Emerging Fungal Diseases in the Era of Climate Change:

Challenges and Strategies for Mitigation

Seth Vandenberg
251107265
Western University
Biology 3425 Term Paper
2023-04-03
The rapid and unprecedented changes in global climate have far-reaching consequences for
the planet's ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. One emerging concern is the
appearance and reoccurrence of infectious diseases, particularly those stemming from
fungal pathogens. Fungi are crucial for ecosystem processes and can profoundly affect
agriculture, forestry, and human health. Recently, climate change has been recognized as a
principal factor causing alterations in the distribution, prevalence, and potency of fungal
diseases. This literature review will investigate the connection between climate change and
the emergence of fungal diseases, emphasizing the intensity and frequency of these
pathogens in a progressively warmer world.

The core thesis of this review is that climate change, through its various direct and
indirect influences, contributes to the escalating emergence and severity of fungal diseases,
presenting considerable challenges for ecosystem management and public health. To
substantiate this argument, the review will delve into multiple facets of this relationship,
including the direct consequences of temperature and precipitation shifts on fungal growth
and reproduction, the indirect impacts of climate change on host vulnerability and vector
distribution, and the intricate interactions between fungal pathogens and other
environmental factors affected by climate change. By meticulously examining recent
research findings from primary and secondary literature sources, this review aims to provide
an all-encompassing understanding of climate change's role in propelling the emergence of
fungal diseases and offer insights into potential mitigation strategies and areas for future
investigation.

Fungi embody a diverse array of microorganisms that fulfill critical roles in

ecosystems, such as decomposition, nutrient cycling, and establishing symbiotic
relationships with plants (Fisher et al., 2012). Nevertheless, certain fungal species are
pathogenic, causing diseases in plants, animals, and humans. Fungal diseases, also referred
to as mycoses, can result in severe consequences for agriculture, forestry, and human
health, leading to substantial economic losses and even fatalities (Fisher et al., 2012). The
emergence and resurgence of fungal diseases have been associated with various factors,
including environmental shifts, human activities, and the evolution of pathogens and hosts
(Nnadi & Carter, 2021; García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010).

Climate change is a global phenomenon typified by rising average temperatures,

alterations in precipitation patterns, and increasingly frequent and intense extreme weather
events (IPCC, 2014). These changes have been demonstrated to influence the distribution,
abundance, and virulence of various pathogens, including fungi (Harvell et al., 2002). The
direct effects of climate change on fungal pathogens encompass modified temperature and
moisture conditions, which can impact fungal growth, reproduction, and survival
(García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010). For instance, increased temperatures can boost fungal
spore production and germination, while fluctuations in precipitation can establish
favourable conditions for fungal colonization and infection (Fisher et al., 2012).

The secondary consequences of climate change on fungal diseases are noteworthy,

as they can modify host vulnerability and vector distribution. For example, climate change
can impact plant physiology, rendering them more susceptible to fungal infections
(Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Moreover, climate change can influence the distribution and
prevalence of vectors, such as insects, which transmit fungal pathogens (Harvell et al., 2002).
These intricate interactions among climate change, fungal pathogens, hosts, and vectors
make forecasting the future dynamics of fungal diseases difficult (García-Solache &
Casadevall, 2010).

The emergence of fungal diseases under changing climate conditions is a complex

issue with extensive ramifications for ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being.
Comprehending the direct and indirect influences of climate change on fungal pathogens is
crucial for devising efficient mitigation strategies and guiding future research endeavours.

1.1 Influences of temperature on fungal growth and virulence

The consequences of rising temperatures due to climate change on fungal growth and
virulence have been extensively documented. Research has indicated that fungal pathogens
can adapt to various temperatures and can persistently grow and reproduce under warmer
conditions (García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010; Fisher et al., 2012). For instance, researchers
found that the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, responsible for the
worldwide decline in amphibian populations, has an optimal growth temperature of
17-25°C, with growth stopping at temperatures above 29°C (García-Solache & Casadevall).
However, climate change has the potential to broaden the thermal niche of this pathogen,
enabling it to endure warmer environments and infect new host species.

