise during the transmissions. The
channel encoder works as an error correction method. It adds redundant bits to the binary data that helps in
correcting the error bits. It enhances the transmission quality of the signal and the channel.

Digital Modulator :- A carrier signal modulates the received signal. It modulates the digital by varying the
transmitted signal's frequency, amplitude, and phase.

Communication channel :- The communication channel is the medium between the transmitter and the
receiver. It helps in transmitting a digital signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The data rate of the channel
is measured in bits per second. The various types of channels in a digital communication system are email,
project management apps, and Intranet.

Digital Demodulator :-The signal is demodulated and the source signal is recovered from the carrier signal.

Channel decoder :- The function of the channel encoder is to add the redundant bits to the binary data, as
discussed above. The channel decoder works in the same but opposite way. It removes the parity bits from the
binary data. It does not affect the signal quality and the information and transmits the data securely. The output
of the channel decoder is a pure digital signal with no interference or noise.

Source decoder :-The source encoder works oppositely as that of the source encoder. It converts the binary data
back to the waveforms.

Output Transducer :-The output transducer works in the opposite was as that of the input transducer. It
converts the electrical energy back into its original form. It makes the information suitable for the user at the
 output to capture. The conversion is essential at both the ends of the communication system to make the
system operate at a faster rate.

Output signal :- The output signal refers to the output from the digital communication system. It is the signal
that appears at the output after passing through various communication system components. The output signal
is only a digital signal.

Noise removal components :- Noise in the system can cause information loss and distortion. Hence, it is
essential to use the noise removal components in the communication system. The noise removal components
are used at both the transmitting and receiving ends to filter out the noise components from the signal. The
noise components include anti-aliasing filters, shielded cables, and grounding concepts. The grounding acts as a
reference voltage for the circuit and helps in preventing coupling.

 Function of the digital communication system

Here discuss how the data from one end through the transducer is transmitted to the receiving end. It makes the
data available to the receiver without any noise or distortion. Here, we will discuss an example of the  video
signal.
1. The videos signal is first applied to the input transducer that converts the signal into the electrical form.
2. The source encoder compresses the data to the reduced number of bits.
3. The channel encoder removes the error by adding the redundant bits to the input digital data. It helps in
encoding the signal into binary digit or seven digits PCM (Pulse Code Modulation). These are also used
to represent the original video signal.
4. The modulator modulates the signal by varying the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the transmitted
signal.
5. The transmitted signal passes through the communication channel to reach the receiver.
6. At the receiving end, the demodulator helps in recovering the message signal from the carrier.
7. The channel decoder, source decoder, and the output transducer convert the digital signal into its
original form of transmission. The output signal is a digital signal with no interference, noise, and error
and is suitable for the user to capture.

 Advantages of Digital Communication

Advantages of digital communication :
 It can be done over large distances through internet  devices and other things
 Digital communication technology is easy to mix signals and also have data using digital techniques
 Greater dynamic range is possible
 More option and flexibility in terms of recording and also a reviewing data
 Used in military application
 The inexpensive circuit may be used
 Digital communication gives facilities like video conferencing which save a lot of time, money as well as  effort
 Digital communication is done over a large distance through the Internet and is spread almost in every cities and
town. So in the compatibility of digital communication systems with the internet has opened a new area of applications
 Using data encryption, it is very useful for in a military application
 High-speed computers and powerful software design tools are available, so a digital communication system
flexible
 It can be tolerated the noise interference
 The digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper
 Digital communication has excellent processing techniques are available for digital signals processing such as
processing methods like image processing, video processing, data compression, channel coding and equalization etc
 Much less bulky than analog equivalent
 The error may offer to be corrected with the use of coding
 Much more options being able to share media called both socially and for business
Disadvantages of digital communication :
 High power consumption
 It has a sampling error
 Nongraceful degradation
 Bit error rate or probability of error
 Require A/D conversion at a high rate
 It requires more bandwidth as compared to an analog system
 It needs synchronization in synchronous modulation
 As the square wave is more affected by noise, that's what while communicating through channel we send sine
wave but while operating on a device we use squire pulses
 Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also disadvantages of a digital system
 More expensive to fix when it does wrong
 It was harder to fix when it does go wrong
 Miss-communication is possible if a user doesn't understand something
 Disadvantages of Digital Communication
1. High power consumption :- It consumes high power due to the requirement of greater number of
components, higher bandwidth, and high transmission speed.
2. High transmission bandwidth :- Digital communication requires high transmission bandwidth to transmit
the signals at high speed.
3. High power loss :- The power loss in digital communication is higher than analog communication due to the
high processing speed and hardware components.

