DISTINCTION IN

PHY111 A smart approach to

getting your “easy
WHAT THIS MATERIALS OFFERS:
A” in PHY111
1. SUMMARIZED NOTES TARGETED AT AREAS OF CONCENTRATION
2. SOME PAST QUESTIONS REVIEWED AND ANSWERED

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DC MARVEL (09025385413)

0
 CHAPTER 1; DIMENSIONS v = velocity = L/T

 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL Analysing Option A

QUANTITIES
x/a = L × T²/L = T²
The dimension of a physical quantity indicates the way
fundamental quantities [especially Mass, Length and Time] Analysing Option B
are represented by letters [usually M,L and T] to relate the
fundamental units of physical quantities. √2x/a = √(2L × T²/L) = √2T² = T√2

The respective symbols for the fundamental units that √2 is a constant and can be neglected.
are commonly used at this level are;
√2x/a = T (B)
Mass = M
3. Which of the following gives the correct
Length = L dimension of moment of inertia of an annular cylinder?
A. ML
Time = T B. ML-¹
C. ML-²
Current = I D. ML²
E. None of the above
N.B: Dimensional analysis will tell you if an equation is
incorrect but a dimensional consistent equation may not SOLUTION
correctly express the real relationship of quantities.
Moment of Inertia I = mass × radius²
STUDY QUESTIONS
Irrespective of the shape of the body, the
1. Which of the following gives the correct dimension for moment of inertia does not
dimension and unit of co-efficient of restitution? change.
A. LT, m/s²
B. LT-², m/s I = ML² (D)
C. LT-¹, m/s²
D. LT-¹, m/s 4. The term MT-², were M is the mass in kg and T is
E. None of the above the time in seconds represent the dimension of what?
A. Density
SOLUTION B. Moment
C. Velocity
Coefficient of restitution = (v₁ - v₂)/(u₁ - u₂) D. Acceleration
E. None of the above
Both the numerator and denominator have the
same units and same dimension which will cancel SOLUTION
out to be 1.
Density = mass/volume = M/L³
The dimension of constants is null (E)
Moment = force × perpendicular distance = ML²T-²
2. Which one of the following has the same
dimension as time? Velocity = displacement/time = L/T
A. x/a
B. √2x/a acceleration = velocity/time = L/T²
C. √v/x
D. vx 5. For what dimension of k is the equations s = ut -
E. xa ⅓kat³ dimensionally correct?
A. T-¹
SOLUTION B. 3T
C. 3/2T
Now, let's analyse all the quantities included in D. ⅗T
the options. E. None of the above

x = Length = L SOLUTION

a = acceleration = L/T² For the equation to be dimensionally correct;

s = ut or s = ⅓kat³
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 It therefore means that; In component method of vectors addition, vectors
are added on the basis of their components and unit vectors.
s = kat³ The following should be noted when applying the
component method of vector addition;
L = k × L/T² × T³
1. The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors
L = k × LT in same direction can be gotten by adding both
vectors by simple arithmetic.
k = L/LT 2. The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors
in linearly opposite directions can be gotten by
k = T-¹ (A) subtracting the bigger vector from the smaller
vector.
3. The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors that
CHAPTER 2; VECTORS are perpendicular to each other is gotten by
resolution. The diagonal of two perpendicular
 VECTOR QUANTITY vectors is the resultant.

Vectors are physical quantities having both magnitude In terms of unit vectors;
(size) and direction. The following are vectors;
î = x = horizontal
1. Torque
2. Displacement j = y = vertical
3. Electric Field
4. Magnetic Field lines (Magnetic Flux) It would be safe to say that;
5. Magnetic Field intensity/strength
6. Force Rî = Rx

N.B: Rj = Ry

1. Magnetic flux density is a scalar quantity. From basic mathematics, the resultant magnitude can
2. The magnitude of a vector is a scalar quantity simply be gotten by pythagoras theorem as;
and is denoted as / A/. This is why the
magnitude of velocity is same as speed. R² = Rx² + Ry²
3. Pressure is a scalar quantity
R = √(Rx² + Ry²)
 UNIT VECTOR
Where;
A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1 and
only shows direction. They include; Ry = vertical component of resultant

1. x = î = horizontal direction Rx = horizontal component of resultant

2. y = j = vertical direction
3. z = k = diagonal in a 3 - Dimensional system. R = Resultant vector

PAST QUESTION REVIEW

 EQUAL VECTORS
An airplane which intends to fly south at 280km/hr
Two vectors are said to be equal only when they
experiences a wind blowing westward at 50km/hr. What is
both have the same size and direction.
the actual speed of the plane relative to the ground?
 ADDITION OF VECTORS A. 275.5km/hr
B. 285.5km/hr
The vector sum of two vectors is known as the C. 295.5km/hr
resultant of those two vectors. Vectors can be added by D. None of the above
the following methods;
SOLUTION
1. Graphical method
2. Vectorial/Component method Ry = 280km/hr
3. Parallelogram method
Rx = -50km/hr
 COMPONENT METHOD OF VECTOR
ADDITION R=?

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 R = √(Rx² + Ry²) In this case; R = V

R = √[(-50)² + (280)²] = √(2500 + 78400) V = √(Vx² + Vy² + Vz²)

R = √(80,900) = 284.43km/hr V = √[(-2.20)² + (-3.30)² + (6.85)²]

R = 284.4km/hr (D) V = √(4.84 + 10.89 + 46.92)

Multiple vectors that are represented on a V = √(62.65) = 7.915m/s

cartesian plane can similarly be resolved by using the same
method in the previous paragraph. V = 7.92m/s (B)

In this case, we are going to add all the horizontal
components of the given vectors to amount to Rx.
ax = aî
bx = bî
 DIRECTION OF A VECTOR
The direction of a vector is always taken anti-
clockwise from the horizontal plane or positive x-axis in
a graph. The following should be noted when vectors are
given in bearing;

cx = cî 1. The four cardinal points and their corresponding

three digit bearing to the +ve x-axis is given
dx = dî below;

Rx = aî + bî + cî + dî = ax + bx + cx + dx North = 90°

Similarly, the same will be done for the vertical West = 180°
components to amount to Ry.
South = 270°
ay = aj
East = 0°
by = bj
2. When angle isn't specified, the following should
cy = cj be noted;

dy = dj directly North East (East of North) is 45°

Ry = aj + bj + cj + dj = ay + by + cy + dy directly North West (West of North) is 135°

The total resultant can easily be calculated by; directly South East (East of South) is 315°

R = √(Rx² + Ry²) directly South West (West of South) is 235°

PAST QUESTION REVIEW 3. When angle isn't specified, the direction of the
vector can be determined from its magnitude as shown
A three dimensional velocity vector is given as V = -2.20î - below;
3.30j + 6.85k, find the magnitude of the velocity vector.
Rx = +ve = East direction = 0°
A. 8.92m/s
B. 7.92m/s Rx = -ve = West direction = 180°
C. 5.72m/s
D. None of the above Ry = +ve = North direction = 90°

SOLUTION Ry = -ve = South direction = 270°

Vx = Vî = -2.20 4. Northeast means clockwise movement from the

North to the East. It also means "East of North". The
Vy = Vj = -3.30 opposite is "North of East". N60°E is same thing as 60°
East of North and 30° North of East. The same is true for
Vz = Vk = 6.85 Southwest.
5. Northwest means anticlockwise movement from
V=? North to West. It also means "West of North". The opposite
is "North of West". N60°W is same thing as 60° West of
R = √(Rx² + Ry²)

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North and 30° North of West. The same is true for
Southeast. Consider the diagram below;
N.B: For number 4 and 5, use the mnemonic below to
memorize the pattern.
"Last is always First"
R = 20.4N (B)
 DIRECTION OF A RESULTANT VECTOR
To calculate for the direction of the resultant of
two or more component vectors, Rx and Ry are determined
and then the formula below is used;

Northwest = West of North Θ = tan-¹ (Ry/Rx)

Southwest = West of South N.B

West-North = North of West 1. When the angle is positive, it is taken to the x-

axis (horizontal)
East - North = North of East 2. When the angle is negative, it is taken to the y-
axis (vertical)

 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF PAST QUESTION REVIEW

A UNIT VECTOR
Three forces of magnitude 15N, 10N and 5N act on a
From our understanding about unit vectors, the following particle of mass 500g in the directions, which make 120°
should be noted; with one another. Find the resultant in magnitude and
direction
î = x = cos Θ
A. 8.66N at 30° to the x-axis
j = y = sin Θ B. 8.66N at 30° to the y-axis
C. 5.66N at 60° to the x-axis
Therefore; D. None of the above

Rî = Rx = R cos Θ SOLUTION

Rj = Ry = R sin Θ Let the forces be A, B and C respectively and the

resultant R.
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
A = 15N at 0°; B = 10N at 120°; C = 5N at 240°
The direction of a force is 118° from the positive axis, if
the y-component of the force is 18N. What is the Ax = 15 cos 0° = 15
magnitude of the force?
Bx = 10 cos 120° = -5
A. 19.0N
B. 20.4N Cx = 5 cos 240° = -2.5
C. 21.4N
D. None of the above Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx

SOLUTION Rx = 15 + (-5) + (-2.5) = 15 - 7.5

Θ = 118° Rx = 7.50N

Ry = 18.0N Ay = 15 sin O° = 0

R=? By = 10 sin 120° = 8.66

Recall that; Cy = 5 sin 240° = -4.33

Ry = R sin Θ Ry = Ay + By + Cy

18.0 = R sin 118 Ry = 0 + 8.66 + (-4.33) = 8.66 - 4.33

18.0 = R × 0.883 Ry = 4.33N

R = 18/0.883 Recall that;

R = 20.38 R = √(Rx² + Ry²)

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 R = √[(7.50)² + (4.33)²] = √[56.25 + 18.75] Uy = 0

R = √(75) Recall that;

R= 8.66N R = √(Rx² + Ry²)

For the direction; R=U

Θ = tan-¹ (Ry/Rx) Rx = Ux

Θ = tan-¹ (4.33/7.50) = tan-¹ (0.58) Ry = Uy = 0

Θ = 30° U = √(Ux² + 0²)

Θ = 30° to the x-axis. U = √(Ux²)

Since Ry is positive (North) and Rx is positive (East), the U = Ux

angle would be in the North of East direction.
This proves that in 1 dimensional kinematics, only one
R = 8.66N at 30° to the x-axis (A) dimension of the vector quantity exists.