Likewise, the fungal pathogen Candida auris, which causes severe infections in
humans, has emerged as a global health issue due to its capacity to flourish at higher
temperatures (Lockhart et al., 2017). C. auris can grow at temperatures up to 42°C,
exceeding the average human body temperature (37°C). This enhanced thermal tolerance
permits C. auris to survive and multiply in human hosts, posing a significant threat to public
health.

In plant systems, elevated temperatures have been observed to increase the

virulence of some fungal pathogens. Chakraborty & Newton (2011) showed that higher
temperatures can boost the production of mycotoxins in Fusarium species, responsible for
crop diseases such as Fusarium head blight in wheat. Mycotoxins are toxic compounds
generated by fungi, which can contaminate crops and present health hazards to humans and
animals upon ingestion. Increased mycotoxin production under warmer conditions could
intensify the impacts of fungal diseases on crop yields and food safety.

1.2 Consequences of changing precipitation patterns on fungal diseases

Shifting precipitation patterns due to climate change can generate favourable conditions for
the growth and spread of fungal pathogens. For example, increased humidity and rainfall can
foster fungal growth by offering a plentiful supply of moisture, essential for fungal spore
germination and colonization (Fisher et al., 2012). Additionally, wetter conditions can enable
the dispersal of fungal spores through wind and rain splash, heightening the probability of
pathogen transmission to new hosts (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011).

On the other hand, decreased precipitation and drought conditions can also
significantly affect fungal diseases. Drought stress can debilitate host plants, rendering them
more vulnerable to fungal infections (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). For instance, the
intensity of the fungal disease Fusarium wilt in tomato plants has been observed to escalate
under drought conditions, as plants experiencing water stress are more susceptible to
infection by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum (Jiménez-Díaz et al., 2017).

Moreover, modified precipitation patterns can impact the distribution of fungal

pathogens by forming new ecological niches in which they can prosper. The dissemination of
the fungus-like pathogen Phytophthora ramorum, causing sudden oak death in North
America and Europe, has been associated with alterations in precipitation patterns (Rizzo et
al., 2005). Heightened rainfall in specific regions may offer more suitable habitats for P.
ramorum, enabling it to establish and provoke disease outbreaks in areas previously
unaffected.

1.3 Consequences of extreme weather events on fungal diseases

Extreme weather occurrences, such as storms, floods, and heat waves, are becoming more
common and intense due to climate change (IPCC, 2014). These events can profoundly
influence the dynamics of fungal diseases by generating favourable conditions for pathogen
growth and dispersal, as well as weakening host defences (Harvell et al., 2002).

Storms and floods, for example, can inflict physical harm on plants and animals,
making them more susceptible to fungal infections (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011).
Additionally, flooding can promote the dispersal of fungal spores and other propagules,
heightening the likelihood of disease transmission to new hosts (Fisher et al., 2012). The
dissemination of the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, which causes rice blast disease,
has been connected to storm events that lead to waterlogged fields (Kankanala et al., 2007).
 Heatwaves can also significantly affect fungal diseases by directly impacting the
growth and reproduction of fungal pathogens and indirectly influencing host vulnerability
(Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Extended periods of elevated temperatures can cause heat
stress in plants and animals, impairing their immune systems and making them more prone
to fungal infections (Harvell et al., 2002). Conversely, heatwaves can restrict the growth and
reproduction of some fungal pathogens, resulting in reduced disease incidence in certain
situations (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011).

1.4 The impact of human activities on the emergence of fungal diseases

Human actions, such as deforestation, agriculture, and global commerce, can also play a role
in the emergence and proliferation of fungal diseases in a changing climate (Fisher et al.,
2012). Deforestation and habitat fragmentation can modify the distribution and prevalence
of fungal pathogens by creating new environments where they can settle and flourish
(García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010). For instance, the appearance of the fungal pathogen
Cryptococcus gattii in the Pacific Northwest of North America has been associated with
human-induced changes in land use and forest ecosystems (Bartlett et al., 2008).

Farming practices, such as single-crop farming and the overuse of fungicides, can
encourage the development of more potent and resilient fungal strains, posing an increased
threat to crop production and human health (Fisher et al., 2012). Furthermore, the
worldwide trade of agricultural goods can enable the long-distance movement of fungal
pathogens and their introduction into new regions, where they might potentially trigger
disease outbreaks (Brown & Hovmøller, 2002).