 Applications of Digital Communication

1. Image and video processing
2. Data compression
3. Channel coding
4. Equalization
5. Digital Signal Processing
6. Speech processing
7. Satellites
8. Digital audio transmission
9. In computer networking equipment
a) Modems
b) LAN adapters
c) Hubs
d) repeaters

 Features of digital communication

1. The main feature of digital communication is that you can choose when and with whom you want to
communicate, including someone who’s in another part of the world. What’s more, wherever the other person is,
the message is transmitted instantly. This speed is good but can also be bad at the same time. Messages travel
quickly, but sometimes you write things that you later might regret.
2. Another feature is that with digital communication, verbal communication takes precedence over non-verbal.
Likewise, contact is often brief, replacing the longer, more meaningful contact that being face-to-face brings.
Communication through a digital device is often limited to a screen and a speakerphone. As a result, limited
information is transmitted, which can sometimes be misinterpreted. You often have to encode and decode text,
abbreviations and emojis.
3. Only video chats and teleconferences allow gestures, body language and tone of voice to be interpreted, as if they
were face-to-face conversations. But there are still limitations, as this is very far removed from real human
contact.
4. Digital data can be copied, modified or even reissued. Every message you write, every friend you add, every
comment or photo you share is encoded in digital data and stored on the server of the service you use, such as
Facebook or LINE. This is a big challenge for everyone who communicates digitally.
 5. With digital communication, you can be in contact with people who have similar interests, whom otherwise you
would never get to know. It’s a way of socialising and discovering new ideas at the same time. For example, you
can join a social media group where people share your passion and, by commenting on posts and photos, by
sending messages etc, you can get to know new people.
6. Another feature of digital communication is that it doesn’t cost very much. Social media and calling via the
Internet are free. The fact that messages don’t need printing on paper because they can be stored on an electronic
device for a long time means you can even save money. Books can also be electronically downloaded, so you
don’t need a printed copy. Consequently, on a global level this contributes to cutting down fewer trees to make
paper.
7. The final feature is that most of your personal ID and information can be stored on your own device. This has
both positive and negative implications. You need to be much more careful not to lose your mobile or have it
stolen. But at the same time, it’s very convenient. For example, you can pay for things with your mobile, and keep
passwords or access verification linked to the device, etc.

 Analog communication
 Analog communication is made from two words analog and communication. Analog refers to the
continuous time-varying signal. Communication refers to exchanging information between two or
more than two sources. Analog communication means communication with the help of analog
signals.
 The analog communication is communication from the sender to the receiver in the form of an
analog signal. The analog signal is a continuous time varying signal. The example of analog
signal is sound waves. The signals that continuously vary with time are the examples of an analog
signal, such as audio and video signals.

The analog communication system refers to a model that helps the data to transmit from one end to
the other. It combines elements that work together to establish a network between the sender and
receiver. It consists of transducers, transmitter, channel, and receiver. The function of transducers is
to convert one form of energy to the other. The channel acts as a medium to transmit electrical
information from the transmitter to the receiver.

The block diagram of an analog communication system is shown below:

Let's discuss the function of each component in detail.

Input transducer
The input transducer converts the information in the message signal into the electrical energy suitable
for transmission. The sources of information are audio, television, computers, etc.

The frequency range of speech signal is from 300Hz to 3000Hz.

The frequency of video signals is 4.2M Hz.

The frequency range of television is 0 Hz to 6000K Hz.

The output of the input transducer in fed to the transmitter.

Transmitter
The transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form suitable for transmission for the channel. It
performs modulation by superimposing the message signal on the high-frequency carrier signal.
Thus, different channels have different types of the transmitter. If the channel's characteristic varies,
the transmitter must adjust itself to maintain the desired range for effective communication.

The original signal is known as the message signal or the baseband signal. Transmitter also performs
multiplexing, i.e., simultaneous transmission of several signals.

Communication channel
Communication channel is a medium to transmit the electrical signal from transmitter to the receiver.
The communication can be broadcast or point to point. Broadcast refers to a single sender and
multiple receivers, such as radio. Point to point communication refers to the communication between
a single sender and a single receiver, such as a telephone. The essential parameter for suitable
transmission is bandwidth. The greater the bandwidth, the better will be the transmission.