Or  TERMS USED IN 1-DIMENSIONAL

KINEMATICS
R = 8.66N at 30° North of East
1. POSITION

CHAPTER 3; MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
 MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals
with the study of the relationship between force, matter
and motion. It is divided into;
- Statics
- Kinematics
- Dynamics
 1 - DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS
This is the part of mechanics that deals with the
study of linear motion (motion along a straight line) with
respect to time. It simply refers to the study of the motion
of a body in one dimension. Eg;
- A car moving from point A to B
- A stone thrown vertically upwards
- A ball falling vertically from a height
From our understanding of vectors, it is obvious
that a vector quantity can be resolved in two dimensions (in
some cases three). In Linear motion, only one of the
dimensions exists. Consider the example below;
The location of a body in space with regards to a
reference point is the position of a body. In 1-Dimensional
Kinematics, only linear bodies are considered i.e bodies
having only one component of motion.
2. SPEED
The rate of change of distance with time is
defined as speed. Speed is a scalar quantity with meter per
second (m/s) as its S.I unit. Mathematically;
Speed = Distance/Time
U = D/T
Points to Note
I. Average speed can be defined as the total
distance travelled by a body over the total time taken
irrespective of what happened during the motion.
Mathematically;
Average speed = Total distance/time taken
II. The instantaneous or actual speed of a body is the
current speed of a body at a particular time. It is
measured with a speedometer.
III. The slope of a distance time graph is speed.
IV. Speed is the magnitude of velocity
3. VELOCITY

A car moving horizontally from point A to B has its Velocity is the rate of change of displacement
velocity dimensions as; with time. Mathematically;

Ux = Ux Velocity = Displacement/Time

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 V = S/T Making v subject formula;

Points to Note v - u = aΔt

I. Average velocity is defined as the total v = u + aΔt

displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs. Mathematically; Points to Note

V = Δs/Δt = (xt - xo)/(t₂ - t₁)  Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of a

II. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a body
at a specific instant of time. It can be gotten by
differentiating distance with respect to time.
Mathematically;
body at that instant in time. To calculate for
instantaneous acceleration, you differentiate
velocity with respect to time;
a = δ²x/δt²

V = δx/δt  Uniform acceleration simply refers to equal

change in velocity at equal time intervals.
III. The slope of a displacement time graph is  The average velocity of a uniformly accelerating
velocity. body is given as;

IV. IV. A straight line in a displacement-time graph V = (v + u)/2

indicates uniform velocity. Uniform velocity simply refers
to equal change in displacement at equal time intervals. Recall that; V = Δs/Δt

PAST QUESTION REVIEW Δs/Δt = (v + u)/2

The displacement of a body in the positive X-direction is 2s = t(v + u)

given as X= 3t³+2t²+4t+5
s = t(v + u)/2
Find the velocity of the body after 5s
 VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH
A. 82.5m/s
B. 9.0m/s A graph of velocity (on the y-axis)
C. 8.25m/s plotted against time (on the x-axis) is referred to as a
D. None of the above velocity-time graph. The slope of a velocity-time graph is
known as acceleration. The following should be noted
SOLUTION about velocity-time graphs;
x = 3t³ + 2t² + 4t + 5 I. A slope or straight line diagonal slanting
upwards means "uniform acceleration".
Recall that; V = δx/δt II. A slope or straight line diagonal slanting
downwards means "uniform deceleration".
V = δx/δt = 3×3t² + 2×2t + 4 + 0 III. A straight horizontal line means "uniform
velocity" or "zero acceleration".
V = δx/δt = 9t² + 4t + 4
IV. The area of the shape formed under a velocity
- time graph is the total distance covered.
When t = 5s;
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
V = 9(5²) + 4 × 5 + 4
The acceleration of a moving body can be found from
V = 9×25 + 24
A. area under velocity-time graph
V = 249m/s (D) B. area under distance-time graph
C. slope of the velocity-time graph
4. ACCELERATION
D. slope of the distance-time graph
This can be defined as the rate of change of
velocity with time. Mathematically;
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
Acceleration = change in velocity/time interval
A car starts from rest, accelerating at 2m/s² for 15s. It then
continues at a steady speed for further 25s and decelerates
a = (v - u)/Δt

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to rest in 5s. Find the time to cover two-third of the u = initial velocity
distance.
s = total displacement
A. 30.84s
B. 30.00s t = time interval
C. 23.33s
D. 23.00s a = acceleration
E. None of the above
xt = final position
SOLUTION
xo = initial position
Total distance = Area of trapezium
N.B: The signs for the respective equations except
D = ½(a + b)h equation 4, changes to (-) when the body is decelerating.

a = 45 = Total time spent HINTS IN SOLVING KINEMATICS QUESTIONS

1. For a body starting from rest or falling/dropped
b = 25 = time of zero acceleration from a height, u = 0.
2. For a body coming to rest or coming to a stop, v
h = 30 = final velocity after acceleration from rest =0
3. For a body moving with a velocity x and comes
D = ½(45 + 25)30 to rest, u = x and v = 0.
4. For two bodies moving in a straight line to be in
D = 15 × 70 the same position, their distances must be equal
ie s₁ = s₂
D = 1,050m 5. For two bodies thrown upwards or downwards to
collide, their heights covered must be equal ie h₁
S = ⅔×D = 1050×⅔ = h₂.
6. For a body moving with constant velocity, the
S =700m acceleration is zero. This is because u=v and then
a = v-u/t = u-u/t = 0.
700 = Area of trapezium = new total distance
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
700 = ½×30[(t - 15) + t]
A body is moving in a straight line with constant
700 = 15[2t - 15] acceleration. One second after passing point A, it is 10m
from A. In the next second it travels a further 14m. Find the
700 = 30t - 225 velocity of passing A
30t = 925 A. 6m/s
B. 7m/s
t = 925/30 C. 8m/s
D. None of the above
t = 30.83s
SOLUTION
 EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY
ACCELERATING MOTION u=?

These are equations that were derived from the graphs of a=?
uniformly accelerating motion. They are as follows;
t = 1 (for passing A)
v = u + at
t = 2 (total time of motion)
s = xt - xo = ut + ½at²
10 = u + ½a (for passing A)
v² = u² + 2as
20 = 2u + a
s = t(u + v)/2
24 = 2u + ½×a×4 (total time of described motion)
Where;
24 = 2u + 2a
v = final velocity
Bringing both equations out;
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 20 = 2u + a 1.76T² - 9.8T + 4.9 = 0

24 = 2u + 2a Solving quadratically;

Using elimination method; T = 5.01s

20 = 2u + a T = 5.0s

24 = 2u + 2a Recall that; H = 4.9T²

Subtracting both equations; H = 4.9 × 5²

-4 = 0 - a H = 4.9×25

a = 4m/s² H = 122.5m (A)

20 = 2u + a PAST QUESTIONS ON KINEMATICS

20 = 2u + 4 1. A body acts in motion in the positive X -

direction has its displacement x = 3t³ + 2t² + 4t +
2u = 16 5 = 0 . What is the acceleration of the body after
0.5s?
u = 8m/s (C) A. 11m/s²
B. 13m/s²
PAST QUESTION REVIEW C. 15m/s²
D. 18m/s²
A mango fruit at rest falls from the top of a tower. During E. None of the above
the last second, it falls 36% of the whole distance. Find the
vertical height of the tower. (Take g=9.8m/s²) 2. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed
of 20m/s from the top of a building 35m high. What will be
A. 122.5m the speed of the stone when it reaches a point of 15m above
B. 100.5m the ground? (g = 10m/s²)
C. 4.9m A. 26.5m/s
D. 25.5m B. 28.3m/s
E. None of the above C. 10m/s
D. 0m/s
SOLUTION E. None of the above

At t = 1s; h = 0.36H 3. A man tosses a baseball up along a y - axis, with

an initial speed of 12m/s. How long does the ball take to
g = 9.8m/s² reach its maximum height?
A. 3s
u=0 B. 1.2s
C. 4.5s
H = ½gT² (For a body under free fall) D. 0.5s
E. None of the above
H = ½ × 9.8 × T²
4. A particle of mass 0.5kg is released from the top
H = 4.9T² of a building, the velocity of the mass is 10m/s after
travelling one third the height of the building. With what
0.64H + 0.36H = H velocity will the particle hit the ground? (g = 9.8m/s²)
A. 7.50m/s
0.64H = 4.9t² B. 8.25m/s
C. 3.05m/s
t+1=T D. 15m/s
E. None of the above
T=t-1
5. A photographer in a helicopter ascending
0.64×4.9T² = 4.9(T - 1)²
vertically at constant rate of 12.5m/s accidentally drops a
camera out of the window when the helicopter is 60.0m
3.14T² = 4.9(T² - 2T + 1)
above the ground. What will its speed be when it hits the
ground?
3.14T² = 4.9T² - 9.8T + 4.9