Urbanization is another human activity that can contribute to the emergence and
dissemination of fungal diseases. The establishment of urban environments, characterized
by increased population density, modified microclimates, and elevated pollution levels, can
offer new niches for fungal pathogens to flourish (Casadevall, 2007). For instance, the
incidence of Cryptococcus neoformans, a fungal pathogen causing life-threatening
meningitis in humans, has been discovered to be higher in urban areas compared to rural
settings (Casadevall, 2007). This is believed to be credited to increased bird populations and
the buildup of organic matter, such as pigeon droppings, which serve as a substrate for
fungal growth (Casadevall, 2007).

In addition, climate change-driven migration and the movement of individuals can

also contribute to the dissemination of fungal diseases. As people relocate to new regions,
they may unintentionally transport fungal pathogens and introduce them to new settings,
where they can establish and provoke disease outbreaks (García-Solache & Casadevall,
2010). Additionally, migration can heighten the risk of exposure to fungal diseases,
particularly for susceptible populations, such as refugees and displaced persons, who may
be more prone to infections due to stress, malnutrition, and restricted access to healthcare
(García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010).

Alterations in climate can intensify the repercussions of human actions on fungal

diseases by providing more hospitable environments for fungal pathogens to prosper
(García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010). With rising temperatures and changing precipitation
trends, the environmental conditions arising from deforestation, agriculture, and
urbanization may become increasingly suitable for the proliferation and distribution of
fungal pathogens (Fisher et al., 2012). For instance, higher temperatures and shifting
humidity patterns can heighten the likelihood of disease outbreaks in agricultural systems
already at risk due to single-crop farming and excessive fungicide application (Chakraborty &
Newton, 2011). As a result, it is essential to take into account the combined impact of
climate change and human actions when formulating approaches to tackle the emergence
and spread of fungal diseases.

1.5 Interplay between climate change, hosts, and vectors in the dynamics of fungal
diseases

The intricate interplay between climate change, hosts, and vectors can further impact the
emergence and proliferation of fungal diseases (García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010). Climate
change can affect host vulnerability to fungal infections by modifying plant physiology, such
as nutrient absorption and defence mechanisms, as well as by triggering stress responses in
animals, which can impair their immune systems (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011; Harvell et
al., 2002).

Furthermore, climate change can affect the distribution and prevalence of vectors,
such as insects, that transmit fungal pathogens (Harvell et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2017).
Elevated temperatures and modified precipitation patterns can broaden the geographical
scope of vector populations, enabling the dissemination of fungal diseases to new regions
and host species (García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010). Climate change can modify the
distribution and prevalence of insect vectors, such as beetles, which can aid in the
transmission of fungal pathogens (Fisher et al., 2012).

Climate change has been observed to impact the geographic scope of fungal
pathogens and their prevalence, resulting in a heightened risk of disease outbreaks
(García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010; VanDerWal et al., 2013). Increasing temperatures and
shifts in precipitation patterns have created favourable conditions for the growth and
reproduction of fungal pathogens (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Moreover, extreme
weather events and climate-related disturbances can debilitate host plants, rendering them
more susceptible to infection (Harvell et al., 2002).
 The transmission of fungal diseases can also be promoted by the movement of fungal
spores through the atmosphere. Climate change has been connected to shifts in wind
patterns and a heightened frequency of extreme weather occurrences, which can intensify
the long-distance spread of spores (Brown & Hovmøller, 2002). For instance, the
dissemination of wheat rust caused by Puccinia spp. has been associated with changes in
wind patterns and the transport of air masses (Brown & Hovmøller, 2002). Similarly, the
appearance of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest has been
partly ascribed to climate change, which has resulted in a higher frequency of warm and dry
summers in the area (Bartlett et al., 2008).

In some instances, climate change can enable the emergence of new fungal diseases.
For example, the worldwide increase in temperature has been correlated with a rise in the
incidence of fungal diseases in mammalian populations (García-Solache & Casadevall, 2010).
The emergence of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, a fungal pathogen responsible for
the decline of salamander populations in Europe, has been connected to climate change and
the growth of international trade (Fisher et al., 2012; Wake & Vredenburg, 2008).
Additionally, the proliferation of Phytophthora ramorum, which causes sudden oak death in
California and Oregon, has been linked to shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns
(Rizzo et al., 2005).

