A

Access Control
Refers to mechanisms and policies that restrict access to computer resources. An
access control list (ACL), for example, specifies what operations different users can
perform on specific files and directories.
Active Content
Active content refers to material that is downloaded that makes something happen, as
opposed to static content, such as text or simple images that do nothing but get
displayed. Active content includes such things as JavaScript animations, ActiveX
controls, Java spreadsheets...anything that actually does something.
ActiveX
ActiveX is Microsoft's answer to the Java technology from Sun Microsystems. An
ActiveX control is roughly equivalent to a Java applet. ActiveX is the name Microsoft
has given to a set of "strategic" object-oriented program technologies and tools. The
main thing that you create when writing a program to run in the ActiveX environment is
a component, a self-sufficient program that can be run anywhere in your ActiveX
network (currently a network consisting of Windows and Macintosh systems). This
component is known as an ActiveX control.
Address Book
An automated e-mail address directory that allows you to address your messages
easily. Generally comes in personal and public versions.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
See ARP
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a Federal Information Processing
Standard (FIPS) Publication that will specify a cryptographic algorithm for use by U.S.
Government organizations to protect sensitive (unclassified) information. This standard
specifies Rijndael as a FIPS-approved symmetric encryption algorithm that may be
used by U.S. Government organizations (and others) to protect sensitive information.
Anti-Replay Service
With anti-replay service, each IP packet passing within the secure association is tagged
with a sequence number. On the receiving end, each packet's sequence number is
checked to see if it falls within a specified range. If an IP packet tag number falls outside
of the range, the packet is blocked.
Anti-virus
A software program designed to identify and remove a known or potential computer
virus
API (Application program interface)
An API is the specific methodology by which a programmer writing an application
program may make requests of the operating system or another application.

Application Gateway Firewall

Application gateways look at data at the application layer of the protocol stack and
serve as proxies for outside users, intercepting packets and forwarding them to the
application. Thus, outside users never have a direct connection to anything beyond the
firewall. The fact that the firewall looks at this application information means that it can
distinguish among such things as Telnet, file transfer protocol (FTP), or Lotus Notes
traffic. Because the application gateway understands these protocols, it provides
security for each application it supports.
Archiving
An archive is a collection of computer files that have been packaged together for
backup, to transport to some other location, for saving away from the computer so that
more hard disk storage can be made available, or for some other purpose. An archive
can include a simple list of files or files organized under a directory or catalog structure
(depending on how a particular program supports archiving).
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
A protocol used to obtain the physical addresses (such as MAC addresses) of hardware
units in a network environment. A host obtains such a physical address by broadcasting
an ARP request, which contains the IP address of the target hardware unit. If the
request finds a unit with that IP address, the unit replies with its physical hardware
address.
ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit)
a chip designed for a particular application. ASICs are built by connecting existing circuit
building blocks in new ways. Since the building blocks already exist in a library, it is
much easier to produce a new ASIC than to design a new chip from scratch.
Asymmetrical Key Exchange
Asymmetric or public key cryptography is based on the concept of a key pair. Each half
of the pair (one key) can encrypt information so that only the other half (the other key)
can decrypt it. One part of the key pair, the private key, is known only by the designated
owner; the other part, the public key, is published widely but is still associated with the
owner.
Attachment
A file that a user adds to an email message to transfer it to another user.
Authentication
The process of determining the identity of a user that is attempting to access a network.
Authentication occurs through challenge/response, time-based code sequences or other
techniques. See CHAP and PAP.
Authentication Header (AH)
The Authentication Header is a mechanism for providing strong integrity and
authentication for IP datagrams. It might also provide non-repudiation, depending on
which cryptographic algorithm is used and how keying is performed. For example, use
of an asymmetric digital signature algorithm, such as RSA, could provide nonrepudiation.

Authorization
The process of determining what types of activities or access are permitted on a
network. Usually used in the context of authentication: once you have authenticated a
user, they may be authorized to have access to a specific service.
B
Bandwidth
Generally speaking, bandwidth is directly proportional to the amount
of data transmitted or received per unit time. In digital systems, bandwidth is
proportional to the data speed in bits per second (bps). Thus, a modem that works at
57,600 bps has twice the bandwidth of a modem that works at 28,800 bps.
Bastion host
A specific host that is used to intercept packets entering or leaving a network. and the
system that any outsider must ordinarily connect with to access a system or service that
is inside the network's firewall. Typically the bastion host must be highly secured
because it is vulnerable to attack due to its placement. See dual-homed gateway.
Buffer Overflow Attack
A buffer overflow attack works by exploiting a known bug in one of the applications
running on a server. It then causes the application to overlay system areas, such as the
system stack, thus gaining administrative rights. In most cases, this gives a hacker
complete control over the system. Also referred to as stack overflow.
C
CA (Certificate Authority)
See Certificate Authority
CA Signature
A digital code that vouches for the authenticity of a digital certificate. The CA signature
is provided by the certificate authority (CA) that issued the certificate.
CGI exploit
When a denial of service attack is aimed at the CGI (common gateway interface), it is
referred to as a CGI exploit. The CGI is a standard way for a Web server to pass a Web
user's request to an application program and to receive data back to forward to the
user. It is part of the Web's HTTP protocol.
Certificate Authority (CA)
A certificate authority is an authority in a network that issues and manages security
credentials and public keys for message encryption and decryption. As part of a public
key infrastructure (PKI), a CA checks with a registration authority (RA) to verify
information provided by the requestor of a digital certificate. If the RA verifies the
requestor's information, the CA can then issue a certificate.
Challenge-Response
A common authentication technique whereby an individual is prompted (the challenge)
to provide some private information (the response). Most security systems that rely on
smart cards are based on challenge-response. A user is given a code (the challenge)
which he or she enters into the smart card. The smart card then displays a new code
(the response) that the user can present to log in.

CHAP (Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol)

An authentication technique where after a link is established, a server sends a
challenge to the requestor. The requestor responds with a value obtained by using a
one-way hash function. The server checks the response by comparing it its own
calculation of the expected hash value. If the values match, the authentication is
acknowledged otherwise the connection is usually terminated.
Checksum or hash
A checksum is a count of the number of bits in a transmission unit that is
included with the unit so that the receiver can check to see whether the same number of
bits arrived. If the counts match, it's assumed that the complete transmission was
received.
Circuit-level gateways
Circuit-level gateways run proxy applications at the session layer instead of the
application layer. They can't distinguish different applications that run on the same
protocol stack. However, these gateways don't need a new module for every new
application, either. Circuit-level gateway is a firewall feature which can, when needed,
serve as an alternative to packet filtering or application gateway functionality.
Cleanup interval
A setting in the Ravlin Node Manager that specifies how long a Ravlin unit waits before
performing automatic internal cleanup. In general, the busier the network, the more
often system cleanups should be performed.
Client
A client is the requesting program or user in a client/server relationship. For example,
the user of a Web browser is effectively making client requests for pages from servers
all over the Web. The browser itself is a client in its relationship with the computer that is
getting and returning the requested HTML file.
Community string
A character string used to identify valid sources for SNMP requests, and to limit the
scope of accessible information. Ravlin units use the community string like a password,
allowing only a limited set of management stations to access its MIB
Content blocking
The ability to block network traffic based on actual packet content.
Content filtering, scanning or screening
The ability to review the actual information that an end user sees when using a specific
Internet application. For example, the content of e-mail.
Content virus
See data driven attack. Commonly protected against with a virus scanner.
Cookie
A message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message
in a text file called cookie.txt. The message is then sent back to the server each time the
browser requests a page from the server.

CoS (Class of Service)

Class of Service (CoS) is a way of managing traffic in a network by grouping similar
types of traffic (for example, e-mail, streaming video, voice, large document file transfer)
together and treating each type as a class with its own level of service priority.
CryptoCore
A RedCreek hardware implementation that offloads the heavy computational load
usually imposed by cryptographic tasks, freeing system resources and thus allowing
rapid encryption.
Cryptography
A branch of complex mathematics and engineering devoted to protecting information
from unwanted access. In the context of computer networking, cryptography consists of
encryption, authentication, and authorization.
D
Daemon
A program that runs continuously and exists for the purpose of handling periodic service
requests that a computer system expects to receive. The daemon program forwards the
requests to other programs (or processes) as appropriate. Each server of pages on the
Web has an HTTPD or Hypertext Transfer Protocol daemon that continually waits for
requests to come in from Web clients and their users.
Data driven attack
A form of intrusion in which the attack is encoded in seemingly innocuous data, and it is
subsequently executed by a user or other software to actually implement the attack.
DES (Data Encryption Standard)
A widely-used method of data encryption using a private (secret) key that was judged so
difficult to break by the U.S. government that it was restricted for exportation to other
countries. There are 72,000,000,000,000,000 (72 quadrillion) or more possible
encryption keys that can be used. For each given message, the key is chosen at
random from among this enormous number of keys. Like other private key
cryptographic methods, both the sender and the receiver must know and use the same
private key.
Denial of service attack
A user or program takes up all the system resources by launching a multitude of
requests, leaving no resources and thereby "denying" service to other users. Typically,
denial-of-service attacks are aimed at bandwidth control.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
DHCP enables individual computers on an IP network to extract their configurations
from a server (the 'DHCP server') or servers, in particular, servers that have no exact
information about the individual computers until they request the information. The
overall purpose of this is to reduce the work necessary to administer a large IP network.
The most significant piece of information distributed in this manner is the IP address.
Diffie-Hellman
The Diffie-Hellman Method For Key Agreement allows two hosts to create and share a
secret key. VPNs operating on the IPSec standard use the Diffie-Hellman method for
key management. Key management in IPSec begins with the overall framework called
the Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP). Within that
framework is the Internet Key Exchange (IKE) protocol. IKE relies on yet another

protocol known as OAKLEY and it uses Diffie-Hellman.

DiffServ (Differentiated Services

Differential service mechanisms allow providers to allocate different levels of service to
different users of the Internet. Broadly speaking, any traffic management or bandwidth
control mechanism that treats different users differently - ranging from simple Weighted
Fair Queuing to RSVP and per-session traffic scheduling - counts. However, in common
Internet usage the term is coming to mean any relatively simple, lightweight mechanism
that does not depend entirely on per-flow resource reservation.
Digital Certificate
A digital certificate is an electronic "credit card" that establishes your credentials when
doing business or other transactions on the Web. It is issued by a certification authority
(CA). It contains your name, a serial number, expiration dates, a copy of the certificate
holder's public key (used for encrypting and decrypting messages and digital
signatures), and the digital signature of the certificate-issuing authority so that a
recipient can verify that the certificate is real.
Digital Signature
A digital signature is an electronic rather than a written signature that can be used by
someone to authenticate the identity of the sender of a message or of the signer of a
document. It can also be used to ensure that the original content of the message or
document that has been conveyed is unchanged. Additional benefits to the use of a
digital signature are that it is easily transportable, cannot be easily repudiated, cannot
be imitated by someone else, and can be automatically time-stamped.
DMZ (de-militarized zone)
A network added between a protected network and an external network in order to
provide an additional layer of security. Sometimes called a perimeter network.
DNS (Domain Name System)
The Internet protocol for mapping host names, domain names and aliases to IP
addresses.
DNS spoofing
Breaching the trust relationship by assuming the DNS name of another system. This is
usually accomplished by either corrupting the name service cache of a victim system or
by compromising a domain name server for a valid domain.
Domain
The unique name used to identify an Internet network.
Domain name server
A repository of addressing information for specific Internet hosts. Name servers use the
domain name system to map IP addresses to Internet hosts.
Downloadable
A "downloadable" is a file that has been transmitted from one computer system to
another, usually smaller computer system. From the Internet user's point-of-view, to
download a file is to request it from another computer (or from a Web page on another
computer) and to receive it.

Downstream post office

A post office that communicates with a mail server through another post office or other
post offices.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology for bringing high-bandwidth information to
homes and small businesses over ordinary copper telephone lines. xDSL refers to
different variations of DSL, such as ADSL, HDSL, and RADSL. A DSL line can carry
both data and voice signals and the data part of the line is continuously connected.
DSS (Digital Signature Standard
The Digital Signature Standard (DSS) is a cryptographic standard promulgated by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 1994. It has been adopted as
the federal standard for authenticating electronic documents, much as a written
signature verifies the authenticity of a paper document.
DSX (Dynamic Security Extension)
A proprietary technology that is patented and works in the following way. The operating
system has a system call (or vector) table that contains memory address pointers for
each system call. These pointers point to a location in memory where the actual kernel
code of the system calls resides. DSX stores the address pointers for the security
sensitive system calls and then redirects these pointers to the corresponding
SECURED system call code, which is located elsewhere in memory.
Dual-homed gateway
A system that has two or more network interfaces, each of which is connected to a
different network. In firewall configurations, a dual-homed gateway usually acts to block
or filter some or all of the traffic trying to pass between the networks.
E
e-business
e-business" ("electronic business," derived from such terms as "e-mail" and "ecommerce") is the conduct of business on the Internet, not only buying and selling but
also servicing customers and collaborating with business partners.
e-commerce
e-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and
services on the Internet, especially the World Wide Web. In practice, this term and ebusiness are often used interchangeably. For online retail selling, the term e-tailing is
sometimes used.
email client
An application from which users can create, send and read e-mail messages.
email server
An application that controls the distribution and storage of e-mail messages.

Encryption
Scrambling data in such a way that it can only be unscrambled through the application
of the correct cryptographic key.
Encryption-In-Place (EIP)
A security mode in which a Ravlin unit encrypts the IP packet's payload only (without
encrypting the packet header). Because EIP does not require encryption of the IP
header or encapsulation of the IP packet, overhead is lower and performance
enhanced.
Endpoint Group
In a policy enforced network, an endpoint group represents subnets or an individual
host protected by a security appliance. By creating and configuring endpoint groups,
you can permit hosts in one subnet to exchange data securely with hosts in another
subnet. Endpoint groups along with their associated policy enforcement points are
generally members of a policy group.
Enterprise Object
Within a policy enforced network, the enterprise is the highest-level object category. It
encompasses all management domains and all lower-level divisions in the
organization's secure networking environment.
ESP (Encapsulated Security Payload)
The Encapsulating Security Payload provides confidentiality for IP datagrams or
packets, which are the message units that the Internet Protocol deals with and that the
Internet transports, by encrypting the payload data to be protected. I
Ethernet
A local-area network (LAN) protocol developed by Xerox Corporation in cooperation
with DEC and Intel in 1976. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data
transfer rates of 100Mbps.
Executable
An executable is a file that contains a program - that is, a particular kind of file that is
capable of being executed or run as a program in the computer.
Extended MAPI (Extended Messaging Application Programming Interface)
An interface developed by Microsoft that provides messaging functions including
addressing, sending, receiving and storing messages.
F
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface
A set of ANSI protocols for sending digital data over fiber optic cable. FDDI networks
are token-passing networks, and support data rates of up to 100 Mbps (100 million bits)
per second. FDDI networks are typically used as backbones for wide-area networks.
Filter
A filter is a program or section of code that is designed to examine each input or output
request for certain qualifying criteria and then process or forward it accordingly. .

Firewall
A firewall is a program that protects the resources of one network from users from other
networks. Typically, an enterprise with an intranet that allows its workers access to the
wider Internet will want a firewall to prevent outsiders from accessing its own private
data resources.
Firewall denial-of service
The firewall is specifically subjected to a denial-of-service attack.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP is the simplest way to exchange files between computers on the Internet. Like the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which transfers displayable Web pages and related
files, and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), which transfers e-mail, FTP is an
application protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols.
G
Gateway
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. In a company
network, a proxy server acts as a gateway between the internal network and the
Internet. A gateway may also be any machine or service that passes packets from one
network to another network in their trip across the Internet.
Green Screen Terminal
Terminals that are designed to be centrally-managed, configured with only essential
equipment, and devoid of CD-ROM players, diskette drives, and expansion slots (and
therefore lower in cost).
H
Hacker
Hacker is a term used by some to mean "a clever programmer" and by others,
especially journalists or their editors, to mean "someone who tries to break into
computer systems."
Headend or Head End
A central control device required by some networks (e.g., LANs or VPNs) to provide
such centralized functions as administration, diagnostic control, and network access.
Highjacking or hijacking
Control of a connection is taken by the attacker after the user authentication has been
established.
HMAC (Header Message Authentication Codes )
HMAC is a hash function based message authentication code that was designed to
meet the requirements of the IPsec working group in the IETF, and is now a standard.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
A standard set of commands used to structure documents and format text so that it can
be used on the Web.
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
HTTP is the set of rules for exchanging files (text, graphic images, sound, video, and
other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web. Relative to the TCP/IP suite of protocols
(which are the basis for information exchange on the Internet), HTTP is an application
protocol.

HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

The secure hypertext transfer protocol (HTTPS) is a communications protocol designed
to transfer encrypted information between computers over the World Wide Web. HTTPS
is http using a Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
Hybrid Auth
The Hybrid Auth extension allows the asymmetric use of digital certificates between
client and server. The client verifies the authenticity of the server's credentials
(certificate), and the server verifies the authenticity of the client's credentials.
Companies benefit from the interoperability of standards-based IPSec with IKE as well
as the increased security of the PKI at the central site, with no disruption to remote
users.
I
I2O (Intelligent Input/Output)
Intelligent Input/Output (I2O) is a hardware specification that describes a model for
offloading I/O processing from the CPU. The model is after the style of what has been
used in very large mainframes for years. It is not a replacement for the PCI architecture.
ICSA (International Computer Security Association
An organization with the mission to continually improve commercial computer security
through certification of firewalls, anti-virus products and web sites. ICSA also shares
and disseminates information concerning information security.
Insider attack
An attack originating from inside a protected network.
Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
A hybrid protocol whose purpose is to negotiate, and provide authenticated keying
material for, security associations in a protected manner. Processes which implement
this protocol can be used for negotiating virtual private networks (VPNs) and also for
providing a remote user from a remote site (whose IP address need not be known
beforehand) access to a secure host or network.
Intrusion detection
Detection of break-ins or break-in attempts by reviewing logs or other information
available on a network.
IP (Internet Protocol)
The Internet Protocol is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer
to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least
one address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
IP spoofing
An attack where the attacker impersonates a trusted system by using its IP network
address.
IP hijacking
An attack where an active, established session is intercepted and taken over by the
attacker. May take place after authentication has occurred which allows the attacker to
assume the role of an already authorized user.

IPSec (Internet Protocol Security )

A developing standard for security at the network or packet processing layer of network
communication. IPSec provides two choices of security service: Authentication Header
(AH), which essentially allows authentication of the sender of data, and Encapsulating
Security Payload (ESP), which supports both authentication of the sender and
encryption of data as well.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network
A set of communications standards allowing a single wire or optical fibre to carry voice,
digital network services and video. ISDN gives a user up to 56 kbps of data bandwidth
on a phone line that is also used for voice, or up to 128 kbps if the line is only used for
data.
J
Java
Java is a programming language expressly designed for use in the distributed
environment of the Internet. It was designed to have the "look and feel" of the C++
language, but it is simpler to use than C++ and enforces a completely object-oriented
view of programming. Java can be used to create complete applications that may run on
a single computer or be distributed among servers and clients in a network. It can also
be used to build small application modules or applets for use as part of a Web page.
Applets make it possible for a Web page user to interact with the page.
K
Kerberos
Kerberos was created by MIT as a solution to network security problems. The Kerberos
protocol uses strong cryptography so that a client can prove its identity to a server (and
vice versa) across an insecure network connection. After a client and server has used
Kerberos to prove their identity, they can also encrypt all of their communications to
assure privacy and data integrity as they go about their business.
Key
In cryptography, a key is a variable value that is applied using an algorithm to a string or
block of unencrypted text to produce encrypted text. The length of the key generally
determines how difficult it will be to decrypt the text in a given message.
Key Management
The establishment and enforcement of message encryption and authentication
procedures, in order to provide privacy-enhanced mail (PEM) services for electronic
mail transfer over the Internet.
L
LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol)
LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) is an emerging software protocol for
enabling anyone to locate organizations, individuals, and other resources such as files
and devices in a network, whether on the Internet or on a corporate intranet. LDAP is a
"lightweight" (smaller amount of code) version of DAP (Directory Access Protocol),
which is part of X.500, a standard for directory services in a network.

Litigation Protection
Litigation protection is both the review and recording of Internet, intranet and extranet
communications that is done in order to avoid litigation or the documentation of the
communications parties and content in the event of litigation.
M
MAC (Media Access Control)
On a network, the MAC (Media Access Control) address is your computer's unique
hardware number. The MAC address is used by the Media Access Control sublayer of
the Data-Link Control (DLC) layer of telecommunication protocols. There is a different
MAC sublayer for each physical device type. The Data-Link Layer is the protocol layer
in a program that handles the moving of data in and out across a physical link in a
network.
Macro Virus
Macro viruses are small programs written using the internal programming language of a
specific application program that replicate within documents created by the application
program. Common examples of application programs that use macros include word
processors such as Word and spreadsheets such as Excel.
Malicious Code
Malicious code is any code added, changed, or removed from a software system in
order to intentionally cause harm or subvert the intended function of the system.
Traditional examples of malicious code include viruses, worms, Trojan Horses, and
attack scripts, while more modern examples include Java attack applets and dangerous
ActiveX controls.
Management Domain
In a policy enforced network, a management domain consists of one or more policy
groups. A management domain usually encompasses a large category of users. For
example, a management domain might contain all users who work with an
organization's financial data or with an insurance company's patient records.
Management domains may also be specific to business relationships such as extranet
partnerships or branch-office data transfer.
MAPI (Messaging Application Programming Interface)
An interface developed by Microsoft that provides messaging functions including
addressing, sending, receiving and storing messages. Simple MAPI includes some of
these functions. Extended MAPI includes all of these functions.
MIB (Management Information Base)
A database of objects that can be monitored by an SNMP-based network management
system. Standardized MIB formats allow any SNMP tool to monitor any device defined
by a MIB.
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
A protocol used for transmitting documents with different formats via the Internet.
Monitoring
A view of individual user activity on a network, generally in real time. Provides
administrators with the ability to view the content of user utilized applications.
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching
A base technology for using label switching in conjunction with network layer routing
and for the implementation of that technology over various link level technologies, which

may include Packet-over-Sonet, Frame Relay, ATM, and Ethernet

N
NAPT (Network Address Port Translation
NAPT is a special case of NAT, where many IP numbers are hidden behind a number of
addresses, but in contrast to the original NAT this does not mean there can be only that
number of connections at a time. In NAPT an almost arbitrary number of connections is
multiplexed using TCP port information. The number of simultaneous connections is
limited by the number of addresses multiplied by the number of TCP ports available.
NAR (Network Address Retention)
A simplified IP addressing capability that eliminates the need to establish an
intermediate IP address between a router and a firewall. Sometimes called Proxy-ARP.
This feature allows the implementation of a firewall into an existing network without
having to establish a new IP address scheme.
NAT (Network Address Translation)
Network Address Translation allows your Intranet to use addresses that are different
from what the outside Internet thinks you are using. It permits many users to share a
single external IP address at the same time. The NAT provides what some people call
"address hiding", which is, as it suggests, security through obscurity at best.
Network Service Access Policy
A high level, issue specific policy which defines those services that will be allowed or
explicitly denied from a restricted network, the way in which these services will be used,
and the conditions for exceptions to the policy.
NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol
NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) is the predominant protocol used by
computers (servers and clients) for managing the notes posted on newsgroups. NNTP
replaced the original Usenet protocol, UNIX-to-UN
Nonrepudiation
The goal of nonrepudiation is to prove that a message has been sent and received. This
is extremely important in networks where commands and status must be issued and
responded to, where financial transactions must be verifiably completed, and where
signed contracts are transmitted.
O
ODBC (Open Database Connectivity
ODBC is a standard or open application programming interface (API) for accessing a
database. By using ODBC statements in a program, you can access files in a number of
different databases, including Access, dBase, DB2, Excel, and Text. In addition to the
ODBC software, a separate module or driver is needed for each database to be
accessed.
P
Packet
A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the
Internet or any other packet-switched network. When any file (e-mail message, HTML
file, GIF file, URL request, and so forth) is sent from one place to another on the
Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) layer of TCP/IP divides the file into

"chunks" of an efficient size for routing. Each of these packets is separately numbered
and includes the Internet address of the destination. The individual packets for a given
file may travel different routes through the Internet. When they have all arrived, they are
reassembled into the original file (by the TCP layer at the receiving end).
Packet Filters
Packet filters keep out certain data packets based on their source and destination
addresses and service type. Filters can be used to block connections from or to specific
hosts, networks or ports. Packet filters are simple and fast. However, they make
decisions based on a very limited amount of information.
Packet Sniffing
Intercepting packets of information (including such things for example as a credit card
number ) that are traveling between locations on the Internet.
PAP (Password Authentication Procedure)
A procedure used to validate a connection request. After the link is established, the
requestor sends a password and an id to the server. The server either validates the
request and sends back an acknowledgement, terminates the connection, or offers the
requestor another chance.
Password-based attacks
An attack where repetitive attempts are made to duplicate a valid log-in and/or
password sequence.
Perimeter network
See DMZ.
PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)
A cryptographic product family that enables people to securely exchange messages,
and to secure files, disk volumes and network connections with both privacy and strong
authentication.
Ping of Death Attack
A notorious exploit that (when first discovered) could be easily used to crash a wide
variety of machines by overrunning the size limits in their TCP/IP stacks. The term is
now used to refer to any nudge delivered by hackers over the network that causes bad
things to happen on the system being nudged.
PKCS (Public-Key Cryptography Standards)
The Public-Key Cryptography Standards are specifications produced by RSA
Laboratories in cooperation with secure systems developers worldwide for the purpose
of accelerating the deployment of public-key cryptography. First published in 1991 as a
result of meetings with a small group of early adopters of public-key technology, the
PKCS documents have become widely referenced and implemented.
PKI (Public Key Infrastructure)
A PKI (public key infrastructure) enables users of a basically unsecure public network
such as the Internet to securely and privately exchange data and money through the
use of a public and a private cryptographic key pair that is obtained and shared through
a trusted authority.

Platform attack
An attack that is focuses on vulnerabilities in the operating system hosting the firewall.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a protocol for communication between two computers
using a serial interface, typically a personal computer connected by phone line to a
server.
PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet)
PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) provides the ability to connect a network of hosts over a
simple bridging access device to a remote Access Concentrator (Server).
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) is a network protocol that enables the secure
transfer of data from a remote client to a private enterprise server by creating a virtual
private network (VPN) across TCP/IP-based data networks. PPTP supports on-demand,
multi-protocol, virtual private networking over public networks, such as the Internet.
Policy Enforced Network (PEN)
A Policy Enforced Network is a management architecture in which the creation, delivery
and enforcement of business rules in an information network are defined and
automated. Policy Enforced Networking is designed to bring structure and organization
to information networks whether they are within a campus or are distributed around the
globe.
Policy Enforcement Points (PEP)
In a policy enforced network, a policy enforcement point represents a security appliance
used to protect one or more endpoints. PEPs are also points for monitoring the health
and status of a network. PEPs are generally members of a policy group.
Policy Groups
In a policy enforced network (PEN), a policy group represents endpoint groups and their
associated policy enforcement points. A policy group also contains business rules
concerning membership, access privileges, and traffic flow (including data
authentication, encryption, and address translation). In most cases, a policy groups
members are related to each other in ways useful to the organization. Policy groups are
generally members of a management domain.
Policy Management Zone (PMZ)
The Policy Management Zone protects communications between trusted parties and
firewalls access to untrusted domains in an information network.
Policy Rules
In a policy enforced network (PEN), policy rules determine how the members and
endpoint groups of a policy group communicate.
Polymorphic virus
Polymorphic viruses encrypt the body of the virus in an attempt to hide its signature
from anti-virus programs.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
An e-mail protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over an Internet
connection.

Private Key
In cryptography, a private or secret key is an encryption/decryption key known only to
the party or parties that exchange secret messages. In traditional secret key
cryptography, a key would be shared by the communicators so that each could encrypt
and decrypt messages. The risk in this system is that if either party loses the key or it is
stolen, the system is broken. A more recent alternative is to use a combination of public
and private keys. In this system, a public key is used together with a private key.
Protocol
A special set of rules for communicating that the end points in a telecommunication
connection use when they send signals back and forth. Protocols exist at several levels
in a telecommunication connection. There are hardware telephone protocols. There are
protocols between the end points in communicating programs within the same computer
or at different locations. Both end points must recognize and observe the protocol.
Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard.
Protocol Attacks
A protocol attack is when the characteristics of network services are exploited by the
attacker. Examples include the creation of infinite protocol loops which result in denial of
services (e.g., echo packets under IP), the use of information packets under the
Network News Transfer Protocol to map out a remote site, and use of the Source
Quench protocol element to reduce traffic rates through select network paths.
Proxy
An agent that acts on behalf of a user, typically accepting a connection from a user and
completing a connection on behalf of the user with a remote host or service. See also
gateway and proxy server.
Proxy Server
A proxy server is one that acts on behalf of one or more other servers, usually for
screening, firewall, caching, or a combination of these purposes. Gateway is often used
as a synonym for "proxy server." Typically, a proxy server is used within a company or
enterprise to gather all Internet requests, forward them out to Internet servers, and then
receive the responses and in turn forward them to the original requestor within the
company.
Public Key
A public key is a value provided by some designated authority as a key that, combined
with a private key derived from the public key, can be used to effectively encrypt and
decrypt messages and digital signatures. The use of combined public and private keys
is known as asymmetric encryption. A system for using public keys is called a public key
infrastructure (PKI).
Q
QoS (Quality of Service)
On the Internet and in other networks, QoS is the idea that transmission rates, error
rates, and other characteristics can be measured, improved, and, to some extent,
guaranteed in advance. QoS is of particular concern for the continuous transmission of
high-bandwidth video and multimedia information.

R
RA (Registration Authority)
An RA (registration authority) is an authority in a network that verifies user requests for
a digital certificate and tells the certificate authority (CA) to issue it. RAs are part of a
public key infrastructure (PKI), a networked system that enables companies and users
to exchange information and money safely and securely.
RADIUS
RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service) is a client/server protocol and
software that enables remote access servers to communicate with a central server to
authenticate dial-in users and authorize their access to the requested system or service.
RADIUS allows a company to maintain user profiles in a central database that all
remote servers can share.
RAS (Remote Access Services)
A feature built into Windows NT that enables users to log into an NT-based LAN using a
modem, X.25 connection or WAN link. RAS works with several major network protocols,
including TCP/IP, IPX, and NetBEUI.
Replay Prevention
To provide protection against replay attacks in which a message is stored and re-used
later, replacing or repeating the original. See also Anti-replay service.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
The oldest routing protocol on the Internet and the most commonly used routing
protocol on local area IP networks. Routers use RIP to periodically broadcast which
networks they know how to reach.
Routing Agent
On the Internet, an agent (also called an intelligent agent) is a program that gathers
information or performs some other service without your immediate presence and on
some regular schedule. Typically, an agent program, using parameters you have
provided, searches all or some part of the Internet, gathers information you're interested
in, and presents it to you on a daily or other periodic basis.
RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman)
One of the fundamental encryption algorithms or series of mathematical actions
developed in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. The RSA
algorithm is the most commonly used encryption and authentication algorithm and is
included as part of the Web browsers from Netscape and Microsoft.
RSACi (Recreational Software Advisory Council on the Internet)
A computer software ratings system of Web site content developed by RSACI in
response to the passage of US federal legislation prohibiting the transmittal of offensive,
or indecent, materials over the Internet. RSACi was developed with the express intent of
providing a simple, yet effective rating system for web sites which protect both children,
by providing and empowering parents with detailed information about site content, and
the rights of free speech of everyone who publishes on the World Wide Web.
Rules
Criteria that are used to organize and control incoming messages automatically. When
you set up a rule, you designate the criteria that selects a specific class of messages
and then you select one or more actions to handle the messages that meet the criteria.

S
Screening router
A router configured to permit or deny traffic based on a set of permission rules installed
by the administrator.
Security Association (SA)
A Security Association (SA) is a relationship between two or more entities that
describes how the entities will utilize security services to communicate securely. This
relationship is represented by a set of information that can be considered a contract
between the entities. The information must be agreed upon and shared between all the
entities.
Secure Hash Algorithm-1 (SHA-1)
A one-way cryptographic function which takes a message produces a 160-bit message
digest. A message digest is a value generated for a message or document that is
unique to that message, and is sometimes referred to as a "fingerprint" of that message
or data. Once a message digest is computed, any subsequent change to the original
data will, with a very high probability, cause a change in the message digest, and the
signature will fail to verify. This process is used to compress large data strings to a 20byte length which is used in a cryptographic process. The reduced data length relieves
computational requirements for data encryption.
Self-signed Certificate
A self-signed certificate uses its own certificate request as a signature rather than the
signature of a CA. A self-signed certificate will not provide the same functionality as a
CA-signed certificate. A self-signed certificate will not be automatically recognized by
users' browsers, and a self-signed certificate does not provide any guarantee
concerning the identity of the organization that is providing the website.
Session
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model, the Session layer
(sometimes called the "port layer") manages the setting up and taking down of the
association between two communicating end points that is called a connection. A
connection is maintained while the two end points are communicating back and forth in
a conversation or session of some duration. Some connections and sessions last only
long enough to send a message in one direction. However, other sessions may last
longer, usually with one or both of the communicating parties able to terminate it.
Shared POP3 mailbox
A mailbox that stores messages for an entire domain that allows organizations with parttime Internet connections to exchange mail.
Shared Secret
An authentication method used to establish trust between computers in a VPN that
utilizes a password, also termed pre-shared authentication keys, for establishing trust
not for application data packet protection.
Signatures
Viruses employ signatures by which they identify themselves to themselves and thereby
avoid corrupting their own code. Standard viruses, including most macro viruses, use

character-based signatures. More complex viruses, such as polymorphic viruses, use

algorithmic signatures.
SLIP
SLIP is a TCP/IP protocol used for communication between two machines that are
previously configured for communication with each other. SLIP has been largely
supplanted by PPP.
Smart Card
About the size of a credit card, a smart card is a plastic card with an embedded
microchip that can be loaded with data, used for telephone calling, electronic cash
payments, and other applications, and then periodically "recharged" for additional use.
Currently used to establish your identity when logging on to an Internet access provider.
S/MIME (Secure/ Multipurpose Mail Extensions)
S/MIME is an E-mail security protocol. It was designed to prevent the interception and
forgery of E-mail by using encryption and digital signatures. S/MIME builds security on
top of the MIME protocol and is based on technology originally developed by RSA Data
Security, Inc.
SMF (Standard Message Format)
A message file format established by Novell and used by many e-mail applications.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol)
The standard protocol used for Internet e-mail messages.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
The protocol governing network management and the monitoring of network
devices and their functions.
Social engineering
An attack based on tricking or deceiving users or administrators into revealing
passwords or other information that compromises a target system's security. Social
engineering attacks are typically carried out by telephoning users or operators and
pretending to be an authorized user.
Source-Routing
Normal IP packets have only source and destination addresses in their headers, leaving
the actual route taken to the routers in between the source and the destination. Sourcerouted IP packets have additional information in the header that specifies the route the
packet should take. This additional routing is specified by the source host, hence the
name source-routed.
Source-Route Attack
A form of spoofing whereby the routing, as indicated in the source routed packet, is not
coming from a trusted source and therefore the packet is being routed illicitly.
Spoofing
The term for establishing a connection with a forged sender address. This normally
involves exploiting a trust relationship that exists between source and destination
addresses/systems.
Spool File
A report that has been sent to the printer control software on the AS400, to be disposed
of by the printer agent. Similar to Print Manager on Windows.

SSH (Secure Shell)

A protocol which permits secure remote access over a network from one computer to
another. SSH negotiates and establishes an encrypted connection between an SSH
client and an SSH server.
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)
A program layer created by Netscape for managing the security of message
transmissions in a network. Netscape's idea is that the programming for keeping your
messages confidential ought to be contained in a program layer between an application
(such as your Web browser or HTTP) and the Internet's TCP/IP layers. The "sockets"
part of the term refers to the sockets method of passing data back and forth between a
client and a server program in a network or between program layers in the same
computer.
Stateful
Stateful and stateless are adjectives that describe whether a computer or computer
program is designed to note and remember one or more preceding events in a given
sequence of interactions with a user, another computer or program, a device, or other
outside element. Stateful means the computer or program keeps track of the state of
interaction, usually by setting values in a storage field designated for that purpose.
Stateful inspection
Analysis of data within the lowest levels of the protocol stack and comparing the current
session to previous ones in order to detect suspicious activity. Unlike application level
gateways, stateful inspection uses business rules defined by the user and therefore
does not rely on predefined application information. Stateful inspection also takes less
processing power than application level analysis. Stateful inspection firewalls do not
recognize specific applications and thus are unable to apply different rules to different
applications.
Stealth Virus
Stealth viruses hide the modifications they make to your files or boot records,
attempting to defeat anti-virus programs.
STOP (Stack Overflow Protection)
Stack or buffer overflow attacks continue to be a favorite technique used by hackers for
breaking into servers. STOP reallocates the location of the system stack. The stack is
the area to which the attacker is trying to have the data overflow. This is like reshuffling
the cards in a deck, making it very difficult for the attacker to predict the location for the
overflow data. This simple and transparent approach renders overflow attacks
unsuccessful.
S/WAN (Secure Wide Area Network)
An initiative to promote the deployment of Internet based Virtual Private Networks
(VPN)
Symmetric Encryption
The oldest form of key-based cryptography is called secret-key or symmetric encryption.
In this scheme, both the sender and recipient possess the same key, which means that
both parties can encrypt and decrypt data with the key.

SYN Flood Attack

A TCP connection is initiated when a client issues a request to a server with the SYN
flag set in the TCP header. Normally the server will issue a SYN/ACK back to the client
identified by the 32-bit source address in the IP header. The client will then send an
ACK to the server and data transfer can commence. When the client IP address is
spoofed (changed) to be that of an unreachable host, however, the targeted TCP
cannot complete the three-way hand-shake and will keep trying until it times out. That is
the basis for the attack.
T
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
The standard family of protocols for communicating with Internet devices.
Telnet
A terminal emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. The Telnet
program runs on your computer and connects your PC to a server on the network. You
can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if
you were entering them directly on the server console
Triple DES (3DES)
Triple DES is simply another mode of DES operation. It takes three 64-bit keys, for an
overall key length of 192 bits. The procedure for encryption is exactly the same as
regular DES, but it is repeated three times. Hence the name Triple DES. The data is
encrypted with the first key, decrypted with the second key, and finally encrypted again
with the third key.
Token Ring
A type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged (schematically) in a
circle. A token, which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle. To send a
message, a computer catches the token, attaches a message to it, and then lets it
continue to travel around the network.
Tracking
The logging of inbound and outbound messages based on a predefined criteria.
Logging is usually done to allow for further analysis of the data at a future date or time.
Trojan horse
A software entity that appears to do something quite normal but which, in fact, contains
a trapdoor or attack program.
Tunnel
The path established by one network to send its data via another network's connections.
Tunneling works by encapsulating a network protocol within packets carried by the
second network. For example, Microsoft's PPTP technology enables organizations to
use the Internet to transmit data across a virtual private network (VPN). It does this by
embedding its own network protocol within the TCP/IP packets carried by the Internet.
Tunneling router
A router or system capable of routing traffic by encrypting it and encapsulating it for
transmission across an untrusted network, for eventual de-encapsulation and
decryption.

U
UDP (User Datagram Protocol
A connectionless protocol that, like TCP, runs on top of IP networks. Unlike TCP/IP,
UDP/IP provides very few error recovery services, offering instead a direct way to send
and receive datagrams over an IP network. It's used primarily for broadcasting
messages over a network.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
An address in a standard format that locates files (resources) on the Internet and the
Web. The type of resource depends on the Internet application protocol. Using the
World Wide Web's protocol, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) , the resource can
be an HTML page (like the one you're reading), an image file, a program such as a CGI
application or Java applet, or any other file supported by HTTP. The URL contains the
name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that identifies a
specific computer on the Internet, and a hierarchical description of a file location on the
computer.
URL Blocking
The tracking and denying of user access to undesirable web sites based on predefined
site content.
User Administration
User Administration is a process aimed at creating users efficiently, controlling what
they can do, limiting the damage they can cause, and monitoring their activities on a
system or network.
ULA (User Level Authentication)
User Level Authentication refers to the ability to track the usage of a VPN connection Ito
a given individual, on a specific machine, during a specific time period, by the
assignment of a unique username. It also implies the restriction of patron use of the
VPN in an anonymous manner.
UUCP (UNIX-to-UNIX Copy Protocol)
A set of UNIX programs for copying (sending) files between different UNIX systems and
for sending commands to be executed on another system.
UUencode
A data encoding standard developed to translate or convert a file or e-mail attachment
(it can be an image, a text file, or a program) from its binary or bit-stream representation
into the 7-bit ASCII set of text characters.
V
Vandal
A vandal is an executable file, usually an applet or an ActiveX control, associated with a
Web page that is designed to be harmful, malicious, or at the very least inconvenient to
the user. Since such applets or little application programs can be embedded in any
HTML file, they can also arrive as an e-mail attachment or automatically as the result of
being pushed to the user. Vandals can be viewed as viruses that can arrive over the
Internet stuck to a Web page. Vandals are sometimes referred to as "hostile applets."
VBScript (Visual Basic Script)
VBScript is an interpreted script language from Microsoft that is a subset of its Visual
Basic programming language. VBScript can be compared to other script languages
designed for the Web such as Netscape's JavaScript

Virus
A virus is a piece of programming code inserted into other programming to cause some
unexpected and, for the victim, usually undesirable event. Viruses can be transmitted by
downloading programming from other sites or be present on a diskette. The source of
the file you're downloading or of a diskette you've received is often unaware of the virus.
The virus lies dormant until circumstances cause its code to be executed by the
computer. Some viruses are playful in intent and effect and some can be quite harmful,
erasing data or causing your hard disk to require reformatting.
Virus Scanner
A program that searches files for possible viruses, including email and attachments.
VPN (Virtual Private Networking)
A VPN is a technology that overlays communications networks with a management and
security layer. Though VPN technology, network managers can set up secure
relationships while still enjoying the low cost of a public network such as the Internet.
W
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
An open global standard for communications between a mobile handset and the
Internet or other computer applications as defined by the WAP forum.
Web Attack
Any attack from the outside aimed at Web server vulnerabilities.
Web Browser
A Web browser is a client program that uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to
make requests of Web servers throughout the Internet on behalf of the browser user.
Web denial-of-service
The Web server is specifically subjected to denial-of-service attacks.
WinNuke Attack
WinNuke is a Windows DoS (Denial of Service) attack which can cause Windows
NT & 95 (and in some cases, Windows 3.11) stations to panic and lose their
network connections. WinNuke sends a string (in the original source code the
string is "bye") to your NETBIOS port (139) using OOB (Out Of Band data). The
port is open by default on most Windows machines and is used for networking
over TCP/IP. The problem is that Windows, although it supports OOB's, doesn't
know what to do with them all the time. Windows 95 goes for the exception
handler, and fails, leaving most users with a blue screen.
Worm
A type of virus that disables a computer by creating a large number of copies of itself
within the computer's memory, forcing out other programs. Worm viruses are generally
constructed to also copy themselves to other linked computers.
X
X.500 Directory
X.500 Directory Service is a standard way to develop an electronic directory of people in
an organization so that it can be part of a global directory available to anyone in the
world with Internet access. Such a directory is sometimes called a global White Pages
directory.

X.509
The most widely used standard for defining digital certificates. X.509 is actually an ITU
Recommendation, which means that has not yet been officially defined or approved. As
a result, companies have implemented the standard in different ways. For example,
both Netscape and Microsoft use X.509 certificates to implement SSL in their Web
servers and browsers. But an X.509 Certificate generated by Netscape may not be
readable by Microsoft products, and vice versa.
XAuth
The XAuth extension to the IKE protocol allows two-factor authentication for remote
users: The digital certificate authenticates the user's machine or desktop, while the use
of passwords or tokens binds that user to his digital ID and authorizes him for network
access.