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A. 36.5m/s The equations of projectile motion on the y-
B. 30.5m/s component are given as;
C. -36.5m/s
D. -30.5m/s 1. Vy= Uy - gt (when going upwards; turns
E. None of the above positive when going downward)
2. y= Uyt - ¹/₂gt²
CHAPTER 4; PROJECTILE MOTION 3. Vy²= Uy² - 2gy

 INTRODUCTION Where;

A projectile is any object that once projected or Vy = final vertical velocity

dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is
influenced only by the downward force of gravity. The Uy = initial vertical velocity
motion of a projectile is termed projectile motion. The
path followed by a projectile is called a trajectory. g = acceleration due to gravity

A projectile motion is an example of a 2-dimensional y = vertical displacement

motion and it has two components; the vertical
component (y) and the horizontal component (x). The t = time taken
former is affected by gravity while the latter is unaffected
by gravity.  TERMS USED IN PROJECTILE MOTION

 EQUATIONS OF PROJECTILE MOTION o TOTAL TIME OF FLIGHT

The equations of linear motion are given below; This is the total time taken for a projectile to get to its
maximum height (ymax=H) and return to its original
1. V= U ± at horizontal plane. At max height, the velocity of a projectile
2. S= Ut ± ¹/₂at² is zero.
3. V²=U² ± 2as
Using the first equation of projectile vertical motion;
Where;
t = Uy/g
V = final velocity
Where t = time to reach maximum height
U = initial velocity
T= 2t
S = total displacement
T = 2Uy/g
t = time taken
Where T= Total time of flight.
a = acceleration
o MAXIMUM HEIGHT( Ymax/H)
The equations of projectile motion on the x-component
are given as; This is the highest vertical displacement travelled by
a projectile in its course of motion. The final velocity of a
1. Vx = Ux body thrown upwards at maximum height is zero, V=0.
2. x = UxT
3. Vx² = Ux² Using the third equation of projectile vertical motion;

Where; Uy²= 2gH

Vx = horizontal final velocity H = Uy²/2g

Ux = horizontal initial velocity Where H is the maximum vertical displacement

x = horizontal displacement o HORIZONTAL RANGE(Xmax/R)

T = total time of flight This is the maximum horizontal displacement

covered by the projectile in the course of its motion. For
N.B: g was not included because the x component is horizontal motion, the acceleration due to gravity is
unaffected by gravity. zero; g=0.

Using the second equation of motion;

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 R=UxT y = xUy/Ux - ½gx²/Ux²

In terms of angle; When terms are expressed according to angle of projection,

the trajectory formula can be given as shown below;
R = (u²sin2θ)/g
y= xtanθ - gx²/2U²cos²θ
The maximum range of a projectile is attained when the
body is projected at 45°. It is given as; PAST QUESTION REVIEW

Rmax = U²/2g A boy throws himself from the top of a diving board with a
horizontal velocity of 4m/s. If he lands in the pool at a
Where; u = Initial velocity point 3m from vertically below his point of projection; find
the height of the diving board. (g=10m/s²)
θ = angle of projection
A. 2.81m
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
B. 5.20m
What is the least velocity of projection required to obtain a
horizontal range of 100m and what will be the time of C. 2.74m
flight given g = 9.8m/s²
D. None of the above
A. 31.3m/s, 2.26s
B. 31.3m/s, 4.47s SOLUTION
C. 24.99m/s, 2.26s
D. 24.99m/s, 4.47s Ux = 4m/s
E. None of the above
Uy = 0
SOLUTION
x = 3m
R = 100m
g = 10m/s²
U=?
y=?
g = 9.8m/s²
y = xUy/Ux × ½gx²/Ux²
θ = 45°
Since Uy = 0;
For maximum range;
y = ½gx²/Ux² (valid for bodies projected horizontally
R = U²/g from a height)

U² = 100×9.8 y = ½×10×3²/4²

U² = 980 y = 5×9/16

U = 31.3m/s y = 45/16

T = 2UsinΘ/g y = 2.81m (A)

T = 2×31.3sin45/9.8
CHAPTER 5; NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
T = 6.388sin45
 FORCE
T = 4.5s (B)
A force is that which causes a body to change its
o THE TRAJECTORY FORMULA state of rest or uniform motion. The S.I unit of force is the
Newton (N). Motion always results when the net forces
Most of the formulas that have been given as regards acting on a body is not equal to zero.
Projectile motion were limited to just one plane, either the
horizontal or the vertical plane. The trajectory formula is a The following are the fundamental forces in nature;
formula that unifies the motion on both planes considering
it as one. It is given below as; 1. Gravitational interaction
2. Electromagnetic interaction
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 3. Strong interaction or Nuclear Force 4. For block attached by two inelastic strings to two
4. Weak Interaction different masses through pulleys at opposite
edges of table
POINTS TO NOTE 5. For a mass on a frictionless inclined plane
attached to a suspended mass via a pulley
1. The force responsible for holding atoms and 6. For two blocks at rest on an inclined frictionless
molecules together is called Electromagnetic plane connected by a light string passed through a
force pulley
2. The force responsible for holding the constituents
of the atomic nucleus together is called o ELEVATOR (LIFT)
Strong/Nuclear force.
An elevator can be defined as a mass suspended by a
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION string which ascends or descends vertically. The following
should be noted about elevators;
Newton's laws of motion are used to explain
Newtonian and Classical mechanics ie the motion of 1. For an ascending elevator, the normal force
macroscopic objects. They cannot be used to explain (tension) is given by;
Quantum Mechanics and Relativity.
N = m(a + g) = T
These laws were proposed by Sir Isaac Newton. The
laws can be summarized as follows; 2. For a descending elevator, the normal force
(tension) is given by;
1. Newton's first law of motion states that "an
object will continue to remain at rest or N = m(g - a) = T
uniform motion unless an external force acts
on it". It is known as the law of inertia. 3. For a falling elevator, the acceleration and normal
2. Newton's second law of motion states that "the force is given by;
rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the net force acting on N=0
it".
3. Newton's third law of motion states that "For a=g
every action (force), there is an equal and
opposite reaction".
o SMOOTH PULLEY SYSTEM
 NORMAL FORCE
A smooth pulley system is a set-up that comprises two
The normal force acting on a body is simply defined suspended bodies connected by an inelastic string passing
as the force acting perpendicular to the contact surface. It is over a rotational disc (pulley). The following should be
denoted as "N" and is referred to as "Normal reaction" in noted about two bodies connected by a smooth pulley ;
friction.
1. The tension is equal throughout the system and is
The following should be noted; given as;

1. A body at rest on a smooth horizontal table is T = (2m₁m₂)g/(m₁ + m₂)

acted upon by two forces; the gravitational
2. The common acceleration of the connected
force (weight) and the Normal force.
bodies can be given mathematically as;
2. A body at rest on a smooth inclined plane is
acted upon by three forces; the horizontal
a = (m₂ - m₁)g/m₁ + m₂
component of the gravitational force (mgcosθ),
the vertical component of the gravitational
3. The net force on the pulley system is simply
force (mgsinθ) and the Normal force.
given by;
 APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS OF F = T + T = 2T
MOTION
o AIR-TRACK GLIDER
Newton's laws of motion can be applied in the
following aspects; A Block and Cord system (Air-track glider) is a set-up
that comprises two bodies; one body resting horizontally
1. Body in a lift (elevator) and the other suspended in air connected by an inelastic
2. Motion of connected particles (smooth pulley string passing through a pulley. The following should be
system) noted about Air-track gliders;
3. Block and cord System (Air-track glider)

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 1. The tension is equal throughout the system and is Frictional force can be defined as the force which
given as; opposes the motion of two bodies in contact. It is directly
proportional to the normal force with a constant known as
T = (m₁m₂)g/(m₁ + m₂) the coefficient of friction. Mathematically;

2. The common acceleration of the connected F = μN

bodies can be given mathematically as;
The following should be noted about frictional force;
a = m₂g/(m₁ + m₂)
1. Frictional force is dependent on the nature of
3. The force on the pulley is simply given by; surfaces in contact
2. It is independent of the area of bodies in
F = T√2 contact
3. It is always opposite to the motion of the body
F = 1.414T 4. It is parallel to the contact surface.

o A BLOCK ATTACHED TO TWO
SUSPENDING MASSES
This set-up comprises a horizontal block connected to
two suspended masses through pulleys at opposite edges.
The common acceleration of such set up is given as;
There are two types of friction based on motion;
1. Static friction; friction between two bodies in
contact that are not moving.
2. Dynamic/Kinetic Friction; friction between two
bodies in contact that is in motion.

