Theory (PTDN)

1.Explain the transactional function and the interactional function of language.

(trang 15)
=> Transactional function is used to serve in the expression of context.
1.Giving or obtaining information, or getting goods and services.
2.Focus on message
3.Making oneself understood completely
4.Grammatical accuracy may not be a priority
5.Communication strategies.
6.Information oriented
7.Goods and services oriented

=>5

2.List the differences between written and spoken English. (trang 16)

Spoken language Written language

1.Spoken language involves speaking and 1.Written language involves reading and
listening skills. writing skills.

2.Older than written language 2.Not as old as the spoken language

3.More informal and simple than written 3.More formal and complex than spoken
language language.

4.Mostly used between two people who 4. Promotes communication across space
are in the same place. and time.

5.Can use tone, pitch, volume, etc.. 5.Can use heading, punctuation, layouts,..

6.Temporary since there are no records 6. Permanent since there are records.

7.Contains repetitions, incomplete 7.Often grammatically correct and may

sentences, interruptions, corrections,.. contain long sentences in complex tenses.

3.What is cohesion?(trang 23)

=> The grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of a text which
hold it together.

4.What is coherence? (Đã xong 1-4)

The ways a text makes sense to readers & writers through the relevance and accessibility
of its configuration of concepts, ideas and theories.

5 List the means of grammatical cohesion. Give examples for illustration.

(trang 24)
- Substitution
Ex:
 - Jack’s car is very old and ugly. He should get a nicer one
The word one is the substitution for car.
- My pen is too blunt. I must get a sharper one
The word one is the substitution for pen.

- Ellipsis
Ex: These apples are delicious. Let’s buy some.
Take these pills three times daily. And you’d better have some more of those too
- Parceling
- Structural parallelism

ex: wherever there's fear, we bring confidence

6.List the means of lexical cohesion. Give examples for illustration. (trang 32)
1. Reiteration
ex: John didn't lie, but he did
ex: Whatyou own ends up owning you
ex: hand in hand
2. The use of synonym
ex: He was just wondering which road to take when he was started by a noise from
behind him. It was the noise of trotting horses . . . He dismounted and led his horse
as quickly as he could along the right-hand road. The sound of the cavalarly grew
rapidly nearer …
3. the use of antonyms
ex:
1.When it's cold and wet outside, it's so nice to be warm and dry inside.
2.He was wearing two different colored socks but at least his shoes were the
same .
3. Please fill the dishwasher and empty the trash
4. Association
ex:
7.List the means of logical cohesion ( diễn đạt sự kết nối giữa các câu). Give
examples for illustration. ( trang 28)
1. And:
ex: It was a convention where there were few blacks and few beards. AND that
remains the Republican problem
2. Enumeration (liệt kê):
ex: I like everything about him: his smile, his personality, his sense of humor

3. Addition (kể thêm)

ex:
4. Transition (câu chuyển)
ex: I've talked about the situation in Africa. NOW I'd like to move on to the next
item our agenda
5. Summation ( tóm tắt một ý bài văn lớn)
6. Apposition ( thông tin giải thích cho câu trước)
 7. Result:
ex: these people refused to pay the rent. So they were evicted over the weekend.
8. Inference (luận đoán)
ex: She’s not coming tonight. IN THAT CASE, I’ll have to cancel my flight
9. Reformulation or replacement (thay mới, thay thế)
EX: they are ẹnoying themselves. RATHER, they appear to doing so
10. Contract
11. Concession (nhượng bộ)
12. Comparison (so sánh)
8.What is context? List the 10 features of context from Hymes’view. (trang 39)
Context is the minimal stretch of language that helps to understand what is written or
spoken.
The context of an idea or event is general situation that relates to it, and which helps it to
be understood

- 10 features of context from Hymes’view:

+ Addressor, the speaker or writer who produces the utterance,
and addressee, the hearer or reader who receives and decodes the
utterance.
+ Audience: another kind of participants call the audience, who are
the overhearers, or in other words, the unintended addressees.
+ Topic, which is certain to constrain the range of language used
+ Setting: both in terms of place and time
+ Channel: refers to how the contact between the participants is
maintained – by speech, writing, signing, or signal.
+ Code: is what kind of language or dialect or style of language is
being used – standard language, or the one spoken in a region.
+ Message-form: tells us about the forms intended – a chat,
debate, sermon, fairytale, a love letter, a lecture, a radio talk, a play,
etc.
+ Event: is about the nature of the communicative event within
which a genre may be embedded
+ Key: is another concept introduced by Hymes, which involves
evaluation.
+ Purpose: refers to what outcome the participants want to
happen.

