Vidyamandir Classes Biomolecules & Polymers Biomolecules & Polymers CARBOHYDRATES Section - 1 Defini n In olen times, carbohydrates were defined as hydrates of carbon, represented by general formula C,(H,0),, ice hydrogen and oxygen existedin the ratio of 2: 1 asin water molecule, ., Glucose (C,11,0),), Suctose C,,(11,0),,) te, However, « number of compounds such as Rhamnose (C,H1,0,], 2-Deoxyribose (CyH; Oy] aze known, which are carbohydrates by their chemical behaviour but cannot be represented as hydrates of carbon, It is also important to note thatall compounds possessing the formula C,(1,0), are not necessarily carbohydrates, eg, Formaldehyde, HCHO [C(H,0),}, Acetic acid [C,(1,0),], ete Now, carbohydrates aze defined as polyiydioxy aldelydes or polyhydroxy ketones or substances which give these on [hydrolysis and contain atleast one chiral carbon atom, may be noted here that aldehydic and ketonic groups in carbohydrates ae not present as such but usually exist in combination with one ofthe hydroxyl groups ofthe molecule in the form of hhemiacetals Classification of Carbohydrates = On the basis of hydrolysis, carbohydrates are divided into three major classes. These ate (i) Monosaccharides : These are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to sive simpler carbohydrates. With afew exceptions, they have general formula, C,H,,0,. Glucose isthe most important ‘member in their class. These are crystalline in nature, readily dissolve in water and are sweet in taste (sugars). 64H,0, + 1,0 5 No reaction Ghuear o Face (li) Oligosaccharides : The oligosaccharides are carbohydrates which yield a definite number (2-10) of monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis. ‘The oligosaccharides containing two monosaccharide units are called disaccharides, and those containing three, four or five units are termed as trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides or pentasaccharides respectively, ¢.g., Sucrose and Maliose, both disaccharides, yield two molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. CHO, +H,0 > e4H,,0, + C4H,,0, Sucrose Glucose Fructose CHO + H,0_H'_, 2C,H,,0, Maltose Glucose Rafinose, trisaccharide, with molecular formula C,,H,,0, yields three monosaccharide units, Se study Course for TEE wth Ontine Suppor 1Biomolecules & Polymers CEucu ume os CygHy:0)6#2HO0 ——> CyHaOg + CHO, + Cel Raffinose Glucose Fructose Galactose “Majority of oligosacchavides are colourless crystallin solids, soluble in water and sweet in taste (ii) Polysaccharides :"The polysaccharides are carbohydrates of high molecular weight which yield many monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. The general formula of polysaccharides is (C,H,,0,),. Starch, cellulose, glycogen, ete, are the examples of polysaccharides. (C90), +0H,0 > a C(H,,0, Starch Glucose Polysaccharides are colourless, amorphous solids having no taste and insoluble in cold water. These are also called non-sugars, Sugars and Non-Sugars : [All the mono and disaccharides are commonly know as sugar as they possess a sweet taste, while, higher carbohydrates then disaccharides are called non-sugars. Reducing and Non-Reducing Carbohydrates : ‘Carbohydrates that reduce Febling’s solution or Tollen’s reagent are termed reducing carbohydrates while the others are non-reducing carbohydrates. “All monosaccharides and most of the disaccharides except sucrose are reducing carbohydrates.” Monosaccharide : ‘The monosaccharides are the basis of carbohydrate chemistry, since all carbohydrates are either monosaccharides or are converted into monosaccharides on hydrolysis. The monosaccharides are either polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. ° i These are, therefore, classified into two main groups, viz., Aldoses (containing CH group), and Ketoses ° 1" (containing — C— group). ‘The aldoses and ketoses are further divided into