a = (m₂ - m₁)g/(m₁ + m₂ + m₃) N.B: Static friction is always greater than Kinetic
friction with a higher coefficient of friction.
Where;
 EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES
m₃ = mass of block on horizontal surface
A body is said to be in equilibrium when the net
m₂ = bigger mass force acting on the body is zero i.e ∑F = 0. Equilibrium
could be;
m₁ = smaller mass
1. Translational equilibrium; when the net forces
o AN INCLINED PLANE acting on the body is zero.
2. Dynamic equilibrium; when the body is
An inclined plane is a set-up that comprises a straight moving with constant velocity; a = 0.
plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal. We are going to 3. Static equilibrium; when the velocity of the
consider two systems; body is zero.
1. A block resting on an inclined frictionless plane POINTS TO NOTE
connected to a suspending mass with an inelastic
string through a pulley 1. For a body at rest on an inclined plane, the net
2. Two blocks at rest on inclined frictionless planes horizontal forces is zero and the net vertical
connected by a light string passed through a forces is zero.
pulley 2. For a body moving on an inclined plane, the net
horizontal forces is not zero but the net vertical
For system 1; forces remains zero because there is no vertical
movement on an inclined plane
The common acceleration of the connected bodies can be 3. For a body at rest on a rough inclined plane,
given mathematically as; the total number of forces acting on it is four.
4. For a retarding body, the frictional force
a = (m₂ - m₁sinΘ)g/(m₁ + m₂) known as the resistance to motion is simply
the product of the mass of the body and the
For system 2;
retardation.
The common acceleration of the connected bodies can be
CHAPTER 6; CIRCULAR MOTION AND
given mathematically as;
GRAVITATION
a = (m₂sinΘ₂ - m₁sinΘ₁)g/(m₁ + m₂)
 PROPERTIES OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR
MOTION
 FRICTIONAL FORCE

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 The motion of objects in a circular path with r = radius
constant speed is called uniform circular motion. The
following are the properties of uniform circular motion; v = tangential velocity

1. It has a constant speed but a varying velocity T = period/time of the body to complete the circular path
2. It has an acceleration directed towards the centre
called centripetal acceleration F = centripetal force
3. The velocity is tangential to the circular path of
the motion ω = angular velocity
4. The work done in a circular motion is zero

PAST QUESTION REVIEW

PAST QUESTION REVIEW
Suppose that Divine runs along a circular path of diameter
The gravitational force exerted on a satellite moving at a 200m in 50s, what is his average speed?
constant speed around the earth's orbit is said to do
A. 62.857m/s
A. Positive work B. 12.57m/s
B. Negative work C. 57.628m/s
C. Constant work D. 52.12m/s
D. No work E. None of the above
E. None of the above
SOLUTION
 CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION AND
FORCE r = 100m

Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration of a body T = 50s

directed towards the centre in circular motion. It can be
given as; V=?

a = ω²r V = 2πr/T

But; ω = v/r V = 2π×100/50

a = (v/r)² × r V = 4π

a = v²/r V = 12.57m/s (B)

But; ω = 2π/T  BANKING ANGLE

a = 2π²r/T² Banking angle is the angle of a circular path especially

roads that helps to reduce skidding in cars when turning. It
a = 4π²r/T² can be given mathematically as;

Centripetal force is the force of a body directed towards Θ = tan-¹ (v²/rg)

the centre in circular motion. It can be in terms of Tension,
Gravity, magnetic force, etc. It can be given tan Θ = v²/rg
mathematically as;
But; tan Θ = μ
F = ma
μ = v²/rg
where; a = centripetal acceleration
Where;
F = mv²/r
Θ = banking angle
F = mω²r
g = acceleration due to gravity
F = 4π²rm/T²
μ = coefficient of friction
Where;
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
m = mass of the body

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Find the proper banking angle for a car making a turn of The distance of Neptune and Saturn from the sun are nearly
radius 100m at the speed of 16m/s given g = 9.8m/s² 10¹³m and 10¹²m respectively. Assuming that they move in
circular orbits, their periodic times will be in the ratio of
A. 12.7°
B. 14.64° A. 10
C. 17.2° B. 100
D. 16.44° C. 10√10
E. None of the above D. 1000
E. 1100
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
r = 100m
r₁ = 10¹³m
g = 9.8m/s²
r₂ = 10¹²m
v = 16m/s
T₁/T₂ = ?
r = 100m
T₁²/r₁³ = T₂²/r₂³
Θ = tan-¹(v²/rg)
T₁²/T₂² = r₁³/r₂³
Θ = tan-¹(16²/100×9.8)
T₁²/T₂² = (10¹³)³/(10¹²)³
Θ = tan-¹(256/980)
T₁²/T₂² = 10³⁹/10³⁶
Θ = tan-¹ (0.26122)
(T₁/T₂)² = 10³
Θ = 14.64° (B)
(T₁/T₂)² = 10 × 10²
 KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION T₁/T₂ = 10√10 (C)

The following are Kepler's postulates that govern  NEWTON'S LAWS OF UNIVERSAL
planetary motion; GRAVITATION

1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the
sun at one of the two foci
2. The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps
out equal areas in equal times
3. The squares of the periods of revolution of the
planets are proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the sun.
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that
"every object in the universe attracts every other object
with a force directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance separating them". Mathematically;
F = Gm₁m₂/r²

The third postulate of Kepler's law can be represented Gm₁m₂ = Fr² = k

mathematically as;
F₁r₁² = F₂r₂² (when two bodies are compared)
T² α r³
Where;
T² = kr³
m₁ = mass of first object
T²/r³ = k
m₂ = mass of second object
T₁²/r₁³ = T₂²/r₂³
r = distance between both objects
Where;
F = gravitational force
T = Period of revolution of planets
G = gravitational constant
r = mean distance from the sun
 WEIGHT, GRAVITY AND ALTITUDE
PAST QUESTION REVIEW

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 Weight is the gravitational force of attraction between
the earth and the object. It is given mathematically as;
W = mg = GMem/r²
Gravitational field intensity/field strength is the Force
per unit mass of gravity. It is commonly known as
"acceleration due to gravity" and can be given
mathematically as;
g = W/m = F/m
g = GMe/r²
gr²/Me = G = k
g₁r₁²/Me = g₂r₂²/M (when two planetary bodies are
compared)
Where;
M = mass of another planet or the moon
g₂ = acceleration due to gravity of the planet/moon
r₂ = radius of the planet/moon
Altitude simply means height with respect to the earth
crust. The altitude/distance (r) of an object from the surface
of the earth is always given as;
r = (Re + h)
Where;
r = altitude/distance
Re = Radius of the earth
h = height from the surface of the earth
 SATELLITE MOTION
A satellite is any object that revolves around the earth.
It can either be natural or artificial. Eg; moon.
Artificial satellites are usually launched into the earth's
circular orbit. A circular orbit is an orbit that is circular.
These satellites are launched with the orbital velocity given
mathematically as;
V = √gRe
But; g = Gme/Re²
V = √(Gme/Re)
Where;
V = orbital velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
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Re = Radius of earth
Objects launched into outer space are launched into the
earth's elliptical orbit with the escape velocity. The escape
velocity is given mathematically as;
V = √2gRe
Objects launched into outer space with a velocity higher
than the escape velocity completely leaves the earth's orbit
into outer space. The trajectory such objects follow is a
hyperbola.
POINTS TO NOTE
1. The orbital period of a satellite is the time taken
for the satellite to complete one revolution round
the earth. It is given mathematically as;
T = 2π(Re + h)/V
Where; V = orbital velocity
T = 2π(Re + h)/√gRe
T = 2π(Re + h)/√(Gme/Re)
2. A synchronous orbit or parking orbit is one that
has the same period with the earth. A satellite in this orbit
is known as a geostationary satellite. The period of this
satellite is given as;
Ts = Te = 24 hours
Where;
Ts = period of satellite
Te = period of earth
CHAPTER 7;WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Work can be defined as the product of force and
displacement. Work is a scalar quantity because it is the
dot product i.e scalar product of force and displacement.
The S.I unit of Work is Joules(J).
Mathematically;
Work = Force × Displacement
W=F×S
N.B: Work is said to be done when a force is applied to
a body and the body moves in the direction of the force.
If an object of mass m is displaced a distance d by a Force
F acting at an angle Θ to the horizontal, the work done can
be given as;
W = Fx × d
 W = FcosΘ × d power is Watts(W). Power is a scalar quantity.
Mathematically;
W = FdcosΘ
Power = Energy/ Time = Workdone/time
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
P= E/t=W/t
What amount of work is done by a man who carries a load
of 10kg on his head through a square distance of sides P=F×v
1.0m, if he moves through ABCDA. (Take g = 9.8m/s²)
Where;
A. 40J
B. 400J P = Power
C. 392J
D. 39.2J W = Workdone
E. None of the above
E = Energy
SOLUTION
F = Force
g = 9.8m/s²
t = time taken
m = 10kg
v = velocity
s=0
 CONVERTING UNITS FOR POWER
d = 1m
1000Watts(W) = 1KiloWatt(kW)
W=F×s
¾kW = 1horsepower(hp)
W = OJ
¾ is an approximate value and it is easy to remember
N.B: If a body moves through a distance back to its
starting point, its displacement is zero.  ENERGY

 WORKDONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE Energy is the ability to do work. It also refers to

what is needed to perform work. When energy is used up,
The work done by a variable force simply refers to Work is said to be done. In other words, it means that if a
the average force multiplied by the displacement(x). It is body loses energy, Work is said to be done. Various forms
given mathematically as of energy are associated with the fundamental forces that
do work.
W= ½kx²
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
Where; 1. KINETIC ENERGY (K.E)
x= displacement This is the type of energy possessed by a moving body.
When a body is moving, it possesses Kinetic energy.
K= spring constant Mathematically;
Given the force constant, a direct expression can be K.E = ½mv²
established between the workdone and the displacement of
the body. Mathematically; Where;
W = kx² (where k is constant) v = velocity m= mass
k = W/x² Workdone can be defined in terms of kinetic energy as the
differences in kinetic energy. Mathematically;
W₁/x₁² = W₂/x₂²
W = ½mv² - ½mu²
 POWER
W = ½m(v² - u²)
Power is the rate at which energy is used up. It also
refers to the rate at which work is done. The S.I unit of Where;

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 v= final velocity Δh = 1.5m

u= initial velocity W = 115kJ = 115×10³J

W= workdone m = ? g = 10m/s²

K.E = kinetic energy W = mgΔh

m= mass 115×10³J = m × 10 × 1.5 m = 115×10³/15

2. POTENTIAL ENERGY (P.E) m = 7.67×10³kg

This is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its

position relative to others. It is a stored energy and is PAST QUESTIONS REVIEW
independent of path. There are several types of Potential
energy. A 2,000kg pickup truck is moving at a speed of 90km/hr.
How fast does a 1000kg sports car have to be going in
A. Elastic Potential Energy order to have the same energy as the pickup truck?