(XEM LẠI SÁCH GK)

(Distinguish between context and co-text.

Versus context – in the analysis of texts, cotext refers to linguistic material in the surrounding text.
Context refers to information outside of the text, available to a reader through understanding of
genre, situation, and world knowledge. In the structure of the enthymeme, for example, one
premise is part of the cotext of a conclusion, while the suppressed premise is not in the text, but
available in the context.)
9.What is co-text? ( trang 43)
Co-text is the stretch of language that occurs before or after the utterance which needs to
be interpreted.

10.The principle of analogy.(45)

The principle of analogy enables the hearer or listener to interpret discourse in light of his
past experience and background knowledge.

11.Present the concepts of reference, presupposition, entailment,

implicature and inference. ( trang 55-59)
- Reference is the relationship which holds between words (nomial elements) and
things.
- presupposition is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is
likely to accept without challenge and common ground of the participants in the
conversation.
- entailment as a concept from formal logic may be defined this way: when
proposition X is true, a proposition Y must therefore be true, then proposition X
entail proposition Y
- implicatures is to account for what speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as
distinct from what the speaker literally says and we have concept of “
conversation implicature” which are determined by “the conventional meaning of
the word used”
- Inference will refer to the process by which the header / reader arrives at the
intend meaning of the speaker/ writer. Inference will be the meaning arrived at by
the hearer/reader.
12.Present the 4 maxims in Grice’s view.

Grice's Maxims
1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly
can, and gives as much information as is needed, and no more. (số lượng)
2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give
information that is false or that is not supported by evidence. (chất lượng)
3. The maxim of relation, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that
are pertinent to the discussion.
4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly
as one can in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

Practice
1.Analyzing a passage in terms of Hymes’ features of context to the extent possible.
(trang 40)
ex: Honesty ( trang 48)
- Addressor (người thực hiện): Lasroh Havens, , professor of psychiatry
 - Addressee (người nhận): Emily
- channel: writing
- Code: standard language
- purpose: about the honesty
- Event: Letter of advice, explain or just a letter
- Message form: Speak our minds; display the feeling, freedom to speak.

2.Determining whether a given word/phrase is a referring expression or not.

3.Identifying cases where Grice’s conversational maxims are flouted and

presenting their implications. (58)

Mr. President, Mr. Speaker,

Members of the House and the Senate,
Distinguished Americans here as visitors in this Chamber as I might,
It’s nice to have a fresh excuse for giving a long speech. When presidents speak to the
Congress and the nation from this podium, typically they comment on the changes and the
opportunities that face the United States, but this is not an ordinary time for all the many
tasks that require our attention. I believe tonight one calls on us to unite and to act, that’s
our economy… For more than anything else, our task tonight as Americans is to make our
economy thrive again.
Let me begin by saying that it has been too long, at least three decades since a President
has come and challenged Americans to join him on a great national journey, not merely to
consume the bounty of today but to invest for a much greater one tomorrow.

(Address by ex-President William Jefferson Clinton before a Joint Session of Congress on Administration
Goals on February, 1993)

Example: Feature 1: Addressor: Mr. William Jefferson Clinton – the 42th President of the
USA

Feature 2: Audience: Members of the House and the Senate,

Feature 3: Topic: Make America’s economy thrive again.
Feature 4: Setting: Joint Session of Congress on Administration Goals on February, 1993
Feature 5: Channel: Speech
Feature 6: Code: Standard English
Feature 7: Message-form: formal speech
Feature 8: Event: The opening speech
Feature 9: Key: an interesting speech
Feature 10: Purpose:
5.
1.
a) Which of Grice's maxims does the interviewee's statement appear to flout? Relation

b) What is the implicature raised by Mary's statement? She doesn't know who that man
is.

2. Interviewer: What do you think of Tony Blair as Prime Minister?

Interviewee: He’s always well-dressed, he has a great smile and he likes jazz.

a) Which of Grice's maxims does interviewee's statement appear to flout? Quantity

b)What is the implicature raised by interviewee 's statement? The interviewer is praising
the prime minister

ISSUES FOR REVISION ON DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

I.
Theory
1.Explain the transactional function and the interactional function of language. (đã có
bên trên)
2.List the differences between written and spoken English. (đã có bên trên)
3.What is cohesion? (đã có bên trên)
4.What is coherence? (đã có bên trên)
5.List the means of grammatical cohesion. Give examples for illustration. (đã có bên
trên)
6.List the means of lexical cohesion. Give examples for illustration. (đã có bên
trên)
7.List the means of logical cohesion. Give examples for illustration. (đã có bên
trên)
8.What is context? List the 10 features of context from Hymes’view. (đã có bên
trên)
9.What is co-text? (đã có bên trên)
10.The principle of analogy. (đã có bên trên)
11.Present the concepts of reference, presupposition,entailment, implicature and
inferencing.(đã có bên trên)
12.Present the 4 maxims in Grice’s view. (đã có bên trên)
13.Present Austin’s 3 types of speech acts.
There are three types of acts in the speech acts, they are locutionary, illocutionary, and
perlocutionary.
Locutionary
 speech act is roughly equivalent to uttering certain utterance with certain sense and
reference, which again is roughly equivalent to meaning in traditional sense (Austin, 1962:
108).