The communication channel is further categorized as:

o Wired channel
o Wireless channel

Wired channel

The examples of wired channel are twisted pair cables, waveguide, cables, and optical fiber.

Twisted pair cables: These are the two conducting cables twisted to improve the transmission ability.
The twist in the two conductors couples the electric or magnetic fields and prevents the noise
interference in the channel. It is commonly used for wire shielding to prevent the data from external
noise.
Waveguides: The waveguides can transmits the electromagnetic waves without any energy less or
minimal loss. It is commonly used in radar and microwave communication.

Optical fiber: An optical fiber is a transmission fiber made up of plastic or glass. It can transmit the
data upto hundreds of kilometers without affecting the signal's quality. The transmission is based on
TIR (Total Internal Reflection). The diameter of the fiber is as small as the human hair.

Wireless channel

It is the communication in the form of EM (Electromagnetic waves) from one antenna to the other in
space. The transmission depends on the frequency of the EM waves.

Interference factors
The interference in the channel is termed as noise and attenuation.

Attenuation is defined as the loss in the strength of the signal. It is also known as distortion. The
attenuation is caused by the passive components in the communication system, such as cables and
connectors. It is low in optical fiber as compared to other types of media.

Noise is a serious factor in the communication system. It is defined as any unwanted interference in
the signal during the transmission. Noise is categorized as:

o Internal Noise
o External Noise

Internal Noise

The interference that occurs during the signal transmission inside the communication system is
known as internal noise. Examples of internal noise are thermal noise, shot noise, etc. Internal noise
can also arise from the recombination of the carriers (electrons and holes).

External Noise

The interference that occurs outside the communication system is known as external noise. The
examples of external noise are lighting, ignition, electrical switching, etc.

Receiver
The receiver receives information from the channel. It extracts the necessary information from the
signal required by the output transducer. The receiver performs the opposite of modulation and
multiplexing, i.e., demodulation and demultiplexing. It also amplifies and removes noise from the
signal.
Output transducer
The output transducer works reversely as that of the input transducer. It converts the electrical energy
into the original signal. We can also say that it makes the information available understandable to the
target. Examples of output transducers are loudspeakers, motors, LEDs, etc.

Both the input and output transducers are important because they convert the signal suitable for
transmission and increase the signal's speed.

The loudspeakers convert the electrical energy to sound.

The motors convert the electrical energy into motion.

The LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert the electrical energy to light energy.

Some channel also uses amplifiers or filters to remove the noise or distortion from the signal. The
noise present in the signal can affect the signal's quality. Hence, it's essential to use such components
in the circuit.

Function of the analog communication system

We have already discussed about each component in detail. Let's discuss how the data from one end
through the transducer is transmitted to the receiving end. It makes the data available to the receiver
without any noise or distortion. Here, we will discuss an example of the speech signal.

The information first reaches the input transducer. It converts the speech signal to the electrical
signal. It is because the communication system can only allow the electrical energy to pass through
the system. The electrical signal is further sent to the transmitter. It improves the characteristics of
the received signal by modulation and converts it to the suitable form for the channel. The
information now travels on the channel through different wired or wireless media. After travelling the
desired distance, the signal reaches the receiver. It demodulated the signal to recover the original
message signal, which is last send to the output transducer. The output transducer converts the
electrical signal back to the speech signal.

Speech plays a major role in human voice, communication through mobile phones, video, etc. But, the
back noise in a system is considered as inference and needs to be eliminated from the system. For
this, effective filters or amplifiers are used.

Advantages of analog communication

The advantages of analog communication are as follows:

o Analog signal uses less bandwidth as compared to the digital signal. It is due to the use of amplifier in
the analog communication system, which improves the signal and reduces the distortion.
o It provides a more accurate method of representation due to its continuous nature.
 o Audio signals are preferred for audio and video transmissions. It is because these signals can be easily
modulated and demodulated using Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.
o Analog signals are easy to process as compared to the digital signals.
o It offers a finite amount of signal resolution.
o Analog signals have high density because it is continuous and requires a medium to transmit.

 Digital vs. Analog

 Difference between Analog Communication and Digital Communication: 
S .No.                              ANALOG COMMUNICATION             DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

In analog communication analog

signal is used for information In digital communication digital signal
01. transmission. is used for information transmission.

Analog communication uses analog Digital communication uses digital

signal whose amplitude varies signal whose amplitude is of two levels
02. continuously with time from 0 to 100. either Low i.e., 0 or either High i.e., 1.