This is the energy possessed by and stored in an elastic A. 30.4m/s

body . Workdone is equal to change in potential energy. B. 35.4m/s
C. 37.2m/s
W = ½kx² = P.E D. 31.5m/s
E. None of the above
W = P.E where; x₁= final displacement
SOLUTION
x₀ = initial displacement k = force constant
m₁ = 2000kg
B. Gravitational Potential Energy
u₁ = 90km/h = 90×5/18 = 25m/s
This is the stored energy possessed by a body acted
upon by gravity at a height above the ground. It is the m₂ = 1000kg
energy needed by gravity to do work. The work done by
gravity is simply the weight of the body multiplied by the u₂ = ?
height. Mathematically;
K.E₁ = K.E₂
P.E = W = mg×h
K.E₁ = ´×2000×25² = 1000×625
P.E = mgh
K.E₁ = 625,000J
where;
K.E₂ = 1000u₂²/2
m = mass
K.E₂ = 500u₂²
g = acceleration due to gravity
Therefore;
h = height
625,000 = 500u₂²

PAST QUESTIONS REVIEW u₂² = 625,000/500

A pile driver is slowly raised to a height of 1.5m above the u₂² = 1,250
ground. If workdone by the raising mechanism is 115KJ,
find the mass of the pile driver. u₂ = √(1,250)

A. 7.67×10³kg u₂ = 35.4m/s
B. 5.67×10³kg
C. 8.67×10³kg  GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL WELL
D. 6.657×10³kg
E. None of the above The gravitational potential well simply refers to the
potential energy possessed by a body at a depth below a
SOLUTION zero reference point.

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In a nutshell, the gravitational potential energy of a body in T.E = K.E₁ + P.E₁= K.E₂ + P.E₂ + Q
a potential well is given as;
Where, Q is the energy lost as heat energy due to friction.
P.E = W.D= mg∆h
 HINTS ON CONSERVATION OF
P.E = mg(h₂-h₁) MECHANICAL ENERGY
1. T.E = P.Emax = K.Emax
Where; 2. When P.E = K.E; T.E = P.E + K.E
3. T.E is always conserved in each case
h₂= final height

h₁= initial height.

PAST QUESTIONS REVIEW
In terms of the gravitational constant, it can be given as; A tugboat tows a ship at a constant speed of 50km/hr. If the
tension in the rope is at a steady value of 260N, find the
W = Gm₁m₂(¹/r₁ - ¹/r₂) = ∆P.E power output of the boat engine.
Where;
A. 2.778kW
B. 36.11kW
r = altitude
C. 27.8kW
D. 3.61kW
m = mass
E. None of the above
G = Gravitational constant
SOLUTION
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY F = T = 260N
The Law of conservation of energy states that "in an v = 50km/hr = 50×5/18 = 13.889m/s
isolated or closed system, energy is always constant
although energy cannot be created or destroyed but can P=F×v
be transformed from one form to another."
Conservation of total energy applies to all systems but it is P = 260×250/18
convenient to distinguish between systems in which
conservative and non-conservative forces act. P = 3611.11W
A force is said to be conservative if the work done by P = 3.61kw
the force in moving an object through a round trip is
zero.
PAST QUESTIONS REVIEW
W=∆K.E=0
A flea has a mass of 4.5×10-²kg and can jump vertically
W=∆P.E=0 upward to a height of 6cm. Calculate the kinetic energy of
the flea as it leaves the ground.
The total energy in the system would be given as;
A. 2.65×10-⁷J
T.E = K.E₁ + P.E₁ = K.E₂ + P.E₂ B. 5.65×10-⁷J
C. 4.23×10-⁸J
Where; D. 7.15×10-⁷J
E. None of the above
K.E₁ = initial kinetic energy
SOLUTION
K.E₂ = final kinetic energy
This question is based on the conservation of mechanical
P.E₁ = initial potential energy energy.
P.E₂ = final potential energy The Total energy is always conserved.
A force is said to be non conservative when the K.Emax = P.Emax
workdone by force is not zero. An example of the
system is a system acted upon by friction. When P.E is max, K.E is zero.
The total energy in this system would be given as;

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As the flea leaves the ground, its Kinetic Energy would be A car of mass 1000kg moving on a horizontal road with a
maximum and its Potential energy would be zero. steady velocity of 10m/s has a total frictional force on it of
400N. Find the Power due to the engine.
As it gets to the greatest height, its Potential Energy would
be maximum and its kinetic energy would be zero. A. 3.95kW
B. 3.96kW
Now, Let's calculate for the maximum potential energy. C. 3.97kW
P.Emax = mgh D. 4.00kW
E. None of the above
m = 4.5×10-²kg; g = 9.8m/s²; h = 6cm = 0.06m
SOLUTION
P.Emax = 4.5×10-² × 9.8 × 0.06
m = 1000kg
P.Emax = 2.646 × 10-²J
u = v = 10m/s
Recall that;
a=0
P.Emax = K.Emax
Fr = 400N
Therefore;
F=?
K.Emax = 2.65×10-²J
F - Fr = ma

PAST QUESTIONS REVIEW F - Fr = 0

Referring to the question above, calculate its initial F = Fr = 400N

velocity.
P=F×v
A. 1.18m/s
B. 4.92m/s P = 400 × 10
C. 1.09m/s
D. 2.71m/s P = 4000W
E. None of the above
P = 4Kw
SOLUTION

The initial velocity of the flea = The Final velocity of the
flea
Takeoff velocity = Landing velocity
N.B: This is valid for just this case of motion because the
energy is conserved.
CHAPTER 8: MOMENTUM
 MOMENTUM AS A VECTOR
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of a
moving body. It is a vector quantity with the S.I unit kgm/s
or Ns. It can be given mathematically as;

K.Emax = ½mu² P = mv

2.65×10-² = ½ × 4.5×10-² × u² Where; p = momentum

u² = 5.3×10-²/4.5×10-² m = mass

u² = 1.18m/s v = velocity

u = √(1.18) Momentum can be resolved into the x and y

components just like every other vector. Momentum in
u = 1.086m/s either of these directions is known as Linear momentum.
The resultant/total momentum of a body moving in a 2-
u = 1.09m/s dimensional plane is given as;

P = √(Px² + Py²)
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
P = m√(vx² + vy²)

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19
 If vx = vy = v; The law of conservation of linear momentum states
that the total momentum in an isolated or closed system
P = 1.414mv is constant and the change in momentum is always zero.
This law is applied in interacting bodies such as the recoil
of a gun.
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
The recoil velocity of a gun can be calculated obeying
Two balls of equal mass (0.50kg) approach the origin along the conservation of linear momentum as shown below;
the positive x and y axis at the same speed 3.3m/s. What is
the total momentum of the system? mgvg = - mbvb

A. 4.5kgm/s Where;
B. 2.3kgm/s
C. 1.56kgm/s mg = mass of gun
D. None of the above
vg = recoil velocity of gun
SOLUTION
mb = mass of bullet
m = 0.50kg
vb = velocity of bullet
vx = vy = 3.3m/s
N.B: The negative sign indicates direction of the velocity
Recall that; and does not affect the magnitude of the momentum.

P = 1.414mv  COLLISIONS

P = 1.414 × 0.50 × 3.3 A collision is defined as any interaction of particles in

which momentum is exchanged or transferred with or
P = 2.33m/s (B) without physical contact. Collisions are divided into two
categories;
 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
1. Elastic collision
The relationship between momentum and impulse is 2. Inelastic collision
best explained using Newton's second law of motion. This
law can be expressed mathematically as; o ELASTIC COLLISION

F = ΔP/t In elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy

is conserved before and after collision. An example of an
But; ΔP = m(v - u) elastic collision is the collision of sub-atomic particles.

F = m(v - u)/t An elastic collision can be represented mathematically

as;
Ft = m(v - u)
m₁u₁ + m₂u₂ = m₁v₁ + m₂v₂
But; Ft = I
o INELASTIC COLLISION
I = m(v - u)
In inelastic collision, only momentum is conserved.
Where; The kinetic energy after collision is less than the kinetic
energy before collision ie k₁ > k₂.
u = initial velocity
Both bodies in an inelastic collision stick together after
v = final velocity colliding and move with a common velocity as shown
below;
I = impulse
m₁u₁ + m₂u₂ = (m₁ + m₂)v
N.B: This means that change in momentum and impulse
is equal and this also makes them dimensionally Where;
equivalent.
v = common velocity
 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
When colliding with a stationary body; u₂ = 0

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 m₁u₁ = (m₁ + m₂)v PAST QUESTION REVIEW

v = m₁u₁/(m₁ + m₂) Calculate the moment of inertia of a 3kg sphere of diameter

50cm, about an axis through its centre if the sphere is a
 COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION solid sphere

This refers to the measure of the elasticity of a A. 0.072kgm²

collision. It is denoted as e and can be given B. 0.073kgm²
mathematically as; C. 0.074kgm²
D. 0.075kgm²
e = (v₁ - v₂)/(u₁ - u₂) E. None of the above

Where; o ANGULAR DISTANCE (Θ)

v = final velocity Angular distance comprises angles represented in

degrees or radians or revolutions. The following
u = initial velocity conversions should be noted;

1 revolution = 360° = 2π radians

180° = π radians
CHAPTER 9: MOTION
N.B: One lap round a circular track is same as one
 TERMS USED IN ROTATIONAL MOTION revolution which is equal to 360°.

Rotational motion is similar to linear motion because o ANGULAR VELOCITY (ω)

same laws apply to them. The laws of linear motion apply
to rotational motion as well as laws of linear momentum Just like linear velocity, angular velocity simply refers
and so on. It is therefore important to know these to the rate of change of angular distance with time. The S.I
commonly used terms in rotational motion; unit is rad/s. It can be given mathematically as;

1. Angular mass = Moment of Inertia = I ω = Θ/t

2. Angular distance/displacement = angles = Θ
3. Angular velocity/frequency = ω The following conversions should be noted about
4. Angular acceleration = α angular velocity;
5. Angular force = torque = τ
rpm = revolutions per minute
o MOMENT OF INERTIA
rps = revolutions per seconds
This is simply known as angular mass. It is the
rotational equivalent of linear mass. It is denoted as I and 1rpm = 1/60 rps
has an S.I unit of kgm². Mathematically, it can be given as;
1 rps = 2π rad/s
I = mr²
1rpm = π/30 rad/s
Where;

m = linear mass PAST QUESTION REVIEW

r = radius A particle turns round a circle with an acceleration of 5m/s²

towards the center. Given that the radius of the circle is
The moment of inertia of a body depends on the shape 5/9m, find the angular velocity in revolution per minute.
of the body. The following bodies and their moments of
inertia should be noted; A. 30/π rev/min
B. 90/π rev/min
1. Thin spherical sphere/ thin walled hollow C. 100/π rev/min
sphere; I = ⅔MR² D. 120/π rev/min
2. Solid cylinder/disc (eg; a flywheel); I = ½MR² E. None of the above
3. Solid sphere; I = ⅖MR²
4. Thin cylindrical shell/ring; I = MR²  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
5. Uniform rod with axis passing through the ROTATIONAL MOTION AND LINEAR
centre; I = ML²/12 MOTION

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21
 The following relationships should be noted about new angular velocity if some wax of candle 0.05kg is
rotational and linear motion; dropped gently on the disc 0.1m from the axis.

I = mr² A. 19.3rad/s
B. 19.4rad/s
v = ωr C. 19.5rad/s
D. 19.6rad/s
ω = 2πf E. None of the above

a = αr  ROTATIONAL WORK, ENERGY AND

POWER
τ = Fr
These terms are going to be explained simply with
Where; comparisons with linear motion. The following should be
noted about these terms;
r = radius
1. Linear Work = Force × distance = F × d
v = linear/tangential velocity
Rotational work = τΘ
a = linear acceleration
2. Linear Kinetic energy = ½mv²
f = linear frequency
Rotational kinetic energy = ´Ιω²
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
3. Power = force × velocity = f × v
A stone whirled at the end of a rope 30cm long, makes 5
rev/s. Find the linear speed. Rotational Power = τω
A. 4.0π²m/s 4. Power = workdone/time taken = F × d/t
B. 5.0π²m/s
C. 6.0π²m/s Rotational Power = τΘ/t
D. 7.0π²m/s
E. None of the above PAST QUESTION REVIEW

 ANGULAR MOMENTUM A flywheel of mass 1000kg and radius of gyration 3m is

rotating once every second. Find its kinetic energy.
Angular momentum simply refers to the product of
angular mass and angular velocity. It is denoted as L. It can A. 2000π²J
be given mathematically as; B. 4000π²J
C. 18000π²J
L = Iω D. 9000π²J
E. None of the above
Where; L = angular momentum Solution

N.B: The laws of linear momentum conservation also

applies to angular momentum as well as collisions.

PAST QUESTION REVIEW

The angular momentum of a rotating flywheel is given by  RADIUS OF GYRATION

one of the expressions
The radius of gyration is the imaginary point in the
A. τθ mass of a body in which every particle is at a constant
B. Iω distance from the axis of rotation. It is denoted as k. The
C. Iα moment of inertia of such imaginary body with radius of
D. τω gyration k can be given as;
E. None of the above
I = mk²
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
Where k = radius of gyration
A disk of moment of inertia 2 × 10-²kgm² is rotating freely
about an axis through its centre at 20rad/s. Calculate the
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  TOTAL LINEAR ACCELERATION The various temperature scales can be given below;

The total linear acceleration of a rotating body can be 1. Celsius scale; calibrated in degree celsius °C
given as; from 0°C (ice point) to 100°C (steam point).
2. Fahrenheit scale; calibrated in degree Fahrenheit
a = √(at² + ac²) °F from 32°F (ice point) to 212°F (steam point)
3. Kelvin scale; calibrated in kelvin K from
Where; 273.16K (ice point) to 373.16K (steam point)
4. Rankine scale; calibrated in degree rankine °R
at = tangential acceleration = αr from 492°R (ice point) to 672°R (steam point)

ac = centripetal acceleration = v²/r N.B: Both the celsius and Kelvin scale are divided into
100 equal parts while both the fahrenheit and Rankine
a = total linear acceleration scale are divided into 180 equal parts.

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

PAST QUESTION REVIEW VARIOUS SCALES

A particle is moving in a circle of radius 0.5m with an According to the general formula given above,
angular velocity and tangential velocity of 1.5rad/s and temperature scales can be converted from one form to
0.75m/s respectively. If the angular acceleration is another. The general formula to convert any temperature
4.0rad/s², determine the total linear acceleration of the scale from X to Celsius is given below as;
particle.
(Xt - X₀)/(X₁₀₀ - X₀) = t/100
A. 4.86m/s²
B. 5.12m/s² Where;
C. 2.296m/s²
D. 4.86m/s² t = temperature in °C
E. None of the above
Let's take note of the following conversions;
CHAPTER 10:TEMPERATURE AND
THERMOMETRY 1. From Celsius to Fahrenheit;

 TEMPERATURE °C = (°F - 32)5/9

Temperature can be defined as the degree of °C = (°F - 32)0.556

hotness or coldness of a body. The S.I unit of temperature
is Kelvin (K). 2. From Celsius to Rankine;

 TEMPERATURE SCALES °C = (°R - 492)0.556

Temperature scales are metric representations of the 3. From Fahrenheit to Rankine;

physical quantity of temperature. A typical temperature
scale has an upper fixed point (steam point) and a lower °F - 32 = °R - 492
fixed point (ice point). The general formula given below is
used to convert from any temperature scale to the other; °F = °R - 460

4. From Kelvin to Fahrenheit

(Xt - X₀)/(X₁₀₀ - X₀) = (Yt - Y₀)/(Y₁₀₀ - Y₀)
K - 273.13 = (°F - 32)0.556
Where;

Xt = temperature t in X scale K = 0.556(°F - 32) + 273.13

5. From Celsius to Kelvin

X₀ = ice point of X scale
°C/100 = (K - 273.13)/100
X₁₀₀ = steam point of X scale

Yt = temperature t in Y scale °C = K - 273.13

Y₀ = ice point of Y scale NB: a degree rise in is equal to a degree rise in ;

likewise for kelvin and celsius
Y₁₀₀ = steam point of Y scale

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  THERMOMETRY 2. It makes use of a thermoelectric couple
(thermocouple)
Thermometry simply refers to the process of
measuring temperature. The device that measures o PYROMETER
temperature is known as the thermometer. The following
are the various types of thermometers; The following are the properties of pyrometers;

1. Liquid-in-glass thermometer 1. They work based on the principle of heat

2. Gas thermometer radiation.
3. Resistance thermometer 2. They can measure very high temperatures. Eg;
4. Thermoelectric thermometer the sun
5. Pyrometer 3. They do not require being in contact with the
hot body
o LIQUID-IN-GLASS
THERMOMETER

The following are the properties of this thermometer;

1. It works based on the principle of expansion in CHAPTER 11: WORK DONE BY SYSTEM OF
liquids EXPANDING GAS
2. Either mercury or alcohol, can be used as the
liquid in the thermometer.  WORK DONE BY SYSTEM OF
3. Mercury is commonly used for the following EXPANDING GAS
reasons;
I. It does not wet glass The work done by an expanding gas can be given
II. It has a uniform coefficient of expansion mathematically below as;
III. It is a good conductor of heat
IV. It is opaque and easily seen Assuming constant pressure;
V. It has low specific heat capacity
W = P∆V
o GAS THERMOMETER
W = P(V₂ - V₁)
The following are the properties of gas thermometers;
The above equation is valid for an expanding gas. For a
1. It works based on the principle of expansion in compressed gas, the work done is simply given as ;
gases
2. They can either be constant volume/constant W = -P∆V
pressure gas thermometers. The former is
commonly used. W = -P(V₂ - V₁)
3. They are very sensitive thermometers
4. They are the most accurate thermometers W = P(V₁ - V₂)
5. A wide range of temperature can be measured
N.B: The work done by a compressed gas is negative
o RESISTANCE THERMOMETER showing that work was done on the gas while the work
done by an expanding gas is positive showing that work
The following are the properties of resistance was done by the gas.
thermometers;
 HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY
1. It works on the principle of varying resistance of
a metallic conductor with changes in temperature Heat is the form of energy that is transferred
2. Platinum is the commonly used metal in this from a body of high temperature to a body of low
thermometer. temperature. The S.I unit of heat is Joules. The older
3. It can measure a wide range of temperature forms of heat units are; Calories(Cal) and British Thermal
4. It can measure very hot objects. Eg; a furnace. Unit (BTU). The relationships between these units are
given below;
o THERMOELECTRIC
THERMOMETER 1 Cal = 0.004BTU

The following are the properties of thermoelectric 1BTU = 252Cal

thermometers;
1Cal = 4.186J
1. It works on the principle of the seebeck effect

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 1BTU = 1.055KJ Where; c = specific heat capacity

1Kcal = 4186J Q = Quantity of heat.

The relationship between power and heat energy is given m = mass of substance.
below as;
∆θ = change in temperature.

N.B: The quantity of heat Q which a body contains is

PAST QUESTION REVIEW proportional to the mass of the body m and also to the
temperature change.
The rate at which energy is wasted by a machine is 215W.
If the energy is completely converted to heat energy, how Q = mc∆θ
many kilocalories are wasted in 5s?
C = mc
A. 0.257kcal
B. 3 × 10-²kcal Q = C∆θ
C. 128.5kcal
D. 4186kcal
E. None of the above o CALORIMETRY

SOLUTION Calorimetry is simply defined as the measurement of

quantity of heat. The basic apparatus used in calorimetry is
P = 215W the Calorimeter. The fundamental principle underlying
calorimetry is the law of conservation of energy. In any
t = 5s thermal process;

E = Pt = 215 × 5 = 1075J Heat gain = Heat loss (Thermal energy is constant)

Converting to kcal; Heat gain occurs when there's a positive change in

temperature and heat loss occurs whenever there is a
E = 1075/4186 negative change in temperature.

E = 0.2568kcal (A) PAST QUESTION REVIEW

 HEAT CAPACITY, SPECIFIC HEAT AND A tube contains 100kg of water at 30°C. 20kg of water at
CALORIMETRY 80°C is added to the tube. Find the final temperature of the
o HEAT CAPACITY tube.

The heat capacity of a substance is the amount A. 33.80°C

of heat required to change the temperature of the body B. 3.308°C
by 1°C. The S.I unit for heat capacity is J/K or J/°C. C. 110°C
Mathematically, the heat capacity of a body can be given D. 50°C
as; E. None of the above

C = Q/∆θ SOLUTION

Where; C = Heat Capacity m₁ = 100kg

Q = Quantity of heat Θ₁ = 30°C

∆θ = change in temperature m₂ = 20kg

o SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY Θ₂ = 80°C

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the Θ=?

amount of heat required to change the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by 1°C. The S.I unit of Specific Heat gain = Heat loss
Heat capacity is J/Kg.K or J/Kg°C. Mathematically, the
specific heat capacity of a body can be given as ; m₁c₁ΔΘ = m₂c₂ΔΘ

c = Q/m∆θ m₁ΔΘ = m₂ΔΘ (for same compounds/materials)

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25
 100(Θ - 30) = 20(80 - Θ)
5(Θ - 30) = 80 - Θ
5Θ - 150 = 80 - Θ
5Θ + Θ = 230
6Θ = 230
Θ = 38.3°C (E)
 CHANGE OF STATE(PHASE) AND
LATENT HEAT
Change of state simply refers to the transition of a
substance from one state of matter to another. Change of
state is accompanied by temperature changes.
N.B: The temperature where change of state occurs is
fixed. It does not change until the change of state is
complete. For example, Ice begins to melt at exactly
0°C.
The heat supplied to or taken from a substance
during change of state is known as Latent heat of
transformation. At the melting point, the heat is known
as Latent heat of fusion while the heat supplied at
boiling point is known as Latent heat of vapourization.
Specific Latent heat is defined as the quantity of
heat supplied to or taken from a unit mass of a
substance without change in temperature.
Mathematically, it can be represented as;
l = Q/m
Q = ml
Where; l = Specific Latent heat
Q = quantity of heat (latent heat)
m = mass of substance
N.B: Unit of latent heat (Q) is Joules(J) while the unit of
Specific Latent heat (l) is Joules per Kilogram(J/Kg)= l
 EVAPORATION AND SUBLIMATION
Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs
on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. It
occurs at all temperatures. Some of the factors that affect
the rate of evaporation are given below;
1. Area of surface exposed
2. Temperature of the atmosphere
3. Air speed on the exposed surface
4. Humidity
Continuous evaporation leads to saturated vapor
pressure (SVP). The SVP is the pressure exerted by a
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26
vapour on its liquid when they are in thermodynamic
equilibrium. The SVP of a liquid is dependent on the
temperature only.
Sublimation is the process whereby a solid
substance transits directly to the gaseous phase without
passing through the intermediate liquid phase.
 PHASES OF WATER
Phase 1 : Solid Phase
The solid phase of water is called Ice. In this state,
when heat is applied, the normal formula given below is
valid;
Qice = (mc∆Θ)ice
At this point, there is no phase change rather we have just
temperature change.
Phase 2 : Melting Phase
The melting phase occurs at the temperature in
which ice begins to melt i.e 0°C. As the ice melts, the
temperature remains constant and Latent heat of fusion is
added. The formula at this point is given as;
Q = mL
Where; m = mass of ice
L = specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Phase 3 : Liquid Phase
At the liquid phase, when heat is applied, the melted
ice begins to rise in temperature. This phase continues until
water begins to boil at 100°C. There is no change of state.
The heat content can be given as;
Q = mc∆Θ
Where; m = mass of water
c = specific heat capacity of water
Phase 4 : Vapour Phase
The vapour phase occurs at the temperature in
which water begins to boil i.e 100°C. The temperature
remains constant until all the water is converted to
steam and water and steam co-exists (Thermodynamic
equilibrium). The heat content can be given as;
Q = mL
Where; m= mass of water
L = Latent heat of vapourization of water
Phase 5 : Gas Phase
 When all the water has been converted to steam, Where; α = Linear expansivity
further heat addition leads to increase in temperature of the
steam. The temperature continues to rise without limit. The ΔL = Change in Length = extension/compression
heat content can also be given as;
Lₒ = Initial Length
Q = mc∆Θ
ΔΘ = change in temperature
Where; m =mass of steam
L₁ = Final length
c = specific heat capacity of steam
Θ₂ = Final temperature
N.B: The total heat energy required for the five phases
is obtained by adding the energies during each of the Θ₁ = initial temperature
stages. There is thermal equilibrium at the melting and
vapour phase. The force acting on an elastic material is related to its
linear expansivity with the equation given below;
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
F = γAα (Θ₂ - Θ₁)
There are five (5) phases of water. At what phase(s) will
there be thermal equilibrium? Where;

A. Solid and melting F = Force acting on elastic body

B. Liquid and vapour
C. Solid and gas γ = young's modulus
D. Melting and vapour
E. None of the above A = area of elastic body

PAST QUESTION REVIEW PAST QUESTION REVIEW

In which of the following phases of water does water and A steel beam is 5.0m long at a temperature of 68°F. On a
steam co-exist? hot day, the temperature rises to 40°C. What is the change
in the beam's length due to thermal expansion? (α steel =
A. Gas phase 12 × 10-⁶/°C)
B. Liquid phase
C. Solid phase A. 0.9mm
D. Melting phase B. 1.0mm
E. None of the above (Vapour Phase) C. 1.2mm
D. 1.3mm
CHAPTER 12: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF E. None of the above
MATTER
SOLUTION
 THERMAL EXPANSION
L = 5.0m
Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of an
object due to the application of heat. Expansion can be in Θ = 68°F = 20°C
terms of Length, area and volume. We therefore have three
forms of expansion; Θ = 40°C

1. Linear expansion ΔΘ = 40°C - 20°C = 20°C

2. Area expansion
3. Volume expansion ΔL = ?

Recall that;
 LINEAR EXPANSION
ΔL = αLΔΘ
Linear expansion is the increase in the length of an
object when heat is applied to it. Linear expansivity is used ΔL = 12 × 10-⁶ × 5 × 20
to describe linear expansion. Linear expansivity can be
defined as the increase in length, per unit length, per ΔL = 12 × 10-⁴m = 1.2 × 10-³m
degree rise in temperature. Mathematically, the linear
expansivity of an object can be given as; ΔL = 1.2mm (C)
α = ΔL/Lₒ(ΔΘ) = L₁ - L₀/Lₒ(Θ₂ - Θ₁)
 AREA EXPANSION
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 Area or Superficial expansion is the increase in the
area of a body when heat is applied to it. Area expansion
can be described by Superficial or Area expansivity.
Superficial expansivity is defined as the increase in area
of a body per unit area, per degree rise in temperature.
Mathematically, the superficial expansivity of an object can
be given as;
β = ΔA/Aₒ(ΔΘ) = A₁ - A₀/Aₒ(Θ₂ - Θ₁)
Where;
β = Superficial expansivity
ΔA = Change in area
Aₒ = Initial Area
ΔΘ = Change in temperature
A₁ = Final Area
Θ₂ = Final Temperature
Θ₁ = Initial Temperature
N.B: The superficial expansivity of an object is equal to
twice its linear expansivity. Mathematically;
β = 2α
 CUBIC EXPANSION
Cubic expansion is the increase in the volume of an
object when heat is applied to it. Cubic expansion can be
described by Cubic expansivity. Cubic expansivity can be
defined as the increase in volume, per unit volume, per
degree rise in temperature. Mathematically, the Cubic
expansivity of a body can be given as;
γ = ΔV/V₀ΔΘ = V₁ - V₀/Vₒ(Θ₂ - Θ₁)
Where; γ = cubic expansivity
ΔV = change in volume
V₀ = initial volume
ΔΘ = change in temperature
V₁ = Final Volume
Θ₂ = Final temperature
Θ₁ = Initial temperature
N.B: The cubic expansivity of an object is equal to
thrice its linear expansivity. Therefore we have that;
γ = 3α
But; β = 2α
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γ = 3(β/2)
γ = ³/₂β
The relationship between density and cubic expansivity
can be given as;
ρ₁ = ρ₂ (1 + γΔθ)
ρ₁ = ρ₂ (1 + 3αΔθ)
Where;
ρ₁ = initial density
ρ₂ = final density
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
The density of iron at 30°C is 4.8g/cm³. What is its density
at 80°C if the linear expansivity of iron is 1.2 × 10-⁵k-¹?
A. 5.8g/cm³
B. 8.5g/cm³
C. 4.8g/cm³
D. 8.4g/cm³
Real and Apparent Expansion
Real or absolute cubic expansivity of a liquid is the
actual increase in volume of a unit volume per degree rise
in temperature. Mathematically;
γreal = actual increase in volume / original volume ×
temperature rise
Apparent cubic expansivity of a liquid in a vessel of a
particular material is the apparent increase in volume of a
unit volume per degree rise in temperature.
Mathematically;
γapparent = apparent increase in volume / original
volume × temperature rise = volume of liquid
expelled/original volume × temperature rise
N.B: The relationship between real and apparent cubic
expansivity can be given below;
x=y+z
Where;
x = real cubic expansivity
y = apparent cubic expansivity
z = cubic expansivity of material of vessel
 ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER
This refers to the abnormal expansion of water. Water is
anomalous for the following reasons;
 1. It expands on freezing m = mass of gas
2. The density of water increases from 0°C - 4°C
and decreases on further heating  INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN IDEAL GAS
3. The volume of water reduces from 0°C - 4°C and
increases on further heating It simply refers to the sum of the translational kinetic
energies of all the atoms in a gas. It is given as;
N.B: Water has its least volume at 4°C and its highest
density at 4°C. The anomalous expansion of water is U = N(K.E)
important for the preservation of aquatic wildlife.
U = 3/2 NkbT = 3/2 nRT (for a monoatomic gas)

CHAPTER 13: KINETIC THEORY AND U = 5/2 NKbT = 5/2 nRT (for a diatomic gas)
THERMODYNAMICS
 THERMODYNAMICS
 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
This is the branch of physics that deals with the
The ideal gas equation can be given mathematically transfer or action of heat. The following are the Laws of
as; thermodynamics;

PV = nRT 1. Zeroth Law

2. First law of thermodynamics
But; n = N/Na 3. Second law of thermodynamics

PV = NRT/Na  Zeroth Law

But; R/Na = Kb This states that if bodies A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body C, then A are in B are in
PV = NKbT thermal equilibrium with each other. This law explained
temperature and the thermometer.
Where;
 First Law of Thermodynamics
N = number of molecules of gas
This states that the amount of heat supplied to a system
Kb = Boltzmann constant
is equal to the algebraic sum of the change in internal
energy of the system and the amount of external work done
R = Gas constant
by the system. Mathematically;
Na = Avogadro's number = 6.02×10²³
dQ = dU + dW
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE SPEED/VELOCITY Where;
(R.M.S)
dQ = Change in heat
The ideal gas equation can be related to the average
kinetic energy of a gas by the equation below; dU = change in internal energy
NKbT = ⅔N(K.E) dW = change in work
K.E = 3/2 KbT N.B: The gas constant according to this law is given by;
½mV² = 3/2 KbT R = Cp - Cv (Mayer's formula)
V² = 3KbT/m Where;
V = √(3KbT)/m Cp = molar gas constant at constant pressure
Where; Cv = molar gas constant at constant volume
V = R.M.S velocity/speed
 Second Law of Thermodynamics (Clausius
statement)
Kb = Boltzmann constant = R/Na
Clausius statement comprises the law that it is
T = temperature in Kelvin
impossible for heat to move from a cold body to a hot

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29
body except aided by an external agency. This law can
be applied in the following devices; CHAPTER 14: HEAT TRANSFER

1. Heat Engines: Heat engines convert heat into
work. They consist of three major parts; source
(high temperature reservoir), sink (low
temperature reservoir) and a working substance.
The efficiency is given by;
 FORMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer involves the various forms in which heat
is transferred from one body to another. The various forms
of heat transfer include;

E = W/Q₁ 1. Conduction
2. Convection
But; W = Q₁ - Q₂ 3. Radiation

E = (Q₁ - Q₂)/Q₁  CONDUCTION

Where; Conduction is a process of heat transfer which
requires a material medium. The materials that allow
W = work done by working substance energy exchange in this way are called conductors (mostly
metals).
Q₁ = source
The rate of heat transfer (heat current) in a metallic
Q₂ = sink conductor is given as;
2. Carnot Engine: It converts heat energy into H = kA∆T/L (K is constant)
mechanical energy. It has same formula for efficiency as
the heat engines. But ∆T = T₂ - T₁
3. Refrigerator, Air conditioner and Heat Pump: H = kA(T₂ - T₁)/L
These devices transfer heat energy from a cold system to a
hot system. The efficiency of the system known as the Where;
Coefficient of Performance (COP) is given as;
K = Thermal conductivity
COP = Q₂/W
A = cross sectional area of conductor
COP = Q₂/Q₁ - Q₂
∆T = T₂ - T₁ = Change in temperature
N.B: For a heat pump, the COP is given as;
L = Length of the conductor
COP = Q₁/Q₁ - Q₂
N.B: ∆T/L is known as temperature gradient.
 PROCESS
 CONVECTION
A process is a change in the state of the thermodynamic
variables. It can be reversible or irreversible. The types of Convection is a method of heat transfer which is
processes include; applicable to only fluids (ie gases or liquids). It is based on
the varying densities of the medium of which the heat is
1. Isothermal process (constant temperature) being transferred. Land and Sea breezes are basic
2. Adiabatic process (zero heat change) practical examples of convention as a mode of heat
3. Isobaric process (constant pressure) transfer.
4. Isochoric process (constant volume)
5. Isolated process (no external work) The rate of heat flow H by convection from a
solid surface to the fluid flowing over it is given by;
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the
following should be noted about the given processes; H = hAs (Ts - Tf)
1. For an isothermal process, dU = 0 and dQ = Where;
dW.
2. For an adiabatic process, dQ = 0 and dU = - H = Heat current
dW.
3. For an isochoric process, dW = 0 and dQ = h = convection coefficient
dU
4. For an isolated process, dU = 0 As = Area of solid surface

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 Ts = temperature of solid surface A. Conduction
B. Convection
Tf = temperature of fluid C. Conduction and radiation
D. Convection and radiation
N.B: The S.I unit of the convection coefficient is E. None of the above (Radiation only)
J/sm²°C or Wm²°C.
 THERMAL RESISTANCE
PAST QUESTION REVIEW
Thermal Resistance denoted as 'R' is the opposition
The mode of heat transfer due to density difference caused to the flow of heat energy in a material. It depends on the
by thermal expansion is called thickness of the material. The thermal resistance of a
material is defined as the ratio of the thickness/length of a
A. Conduction material to its thermal conductivity. Mathematically;
B. Radiation
C. Evaporation R = L/K
D. Convection
E. None of the above In terms of R, the heat current of a conducting material
can be given as;
 RADIATION
H = A∆T/R
Radiation is a mode of heat transfer that does not
require any material medium. A good example of heat Where;
transfer by radiation is the heating effect by the sun on the
earth. R = Thermal resistance

The rate at which radiant heat is emitted by a surface H = Heat current

is given by the Stefan - Boltzmann as;

H = AeσT⁴

Where;

H = Rate of radiant heat

T = absolute temperature (in Kelvin)

σ = Stefan - Boltzmann constant = 5.07051 × 10-⁸w/m²k⁴

A = Surface area of radiant body

e = emissivity of radiant body

N.B: emissivity is a measure of the efficiency at which a

surface emits thermal energy. Its value ranges from 0 to
1. A perfect emitting surface such as a black surface has
an emissivity of 1.

For an enclosed body, the net rate of radiation from a

body at temperature T with its surroundings at temperature
Ts is given as;

Hnet = Aeσ(Ts⁴ - T⁴)

Where; Ts = Temperature of the surroundings

N.B: If T⁴ is greater than Ts⁴, it means there's a net

energy loss i.e Hnet will be negative, and vice versa.

PAST QUESTION REVIEW

Which of the following modes of heat transfer does not

require material medium?
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