The example of the locutionary speech act can be seen in the following sentences:
1. It’s so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy.

b. Illocutionary
The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance,such as
promising, apologizing, offering (Yule, 1996:48).
Illocutionary act can be the real description of interaction condition. For example:
1. It’s so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy.

c. Perlocutionary
Hufford and Heasley (1983:250) states that perlocutionary act is the act that is carried out
by a speaker when making an utterance causes in certain effect on the hearer and others.
Perlocutionary act is also the act offering someone. Perlocutionary act refers to the effect
the utterance has on the thoughts or actions of the other person.
For example:
1. It is so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy

14.What is topic framework?

=> is conversation between two people or a text, actually constitutes a framework of topic
which is called topic framework. A framework is based on the context. (cần xem lại)

15.What are the 2 functions of Theme as the left-most constituent of the

sentence?

II.Practice
1.Analyzing a passage in terms of Hymes’ features of context to the extent possible.
2.Determining whether a given word/phrase is a referring expression or not.
3.Identifying cases where Grice’s conversational maxims are flouted and
presenting their implicatures.

Test format:
Time allotted: 55 minutes
-True/False statements
-Gap-filling
-Choice-making
-Short answers
 REVIEW CUỐI KÌ
FOCUS ISSUES FOR D.A. REVISION

1. True/False statements: functions of language, spoken language vs. written

language, context, co-text

2. Gap-filling: Topic, topic framework, theme, thematisation

3. Questions:

1. What is discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis has come to be used with a wide range of meanings which cover
a wide range of activities at the intersection of many disciplines from
sociolinguistics, philosophical linguistics to computational linguistics.

2. What is cohesion?

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds
a text together and gives it meaning.

một ngôn bản phải có kết cấu ngôn bản

3. What is coherence? ( tính mạch lạc)

Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful. It is

specially dealt with in-text linguistics. Coherence is achieved through syntactical
features such as the use of deictic, anaphoric, and cataphoric elements or a logical
tense structure, as well as presuppositions and implications.

tính mạch lạc chỉ ra các phương tiện tu từ, những cách viết và nói có thấy tính trật
tự nhất quán và nhấn mạnh

có mqh qua lại tư hổ tác động lẫn nhau, lk đc xem như là 1 ccash thức mạch lạc,
nhưng sai lầm khi lk mạch lạc vs … và lk từng từ một của chúng

ex: A: My car's broken down

B: There’s a garage down the road

=> liên kết về nghĩa

4. What factors contribute to coherence?

-Coherence refers to the type of semantic or rhetorical relationships that underline

texts.

- Coherence can obtain on the basic of relevance, the co-operative principle, the
common shared background knowledge, between participants in a speech event,
and how discourse is structured, as well.
 5. Give and analyze an example of pro-forms of adverbials.

- He exercised regularly. I did too.

“Regularly” is adverbial. The word “too” stands for “regularly”, so it is a

pro-forms of adverbials.

6. What is context?

Context has become one of the most elusive and fluid concepts in modern linguistics.
There is not doubt as to the importance of context in the interpretation of discourse, but
there exists hardly any consensus on what context and context of situation are.

7. What is reference?

Reference is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete
object or abstraction it represents. Reference is the relationship of one linguistic expression
to another, in which one provides the information necessary to interpret the other.
Reference is the relationship which holds between words and things. Referring is not what
an expression does, but rather it is what we as speaker or writers of language do.