sub-groups, onthe basis of the number of carbon atoms in their molecules as trioses, tetroses, ete, To classify « monosaccharide completely, itis necessary to specify both, the type of the carbonyl ‘group and the number of carbon atom present in the molecule. Thus monosaccharides are generally referred to as aldotrioses, Ketotrioses, aldotetoses, ketotettoses, etc Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online SupportRieu Biomolecules & Polymers ‘The aldoses and ketoses may be represented by the following general formulas. ci citon dao, do buon exiom, dion (n= 2,3,4,5)— (n=0,1,2,3,4,5) Except ketotriose (dihydroxy acetone), all aldoses and ketoses contain asymmetric carbon atoms and are optically active. ‘The enantiomers which rotate the plane of plane polarised light tothe right are writen as (+), the others which rotate tothe left are written as (-). The (+) and (-) signs only specify the dircetion of rotation of the plane polarised light by & particular enantiomer but it does not give any indication of the arrangement of OH and H around the asymmetric carbon atom, Maximum number of optical isomersis 2® where nis the number of asymmetric carbon atoms in the molecule ‘Note : Aldohexoses exist in sixteen optically active forms, i. Glucose, Mannose, Galactose, Allose, Altrose, Idose, Gulose and ‘Talose and each existing in two forms. cHo cHo Glyceraldebyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom and can thus exist in two optically active forms, called the D-form(-OH group ony on Ho. " the right side of lowest asymmetric earbon) and the L-form (-OH group fon the leit side of lowest asymmetric carbon), CH,0H CH,0H D- Giyceraldehyde L- Glyceraldehyde ‘The sugars having same configuration as of D-Glyceraldchyde are known as D-sugars while that of L-Glyceraldehyde as L-sugars. Glucose, an aldose, and Fructose, a ketose, are most important monosaccharides. The natural form of Glucose and Fructose are D-forms. lon ne PH-c_on +<— D Configuration ——> PH-¢_on D[+)-Glucose D{-}-Fructose pimers: A pair of diastereomers that differ only in the configuration about a single carbon atom are said to be epimers, c.g, D(+)-Glucose is epimeric with D(+)-Mannose and D(+)-Galactose. Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support 3Biomolecules & Polymers EOucurum er Wore neo-con HCHO HCHO HCHO cio cH,on cH,oH Ole-Galsctose Ds}. Gucose vfs Mannose [cA timer of laces] [62 pines of leas] Glucose [C,H,,0,] (Aldo-Hexose) : As glucose occurs in nature as the optically active dextro-otatory isomer itisknown as ox\sose, iv also called as expe spat In combined form, it occurs in cane suger, polysaccharides such a starch and cellulose, Its also presen in various slycosides like Amygdalin and Salicn. Preparation : 1. Laboratory Method : ILis prepared in laboratory by acid hydrolysis of cane sugar in presence of alcohol wt CyHy20,, + HO —— CeO. + CHO. Cane sugar Glucose Fructose (sucrose) 2. Manufacture : It is obtained on a large scale by the hydrolysis of starch (corn starch or potato starch) with dilute sulphuric acid or HCI. uw (C(H)0)), +2 HO SE 9 (C\H,,09) Starch 2am Glucose Property : 1. Itis acolourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water, with melting point as 146°C. 2. From aqueous solution, it separates out asa crystalline monohydrate (C,H,,0,,H,O) which melts at 86°C. 3. Itis spatingly soluble in sleokol but insoluble in ether, 4, It shows characteristic of hydroxyl and aldehydic group. 5. Alcoholic Reaction: Reactions due to -OH group) : {) Reaction with acid chloride and acid anhydrides : cHo cHo zch | Griow,«seHco, ks etooeeng,+ set cH,0H cH,ooccH, Givose Glucose pent-acetate ‘This shows that molecules of glucose contains S~OH groups. Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online SupportVidyamandir Classes Biomolecules & Polymers Reaction with PCl,: fe CHO (CHOH), + SPCL, > __ Flee sPocic+ suet CHOH CH,CI Glucose Penta-chloroglucose Reaction with metallic hydroxides : Glucose behaves as a weak acd, Itreacts with certain metallic hydroxides like Ca(OH), Ba(OUD, te. to form metallic glucosaes, which are soluble in water. C(H,,0;~ GH + HO ~Ca~ OH ——> C,H,,0,-0-Ca-OH+H,0 Calcium Glucosate (iv) Formation of Glycosides : When treated with methyl alcohol in presence of dry HCl gas glucose yields mono- ‘methyl ether whichis atually a mixture of and forms indicating that one ofthe -OH groups different from others. HEH OCH, 8+ 6,14,.0,-0cH, +110 a and Methyl lucoide Nf NZ I I t—— t—— 6. Reactions of carbonyl Group (Aldehydic group) : (Reduction : CHO cH,OH Xe (CHOH), + 2 (H] ae om. CHO cH,on Sorbitol On prolonged heating with concentrated HI and red phosphorus at 110°C, glucose forms a mixture of 2-iodohexane and n-hexane (il) Oxidation : Glucose undergoes oxidation with various oxidising agents readily, i., glucose acts as a reducing agent, Set study Course for TEE with Ontne Support 5Biomolecules & Polymers CUCU acer With Febling’s solution, a sed precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed, (a) Reaction with Fehling’s soluti CHO CHO cuotn, (CHOW), = Soe (CHOH), + Cu,0+H,0 | (Red pt) cHo COONa Sodium salt of ‘conic Acid (b) Reaction with Tollen’s Reagent : With ammonical AgNO, a silver mirror or black precipitate is formed, cron cron EGHION, © ABN, ar? (HOI + Yay ten Gio Cont, Rene ene ea eee eee cate cee eee cae sea ee eee cuon cuon I I co A, co won ccHon 28%, co ‘ nor? 019, (cuiom, GH,0H non Fructose (€) Reaction with Bromine Water HOH HOH BHO (CHOM, > [0] => (cHom, cHO coon Gluconie acid (a) Reaction with Nitric acid: Nitric acid or any other strong oxidising agent converts glucose to saccharie acid or plucaric acid containing same number of carbon atoms. HOH Coon HNO, (au0ND, + sf0] °F (AON, + Hho cHO coon, Saceharic acid 5 Self study Cours for IEE with Online SupportRiera asco Biomolecules & Polymers (iii) Reaction with HCN : cu,on HoH (CHO), + HCN ——> (CHON, bio wo-ta-en Glucose cyanohydrin {h) Reaction with Hydroxylamine : cu,on cuon (CHOH), + NH,OH ——> (CHOH), + H,O cuo cu=Nou lucose oxime (v) Reaction with phenylhydrazine (Fischer's mechanism) : ‘With inited amounts of phenylbydazine, glucose forms a phenyyrazone cron (cHtom, —cHio 2, cH,o1(CHOH), CHE= NNHCélHs lucose Glucosephenyinyérazone ‘With an excess of phenylhydrazine, the reaction is some what more complicated, Thee moles of phenylhydrazine are consumed for each mole of the glucose to form glucosazone, a yellow crystalline solid containing two phenylhydrazine residues per molecule. caHgNNt - cron (ction), crottcto FHT cton(ctiott),c-cHt= wt, Glucose Annic,at, ‘Iewas suggested that the second molecule of phenylhydrazine oxidise the hydroxyl group adjacent tothe aldehyde ‘group, followed by the reaction of the carbonyl group so generated with the third molecule of phenylhydrazine. (« IMPE is intramolecular proton exchange) cho CH NNHC,H, cH, NH I CHIN, mee. TENHCGts H-C-oH “Gig > HAG-On SEL O7 1 arog bond (CHOM), (HOT, (CHOH), I I 1 cau, cH,on cH,on cHon Glucose Glucose phenyihydrazone CH=NNHC gti cu-Nui cu-Ni 1 1 1 alg argh =NNHCgHs SEEMING NHC gH =0 ° is own) F els ano) (Hon), (CHOH, (CHOH, 1 1 1 cH,OH CHO cH,0H Giucosazone Imino ketone Set Study course for TEE with One Support 7Biomolecules & Polymers CUS (vi) Action of Alkalies-Lobry de Bruyn van Ekenstein Rearrangement : o-cn cu-on H-G-OH .2-tyahaton, OH Guo, exvo1, cn,on cu,on D(e-Glucose ZO Enediol SQ «sto exo cH,oH u-c-on nob coo | | | (cHom, (cHOR), (cum, | | | cnon cH,oH cH,on (D(+)- Glucose D (+) - Mannose D(-+)- Fructose (ui) Reaction with HIO, : Being an a-hydroxy carbonyl compound containing a number of vie-hydroxyl groups, glucose undergoes oxidative cleavage with specific oxidising agents like periodic acid (Malaprade reagent) and lead tetra-acetate. CH,OH(CHOH), CHO + SHI0, ——+ HCHO + SHCOOH +5HIO, Period acid Formaldehyde Formic odie acd acid “This reaction has a great potential for application o structure determination of glycols, and ithas been extensively used in carbohydrate research for sructre determination, ‘Note : Monosaccharides exist as cyclic siructoxes in the form of hemiacetals. Thus glucose forms a six membered ring of five ‘carbon atoms and one oxygen atom (Pyvanose form). ‘Anomers In the cycle structures of monosaccharides, ©, ~O# of glucose combines with C, alchyslc group. As aresult © becomes chiral orasymmetre and thus has two possible arrangements of =H and -OH groups aroundit ie. OH group may be on right side at C, (o-D-Gilucose) or onthe lel side of C, (J-D-Glucose). Such pair of stereoisomers which dferin ‘configuration only around C, ate called snomers, C, carbon atoms called anomeric catbon. H te OH HO. ue H ton neon Hoe = won 9 a 2 on Hc-on HA *—_ c He ‘c ‘ton “cHon buon 044) shore Di cose oterGtease 0s. lcopyranoce {Open can) #040 cucopyranase Fischer projection formula of cyclic form and open chair form. 8 Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online SupportNie ucur acer Biomolecules & Polymers Haworth projection formula of eyelic form *cH,oH *cHLOH bog i HA H HA ou HONG on woNQH >I > H On H On eeD-clcose (--cucose ‘a-D{+}-Glucopyranose B:0(+)-Glucopyranose |Vuutarotation : The change in specific votston of tn optically active compound in solution with time to an equilibrium value is called as mutarotation, ¢, when either of the stereoisomerieformsof glucose, i¢., o-D-glucose and B-D-glucose, is dissolved in water and allowed to stand, it gets converted into equilibrium mixture through & small amount of a open chain form. o-D-Gheose === Openchain form == * — B-D-Glucose (0.02%) (64%) (36%) [a], =+ 112° [aly =+52.7° {aly =+19° Fructose [C,H,,0,] (Keto-Hexose) : Fructose isan important ketohexose, It is obtained along wit glucose by the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose. (Open Chain Structure of Fructose cH,OH cH,OH I I c o=c HO: H oH H HO: H H HO: H CH,OH CH,OH D4 Hrucose LebFructose > Fructose also undergoes cyclisation process by hemi-keta! formation to result in a five-membered ring like for, 2CH, - OH | aa a 2C=0 HOH,C ‘CoH on 7c. Chon = »—3}__. = ota won wong u on } i ow 0 on ution/ nd n4 3 “CHO “cH ‘CH,OH -D{-) Fructofuranose B-(-) Fructofuranose Self study course for IJEE with online Suppor 9Biomolecules & Polymers es Reaction of Fructose : (Reaction with Phenylhydrazine : Equimolar amounts of fructose and phenylhydrazine react (o form fructose phenylhydrazone, but with excess of phenylhydrazine, fructose yields the same osavone as that obtained from glucose. As in the case of glucose, formation of glucosazone from fructose can be explained as follows: BE cy LIM am, PO Peo en, TEEN nea, BEE ina Me, {CHOH), (CHOH), (CHOH), buon buon buow rao Fratoe phrnydaene [eso cu =NNC =n uo Gensel, AIMEE Cony CRIB (chon), (cHon, (cHon, buon buon buon (i) Reaction with NH,OH cx0 cx,on G=0 HH, dNon (Hom, (com), +H,0 bon éx,0n Reaction with HEN exyon enon feo I bse om, Gx0m, buon buon Fructose Cyanohydrin (iv) Reaction with Acetic anhydride : cuton cxions bog 0, kG duo, Gii0A9, bien bi,ore Fructose Pentaacetate 10 EET, sett study course for 1tsEe with online supportNie ucur acer Biomolecules & Polymers (v) Reaction with Red P and HI : cH,0H cn, boo hay, ot, by, hon nHocne (vi) Oxidation by Nitric Acid On oxidation with HINO,, fructose yields a mixture of acids, namely trihydroxyglutaric acid, tartaric acid and glycollic acid, Each of these acids contains a fewer number of carbon stoms then fructose, thereby suggesting that the carbonyl group in fructose is a keto group and not an aldehyde group. cnon coon coon tivo,» GHLOH wee Too lots * Gow, (cHoK, coon coon GH,0H Glycollic —Tartaric acid Trihydroxyglutarie acid (vii) Action of Alkalies on Fructose : ‘This reaction is known as Lobry de Bruyn and Alberda Van Elkenstein rearrangement or simply Elkenstein rearrangement. On warming with dilute alkali fructose like glucose, gives rise to an equilibrium mixture of glucose, fructose and ‘mannose. The ability of fructose (a ketose) to reduce Fehling solution and Tollen’s reagent is possibly due to this initial isomerisation of fructose to glucose and mannose which are being aldoses are capable to reduce Febling solution and Tollen’s reagent. ran ae wot oe, WER tohon bon nu & on nu & on wa cnt vali Sel Study Course for TEE wih Onine Suppor 1”Biomolecules & Polymers idyamandir Classes Haworth projection formula of Fructose : Just ike glucose, D (=) fructose also exists in two forms 6 and forms, which exhibit mtsrotaton, By reasoning similar to that used earlier in the case of glucose D(-) fructose was assigned a six-membered structure ora pyvanose ring structure and the and B-forms can be depicted as follows ul 4 Ot ry H ‘CHOW H OH anomeric carbon H 2 and a 2 no HOW on on on gu,on ou H On H eeD(- Fructose 8-0(- Fructose Disaccharides : ‘Carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis give two molecules ofthe same or different monosaccharides are called disaccharides. ‘Their general formula is C, H,,0,). The three most important disaccharides are suciose, maltose and lactose, CHO +H,0 A C4Hy205 + Cele Sucrose orinvertase Glucose’ Fructose CHO, +H0 5 2CpH05 Maltose orMaltase Glucose aw Ci2Ha2011 + 29 ——> C6Hi20¢ + Co M206 lactose Glucose Galactose Disacchatides may also be considered to be formed by a condensation reaction between two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides with the elimination of a molecule of water. This reaction involves the formation of an acetal from ‘bemiacetal and alcohol - in which one of the monosaccharides acts as the hemiacetal while the other acts asthe alcohol, Sucrose [C,H,,0,1] : ScHOH Itis also called cane sugar. It is our common table sugar. wih OH Itis obtained from cane-sugar and sugarbeets. is actualy oxeeuy aE . found in all photosynthesis plants Ho\oH HH /, ee J fh I is formed by condensation of one molecule of glucose TH Off Om Stes tnane (Frceseunit HOH,C and one molecule of fructose. Unlike maltose and Lactote, |— pine itis non-reducing sugar since both glucose (C, ~ a) and fructose (C. ~ B) ate connected to each other through their BY Cuon reducing centres on 12 QETETIEUNNNNNNNNII, study course for 12 with online SupportRic cued Biomolecules & Polymers Properti 1. Ttisacolourles, odourless crystalline compound, with melting point as 185°-186°C. 2. Its very soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether 3. tis dextro-rtatory but does not show mutasotion 4. It is a non-reducing sugar as it does not reduce Febling's solution or Tollen’s reagent. 5. Onheating, slowly and carefully, it melts and then allowed to coo, it solidifies to pale yellow glassy mass called ‘Barley Sugar’. When heated at 200°C, i€ loses water to form brown amorphous mass called caramel. On strong heating, it chars to almost pure carbon giving smell of burnt sugar. Inversion of Cane - Sugar : “The hydrolysis of sucrose by boiling with HCI, produces a mixture of equal molecules of D-Glucose and D-Fructose, at CyHyOy, #10 —— CHO, + Cll. sucrose D-Glucose —O-Fructose [ely =#83"[¢Iy Tver Sugar =-92° [elp=+ 665° folly = (453°) +92") =-39" Sucrose solution is dextro-rotatory. Its specific rotation is + 66.5", But on hydrolysis, its solution become laevorotatory, because D-fructose has a grealer specific rotation than D-glucose, Because of this, the hydrolysis of sucrose is known as the inversion of sucrose, and the equimolecular mixture of glucose and fructose is known as invert sugar or invertose. Mattose : son CHOW > Ieis composed of 2 D-glucose units joined Mi LAR H together by C, —C, elycosiic linkage, a ) oon Ay > is areducing sugar