It gets affected by noise highly during It gets affected by noise less during
transmission through communication transmission through communication
03. channel. channel.

In analog communication only limited

number of channels can be It can broadcast large number of
04. broadcasted simultaneously. channels simultaneously.

In analog communication error In digital communication error

05. Probability is high. Probability is low.

In analog communication noise In digital communication noise

06. immunity is poor. immunity is good.

07. In analog communication coding is In digital communication coding is

not possible. possible. Different coding techniques
S .No.                              ANALOG COMMUNICATION             DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

can be used to detect and correct

errors.

Separating out noise and signal in

analog communication is not Separating out noise and signal in
08. possible. digital communication is possible.

Analog communication system is Digital communication system is having

having complex hardware and less less complex hardware and more
09. flexible. flexible.

In analog communication for In Digital communication for

multiplexing  multiplexing 
Frequency Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is
(FDM) is used.  used. 
10.    

Analog communication system is low Digital communication system is high

11. cost. cost.

12. It requires low bandwidth. It requires high bandwidth.

13. Power consumption is high. Power consumption is low.

14. It is less portable. Portability is high.

No privacy or privacy is low, so it is

15. not highly secured. Privacy is high, so it is highly secured.

Not assures an accurate data It assures a more accurate data

16. transmission. transmission.
 S .No.                              ANALOG COMMUNICATION             DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

17. Synchronization problem is hard. Synchronization problem is easier.

  

 Transmission Modes in Computer Networks or Types of Data Flow

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a communication mode.
Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:- 
1. Simplex Mode –

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction. Example: Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The
keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 2. Half-Duplex Mode –

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no
need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized
for each direction. The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When
cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
Example: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both directions. Channel
capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

3. Full-Duplex Mode –

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode, signals going
in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in
two ways:
(i) Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
the other for receiving.
(ii) Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions. 
 
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel,
however, must be divided between the two directions. 
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone line, through
which both can talk and listen at the same time. 
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as  transmission
mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

 o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way exchange of
data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding
reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows them to
transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data
from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.
Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data as
well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another
party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create
the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes the
delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
 o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode
comparison

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is the communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one
at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only send the Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
data but cannot receive it send and receive the receive the data simultaneously.
or it can only receive the data, but one at a time.
data but cannot send it.

Performance The performance of half-
duplex mode is better than
the simplex mode.
The performance of The Full-duplex mode has better
full-duplex mode is performance among simplex and
better than the half- half-duplex mode as it doubles the
duplex mode. utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.

Example Examples of Simplex mode Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-duplex mode is
are radio, keyboard, and is Walkie-Talkies. a telephone network.
monitor.

Next Topic Models

 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. In this definition, a device can be a host such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular
phone, or security system. A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router a switch, a
modem that changes the form of data, and so on.
1. Distributed Processing :- Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers
(usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
2. Network Criteria :- A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
(i) Performance :- Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
a. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
b. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance
is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less
delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may
increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
(ii) Reliability:- In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
(iii) Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data
losses.

 Computer Network
A computer network is essentially collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology. Two
computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. It is a system which allows
communication among the computers connected in the network.

 Goals of Computer Network

1) Resource sharing : Make all programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network regardless of the
physical location of the resource and user.
2) Provide high reliability : Ensures that network devices, data and links are available at all time by having
alternative sources of supply i.e. backup servers, replication of files on more than one machine to ensure
availability. Useful for military, banking, air traffic control application.
3) Distribution of workload: Big and complex task can be distributed among multiple processors in the network.
4) Saving money: It is economical to set up network of a large number of small computers than to invest in a few
large ones like mainframe.
5) Expandability: Network size and performance enhanced gradually by adding more processors and communication
devices.
6) Powerful communication medium: people in distant geographical areas can easily exchange and share
information, ideas and technology to enhance communication.

 Advantages of Computer Network

a. Increased speed: network provide fast means for sharing and transfer of files as compare to CDs and Pen drive
b. Reduced cost: popular versions of software usable for the entire network as compare to individual licensed
copies.
c. Improved security: protect program and files from illegal copying by restricting access to authorized users
only.
 d. Centralized software management: All software can be loaded on one computer instead of installing updates
and tracking files on independent computers. All other computers can use centralized software.
e. Electronic mail: computer network makes hardware available which is necessary to install an email system for
person-toperson communication.
f. Flexible access: It is possible for authorized users to access their files from any computer connected on the
network.