8. What are the four maxims that comprise the co-operative principle?

9. What are three types of speech acts according to Austin’s classification.

4. Analyze the following passage in terms of Hymes’ features of context to the

extent possible. (Format similar to mid-term test)

- 10 features of context from Hymes’view:

○ Addressor, the speaker or writer who produces the utterance, and addressee,
the hearer or reader who receives and decodes the utterance.
○ Audience: another kind of participants call the audience, who are the
overhearers, or in other words, the unintended addressees.
○ Topic, which is certain to constrain the range of language used
○ Setting: both in terms of place and time
○ Channel: refers to how the contact between the participants is maintained –
by speech, writing, signing, or signal.
○ Code: is what kind of language or dialect or style of language is being used
– standard language, or the one spoken in a region.
○ Message-form: tells us about the forms intended – a chat, debate, sermon,
fairytale, a love letter, a lecture, a radio talk, a play, etc.
 ○ Event: is about the nature of the communicative event within which a genre
may be embedded
○ Key: is another concept introduced by Hymes, which involves evaluation.
○ Purpose: refers to what outcome the participants want to happen.

10. For each of the given exchanges, determine (a) which of Grice's maxims the
second speaker's utterance appears to flout, and (b) the implicature raised by the
second speaker. (Format similar to mid-term test)

SAMPLE TEST

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.

1. Spoken language is more complicated than written language in structure. F

2. Heavily pre modified noun phrases occur frequently in spoken language.F

3. Topic-comment structures are quite common in spoken language. T

4. The speaker frequently uses a lot of generalized vocabulary. T

5. Context refers to linguistic factors necessary for text interpretation. T

II. Fill each gap with a suitable word.

1. The notion “topic” as “what is being talked about” can serve as a criterion for
distinguishing the connected coherent from anything that is not. The topic
framework should comprise all the activated features of context because they
are the context aspects directly reflected in the text, and need to be called upon
to interpret it. The speaker or the writer usually operate within this topic
framework to produce language, thus we will have a sense that the sentences
are topically connected.

2. Theme, usually expressed by the left-most constituent of the sentence, refers to

what the speaker nominates as the subject (not necessarily the grammatical
subject) of what he will speak about later in the rheme. In other words, theme
is the starting point of the utterance or point of utterance. in Halliday’s
terminology. Theme may be seen as having two functions: i.) to connect back
and link to the previous discourse, maintaining a coherent point of view, and
ii.) serve as point of departure for further development of the discourse.

III. Give short answers to the following questions.

 1. What is discourse analysis?

2. Present two major approaches to the notion “Text”.

3. Present the functions of language in terms of communication.

4. What is cohesion?

5. What is coherence? What factors contribute to coherence?

6. Give and analyze an example of pro-forms of adverbials.

7. What is context?

8. What is a reference?

9. What are the four maxims that comprise the co-operative principle?

10. What are three types of speech acts according to Austin’s classification.

IV. Analyze the following passage in terms of Hymes’ features of

context to the extent possible.

Mr. President, Mr. Speaker,

Members of the House and the Senate,

Distinguished Americans here as visitors in this Chamber as I might,

It’s nice to have a fresh excuse for giving a long speech. When presidents speak to the
Congress and the nation from this podium, typically they comment on the changes and the
opportunities that face the United States, but this is not an ordinary time for all the many
tasks that require our attention. I believe tonight one calls on us to unite and to act, that’s
our economy… For more than anything else, our task tonight as Americans is to make our
economy thrive again.

Let me begin by saying that it has been too long, at least three decades since a President
has come and challenged Americans to join him on a great national journey, not merely to
consume the bounty of today but to invest for a much greater one tomorrow.

(Address by ex-President William Jefferson Clinton before a Joint Session of Congress on Administration
Goals on February, 1993)

Example: Feature 1: Addressor: Mr. William Jefferson Clinton – the 42th President of the
USA

Feature 2: Audience: Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the House and the Senate,
Americans
Feature 3: Topic: about boosting the US economy/ make America’s economy thrive again.

Feature 4: Setting: Joint Session of Congress on Administration Goals on February, 1993

Feature 5: Channel: by speech

Feature 6: Code: Standard English language

Feature 7: Message-form: formal speech

Feature 8: Event: the opening speech

Feature 9: Key: an interesting speech

Feature 10: Purpose: getting Americans to understand the importance of developing

economy

V. For each of the following exchanges, determine (a) which of Grice's

maxims the second speaker's utterance appears to flout, and (b) the implicature
raised by the second speaker. The first one has been done for you.

Example: Katy: Do you know where Billy Bob is?

Anna: Well, he didn't meet me for lunch like he was supposed to.

a. Which of Grice's maxims does Anna's statement appear to flout? Relation

b. What is the implicature raised by Anna's statement? She does not know where Billy
Bob is.

1. Bob: Do you want some dessert?

Ray: Do birds have wings?

a) Relation - Quantity
b) It means Ray wants to eat dessert

2. Diana: Don't you think John is a nice guy?

Susan: Yeah, he's about as sensitive as Attila the Hun.

a) Quality
b) He’s a very sensitive guy