as free-aldehydic group can Ldn Lon bbe produced atthe C, of 2nd glucose 0 m e-b-Giucose e0-Giucose Lactose : ScHOH ScH,oH > Its foxmed by glyeosidic linkage between C, of HO. AF W/E °\ on B-D-galactose and C, of B-D-glucose, Xow oH & Row aNe / | ai 11 > Wis also reducing in nature kon hon {-D- Galactose {-D- Glucose Note: > Galactose : 3 and 4 abnormal > Mannose: 2and3 abnormal > Sucrose : CI-C2 (ceD glucose and B-D fructose) > Lactose: C1-C4(B-D galactose and B-D glucose) > Maltose : C1-CA (a-D glucose and o-D glucose) > Amylose : Polymer of a Glucose > Cellulose: C1-C4 Polysaccharide of B-D glucose Se Study Course for ITEE wih Onine Suppor 3Biomolecules & Polymers Ri ecu ume Polysaccharides : They contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. |. Starch :Itis a polymer of er-glucose and consists of two components (a) Amylose : (b) Amylopectin : > Iris a water soluble component. > Itisinsoluble in water. > Itconstitutes about 15-20% of starch. > Icconstitutes about 80-85% of starch. > Ieis a long unbranched chain with > Itis a branched chain polymers of (+)-glucose units joined together by o-D-glucose units in which chain is ©, -€, elycosidie linkage. formed by C, = C, glycosidic linkage ‘whereas branching occurs by C, — Cy glycosidic linkage. Structure of Starch : Amylose and Amylopectin are both different carbohydrates of high molecular weight and formula (C,H,,0,),. The polysaccharide amylose is made up of long straight chains each containing about 200 or more D-glucose units join together by a 1,4-inkage. 41, A-glycosidic linkage Structure of Amylose ‘Molecular weight of amylose lies between 30,000 to 40,000, ‘The polysaccharide amylopectin consists of chains of D-Glucose units cach unit joined by a glycosidic linkage to C—4 of the next unit, Further investigation reveals that amylopectin is highly branched structure consists of several short chains ‘of about 20 glucose units each, one end of each of these chains being joined through C-1 to C-6 on the next chain, cHOH CHOW fee Li . ys ‘Amylopectin 14 ECU, ser sty couse or wth one supporious Cr Biomolecules & Polymers UL. Cellulose : > Itisa straight chain polysaccharide composed of f-D-glucose units held together by C, ~ C, glycosidic linkage. HOHC Vn HOH,C NOH H Hl © t Hoon none oH WAL 4 ° £ Hon on u Blinks On on Cellulose lil, Glycogen : Carbohydrates are stored in animal body as Glycogen, When Body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose, Itis found in liver, muscles brain, yeast and fungi, lis also known as animal starch because (s structure is similar to amylopectin and i rather more highly branched, Analysis of Carbohydrates : ‘The following reactions characterizes the carbohydrates asa class of organic compounds {) Molisch Test : For this test 2,3 drops of a 1% alcoholic solution of a-naphthol is added to $% aqueous solution of the organic ‘compound (suspected to be a carbohydrate) followed by a careful addition of about 2 ml of cone. sulphuric acid “Formation ofa deep violet sing atthe junction of the liquids indicates the presence of a carbohydrate” ‘The violet ring formed in this test is believed to be due to the formation of an unstable condensation product of ca-naphthol with furfural formed presumably by the eyclodehydation ofthe carbohydrate withthe acid (i) Action of Heat : ‘When heated strongly in a dry test tube, carbohydrates generally char and give out the smell of burnt sugar (i) Action of cone. H,50, ‘When warmed with cone. H,S0, carbohydates show immediate blackening Ifa carbohydrate has been indicated by the above test, the following tests are used to distinguish reducing carbohy- rates from non-reducing carbohydrates, only reducing carbolydrates respond to these tests (0 Febling test Gi) Tollen’s test ‘These test are already described in an earlier chapter of Aldehyde and Ketones. Sel Study course for TEE with Onn Support 5