 Disadvantages of Computer Network

a. High cost of installation: Initial installation cost of network is high due to cost of cables, network cards,
computers and cost of services of technicians
b. Requires time for administration: Computer networks needs proper and careful administration and
maintenance which is time consuming job.
c. Failure of server: If the file servers “goes down” then the entire network comes to standstill.
d. Cable faults: Cable faults can paralyze a network

 Physical Structure of Network

The physical structure of a network refers to the way in which network elements are connected. Transmission
technology is an important aspect which guides the design of networks.Transmission Technology refers to the way in
which two devices can be connected.
Two types of transmission technology:
1. point-to-point
2. Broadcast
1. Point-to-Point :- A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.

2. Broadcast :- These networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network, such connection is also called as multipoint or multidrop connection. In a broadcast system, a packet
sent by one machine is received by all others. If packet is intended for other machine, it is ignored. It is possible to
transmit data to a subset of the network that is transmission to only a group of few machines known as
multicasting. Point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is called unicasting. Small localized
networks (such as LAN) use broadcast transmission.

 Network Topologies or Physical Topology

 Network topology refers to the manner in which devices are connected in the network.The term physical topology
refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and
ring

1. Mesh Topology
It is also called as fully interconnected topology. In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link
to every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
There are n(n-1) physical channels to link n devices. Every device not only sends its own data but also relays data
from other nodes. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must
be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links.
However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To
accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output (VO) ports to be connected
to the other n - 1 stations.

 Mesh Topology Advantages

• It offers highest reliability, privacy and security. Every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it.
• Traffic problems are eliminated because there is a dedicated link between any two devices which guarantees that
each connection can carry its own data load.
• Mesh topology is robust because the network does not crash if one link becomes unusable.
• Fault identification and fault isolation is easy. This enables the network manager to discover the precise location
of fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
 Mesh Topology Disadvantages
• Main disadvantage is the amount of cabling required to interconnect the devices and the number of I/O ports
needed at each device.
• Installation of new devices and reconnection is difficult.
• Mesh topology is expensive due to large number of hardware requirement (cables/ports).
For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the
main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
2. Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device. A star topology is less expensive than
a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves,
and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
 Star Topology Advantages
1. Less expensive: Each device needs only one link & one I/O port to connect it to any devices.
2. Easy installation & reconfiguration: Nodes can be added/removed w/o affecting the network.
3. Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
4. Easy to detect and troubleshoot fault.
5. Centralized management: The hub manages and controls the whole network.

 Star Topology Disadvantages

1. Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole network is dead.
2. Cable length required is the more compared to bus/ring topologies.
3. Number of nodes in network depends on capacity of hub

3. Bus Topology
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there
is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

 Advantages
1) Easy installation.
2) Cable required is the least compared to mesh/star topologies.
3) Redundancy is eliminated.
4) Costs less (Compared to mesh/star topologies).
5) Mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
 Disadvantages
1) Difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.
2) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
3) A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
4) There is a limit on
(i) Cable length
(ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
5) Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent from the source.
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use a
bus topology, but they are less popular.
4. Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to-point links in a closed loop. The
repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving data on one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on
the other link as fast as they are received, with no buffering at the repeater.The links are unidirectional; that is, data
are transmitted in one direction only and all are oriented in the same way. Thus, data circulate around the ring in one
 direction (clockwise or counterclockwise). Each station attaches to the network at a repeater and can transmit data
onto the network through that repeater. As with the bus and tree, data are transmitted in frames. As a frame circulates
past all the other stations, the destination station recognizes its address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it
goes by. The frame continues to circulate until it returns to the source station, where it is removed .Because multiple
stations share the ring, medium access control is needed to determine at what time each station may insert frames.

 Advantages
1) Easy installation and reconfiguration. To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections.
2) Fault isolation is simplified. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network-operator to the problem and its location.
3) Congestion reduced: Because all the traffic flows in only one direction.
 Disadvantages
1.Unidirectional traffic.
2.A fault in the ring/device stops all transmission. The above 2 drawbacks can be overcome by using dual ring.
3.There is a limit on
i. Cable length
ii. Number of nodes that can be connected.
4.Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source and destination.
 Categories of Networks
Computer network can be classified based on the geographical area they cover, i.e. the area over which the network is
spread. Following are three primary categories of networks: