Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aluminium and The Sea - Part 02
Aluminium and The Sea - Part 02
behaviour
43
1.1 Simple tension and compression
σ ≤ σe
σ c = 1.7 τ ≤ σ e
44
The coefficient of expansion α is taken to equal 23.10-6/°C.
2 Buckling
In this section we shall only discuss the rules relating to the
calculation of general flexural buckling due to uniform
compressive stress. For other cases of instability (local buckling,
torsional buckling, lateral buckling etc.) and for welded
components the reader is referred to the specialist literature,
some of which is listed in chapter 7.
σ σe
2
σ
K = 0.5 + 0.5 e + 0.5 + 0.5 – 0.17 e
σk σk σk
where :
π 2E
σk = (Euler’s critical compressive stress)
λ2
σ σe
2
σ
K = 0.5 + 0.5 e + 0.5 + 0.5 – 0.8 e
σk σ k σk
45
2.2 Example of weight saving in structures in
aluminium alloy for a case of compressive stress
with risk of buckling
ρ mini alu
= 1.40
ρ mini steel
σk alu
= 0.66
σk steel
(where Sk alu and Sk steel are below the yield points of the
materials considered)
σ k steel
S alu = Ssteel ≈ 1.5 S steel
σk alu
46
3 The rules of steel/aluminium
transposition
Two cases must be considered depending on the criterion
selected: criterion of strength and/or criterion of deformation.
and with masses placed in the areas furthest from the centre of
gravity.
Special case of plates
Calculate:
σ e steel e2steel = σ e alu e2alu
47
σ e steel
ealu = esteel
σ e alu
S alu = 3S steel
Ialu = 3Isteel
48
4 Calculation of welded structures in
aluminium alloy
There are two types of aluminium alloys that can be arc welded:
• Non heat treatable alloys, e.g. 5000 series aluminium-
magnesium alloys; these are used either in the annealed or work-
hardened condition.
• Heat treatable alloys, e.g. 6000 series aluminium-magnesium-
silicon alloys; these are generally used in the quenched and
naturally aged condition (T4) or quenched and artificially aged
condition (T6).
Work-hardening an alloy of the first type or heat treating an alloy
of the second type achieves mechanical characteristics superior to
those of annealed metal. During welding, the heat introduced by
the arc modifies the metallurgical condition of the material and
affects its characteristics; the gradual change in these
characteristics in the vicinity of the weldment is illustrated in
figure 21.
49
• that of the parent metal in the annealed condition for non heat
treatable alloys, whatever the original condition: annealed or
work-hardened,
• an intermediate value between the heat treated parent metal
and the same metal in the annealed condition, for non heat
treatable alloys.
Welded structures are calculated in two stages: stage one deals
with the weld bead and adjacent zone, stage two is the calculation
of the welded components. The following sections review French
and European codes, the latter having broadly adopted the
procedures of the former [1], [3]. (3)
50
Table 16
VALUES FOR COEFFICIENTS β AND γ FOR WELD BEADS
AND ZONES OF REDUCED STRENGHT [1], [3], [12]
(*) Theses values are given for guidance. They correspond to thickness of 20 mm or less and may vary slighty from one
code to another depending on the standardization body
(**) Estimated values extrapolated from those for 6005A T5
• Coefficient β
Coefficient β denotes the metallurgical efficiency corresponding
to the decrease in mechanical characteristics of the parent
metal as a result of welding.
51
yield point of the heat
affected zone
β =
yield point of the
parent metal
• Coefficient γ
Coefficient γ allows for the complex phenomena that occur in
stressed angle welds. The coefficient is less than 1 and its
influence is additional to that of coefficient β Values for γ are
given in table 16.
Values for coefficients β and for weld beads and zones of
reduced strength [1], [3], [12]
52
a) Simple stresses
• Component in tension
The following inequality must be calculated:
F 1
≤ σe
le αβ
• Component in compression
The following inequality must be calculated:
F 1
≤ σe
le β
• Component in shear
The following inequality must be calculated:
T 1
1.7 ≤ σe
le αβ
The coefficient 1.7 results from the fact that the weighted simple
shear stress is equal to 100/60 of the characteristic stress σ. This
value has been corroborated in experimental tests.
b) Compound stresses
• Component in tension and shear
The calculation of the compound loads of tension and shear is
expressed as:
1
σ12 + 3 τ12 ≤ σe
αβ
where:
F T
σ1 = τ1 =
le le
• Component in compression and shear (figure 26)
The calculation of the compound loads of compression and shear
is expressed as:
(ασ1)2 + 3 τ12
1
≤ σe
αβ
where:
F T
σ1 = τ1 =
le le
53
4.1.2 Calculation of fillet weld beads
Again there are two cases to consider:
• simple stresses,
• compound stresses.
Notations:
e: thickness of weld neck
l : effective length of weld bead equal to the actual length minus
the length “Ic” of the end defects
σe : minimum yield point guaranteed at 0.2 % of the aluminium
alloy in the condition used.
F : weighted load applied to the section
σ : normal weighted stress in the weld
τ : tangential weighted stress in the weld
α : conventional coefficient of weld quality
β : coefficient of metallurgical efficiency
γ : reducing coefficient of fillet welds
a) Simple Stresses
Transverse fillet welds
• Component in tension
The tearing stress calculation is written as follows:
F 1
≤ σe
Σla αβγ
• Component in compression
The tearing stress calculation is written as follows:
F 1
≤ σe
Σla βγ
b) Compound stresses
The following weighted stresses are calculated:
54
σ⊥τ⊥τ,, are coefficients calculated according to the Strength Rules
for materials – for the mean stress relative to the neck section of
the bead (minimum section of surface determined by a plane
passing through the intersection of the assembled faces), where:
σ⊥ weighted coefficient perpendicular to the section
τ⊥ weighted coefficient in the plane of the section perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis of the bead
τ,, weighted coefficient in the plane of the section parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the bead and the following relationship is
calculated:
1
α 2β 2γ 2
[ ]
σ⊥2 + 3 (τ 2⊥ + τ,,2 ) ≤ σe2
55
To assist calculations of the strength of welded components, it is
possible to calculate a total reduced surface that allows for
reductions in strength found locally in welded zones.
Notations:
l : width of welded component
l1 : half-width of the zone of reduced strength
l2 : width of transverse weld
e : thickness of component
α : conventional coefficient of weld quality
β : coefficient of metallurgical efficiency
• Longitudinal weld
• If F is a tensile stress, the equivalent surface of strength Ar is
written:
Ar = e[l – Σl1(1 – αβ )]
Ar = e[l – Σl1(1 – β )]
• Transverse weld
With a transverse weld the equivalent surface of strength is
written:
[
Ar = e l – (Σl1 + Σl2 )(1 – β ) ]
Note:
For a longitudinal or transverse weld, if the zone of reduced strength is less than 10 % of
the total transverse section of the component, the influence of the weld is taken to be
negligible.
56
The strength of welded components can be determined more
simply by calculating the geometrical characteristics of a reduced
cross-section which allows for local strength reductions observed
in welded zones.
• Equivalent static moment:
Sr = S – (1 – β ) Σi (Azr.i yi )
(
Ir = I – (1 – β ) Σi Azr.i yi 2 )
• Equivalent bending moment:
Wr = Ir / y max
57
Notations:
σe : minimum guaranteed yield point of the bolt or rivet
A : resistant surface area of the bolt shank
Asp : resistant surface area of the threaded section
αS : 0.6 for rivets and bolts in aluminium alloy 0.7 for rivets and
bolts in steel
When the threaded section of the bolt is stressed in shear the
ultimate shear load Vult is calculated by:
Vult = α s σ e A sp
The following formula is used when the rivet or the shank of the
bolt is stressed in shear:
Vult = α s σ e A
where:
T : weighted shear load
d : diameter of bolt
e : assembled thickness.
Recent work by EDF [4] and European aluminium alloy producers
has shown that the dominant factor is the value of the
longitudinal grip and not the working mode of the structure in
simple or double shear.
a) Influence of longitudinal grip
58
The component fails most frequently at the longitudinal grip, i.e.
the distance between the centre of the hole and the end of the
section.
where:
αb ult : coefficient given in table 17
d : diameter of rivet or bolt
tmin : thickness of the thinnest component in the structure
σe : minimum guaranteed yield point of the assembled part
d1 : diameter of bolt hole
The values of αb given for normal deformation are the result of
tests performed on bolted structures with defined clearance, and
restricting hole elongation to a maximum value of 0.07 d1.
(S' 'i )
2
Ieff = b – n1 d1 + Σ
4 S⊥i
59
where:
b : width of assembled component
n1: number of bolts encountered on the supposed line of failure
d1: diameter of bolt holes
S„i: pitch index i of holes in the direction of load
STi: pitch index i of holes square to direction of load
The net section is equal to the product of Ieff min and the
thickness of the component considered.
This formula is the result of work done by Cochrane and published
by Fisker and Struik. [6]
6 Fatigue
Structures exposed to fluctuations in load may be susceptible to
fatigue failure if the number of load cycles is high even though
stresses are within the admissible stresses for static loads.
Fatigue failure is initiated close to stress concentrations and
appears as cracks capable of propagating through components
and their assemblies.
Discontinuities such as bolt and rivet holes, weldments and local
or general changes in geometrical form give rise to stress
concentrations that curtail the fatigue life of structures.
60
There is no difference in behaviour associated with a grade of
parent metal and its as-delivered temper.
R = σmin/σmax
Statistical analysis has shown that the determining factor is the
variation in stress
∆σ = σmin – σmax
The range of the admissible stress variation must be corrected by
a coefficient determined by:
• the technological configuration (assembled or non-assembled
component)
• the value of R
• The graph below (figure 36) gives the value of correction
coefficients for the stress variation as a function of these
parameters.
The effect of R can be disregarded in structures which are
compound mechanical/ welded assemblies and where the
presence of residual stresses of complex origin can be taken to
exist.
61
• the design of the structure (influence of the coefficient of stress
concentration)
• the quality of fabrication: fatigue behaviour at a high load cycle
number essentially depends upon crack initiation encouraged by
local defects emerging or otherwise,
• the level of residual stress which depends on the methods of
erection and assembly.
The following examples illustrate:
• the importance of design,
• the importance of fabrication quality.
62
a) The transverse butt-weld with total root penetration is made
from both sides; the assembly comprises two simple components,
e.g. plates or flats. The bead is ground flush in the direction of the
applied stress. The edges of the main components must be either
as-extruded or carefully machined or ground in the direction of
stress. The weldments must be free from detectable interruptions
on the basis of QA requirements. The transverse gusset plates
must be chamfered in width or thickness with a gradient not
exceeding 1/4.
63
Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa
40
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5
6.4 Conclusion
Notes
(1) In some calculation codes, safety
factors are applied to characteristic
stresses to obtain admissible stresses. In
these cases stresses are not factored.
(2) With welded components the values
of Salu and I/V alu must be calculated
using the method described in section 4.2
on p. 46.
(3) Figures in [ ] refer to the bibliography
at the end of the chapter.
64
7
Bibliography
65