Elevated CO2 concentrations can also indirectly affect fungal diseases by impacting
host plant vulnerability. Higher CO2 levels can result in alterations to plant physiology and
morphology, rendering them more susceptible to fungal infections (Chakraborty & Newton,
2011; Lake & Wade, 2009). For instance, increased CO2 has been discovered to heighten the
vulnerability of rice plants to the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (Kankanala et al., 2007).

Climate change can also worsen existing plant diseases by affecting the virulence of fungal
pathogens. For instance, the olive tree pathogen Verticillium dahliae has demonstrated
greater virulence under elevated CO2 concentrations (Jiménez-Díaz et al., 2017). Climate
change can intensify existing plant diseases in forestry as well (Sturrock et al., 2011). The
research conducted by Sturrock and colleagues in 2011 drew attention to the instance of
Dothistroma needle blight, a disease impacting pine trees and caused by the fungus
Dothistroma septosporum. This study revealed that in recent years, the severity of this
disease has been on the rise, in part due to alterations in temperature and humidity levels
that promote the development and dissemination of the fungal culprit.

The intricate interplay among climate change, fungal pathogens, hosts, and vectors
underscores the need to comprehend and tackle the diverse challenges presented by both
emerging and established fungal diseases. With the ongoing increase in global temperatures
and the alteration of climate patterns, it becomes vital to foresee and adjust to the
ramifications of these shifts on the incidence, dispersal, and potency of fungal diseases.
Taking these factors into account, the following section will delve into approaches for
handling fungal diseases with a transforming climate, seeking to lessen the effects on
ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being.

1.6 Strategies for Managing Fungal Diseases under Climate Change

In response to the escalating threat posed by fungal diseases under climate change, it is
crucial to create and implement efficient management and mitigation strategies. These
approaches should take into account the intricate interaction between climate change,
fungal pathogen ecology, and host vulnerability (Fisher et al., 2012).

One method of managing fungal diseases in the context of climate change is to

develop disease-resistant plant varieties. Breeding for resistance can aid in diminishing the
impact of fungal pathogens and decrease the dependence on chemical fungicides
(Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Genetic modification techniques, such as CRISPR, can also
be utilized to introduce resistance genes into plant genomes, offering a potentially quicker
and more precise approach to enhancing resistance (Wang et al., 2016). For example, Wang
et al. (2016) showcased the viability of using CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to impart
heritable resistance to powdery mildew in hexaploid bread wheat. Such innovations in plant
breeding and genetic engineering offer hope for producing crops that are more resilient to
fungal pathogens in changing climatic conditions.

An additional approach for handling fungal diseases amid climate change is the
adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM integrates several techniques,
including cultural, biological, and chemical control methods, to sustainably and eco-friendly
manage pests and diseases (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Practices such as crop rotation,
intercropping, and employing biocontrol agents can aid in suppressing fungal pathogens and
decreasing the reliance on chemical fungicides (Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). For instance,
a combination of crop rotation, sanitation, biological control, and prudent use of fungicides
can help decrease the occurrence and intensity of fungal diseases in agricultural systems
(Chakraborty & Newton, 2011). Additionally, the establishment of early-warning systems and
enhanced monitoring and surveillance can support the timely detection and management of
emerging fungal diseases (Fisher et al., 2012).

Tracking and surveillance systems are equally vital for addressing fungal diseases in
light of climate change. Prompt detection and swift response to disease outbreaks can assist
in controlling the spread of pathogens and minimizing their effects on ecosystems and food
security (Fisher et al., 2012). Cutting-edge technologies, like remote sensing and molecular
diagnostics, can be utilized to improve capabilities for disease monitoring and surveillance
(Chakraborty & Newton, 2011).
 Lastly, international collaboration and cooperation are indispensable for tackling the
worldwide challenge of fungal diseases under climate change. Exchanging information,
resources, and expertise can enhance the comprehension of disease dynamics, create
efficient management strategies, and strengthen capabilities for disease monitoring and
surveillance (Fisher et al., 2012). This can be enabled through global networks and
partnerships, such as the Global Crop Diversity Trust and the International Plant Protection
Convention. These are two prominent organizations that use international collaboration and
cooperation to address challenges related to plant health and food security, including fungal
diseases under climate change.

The heightened intensity and prevalence of fungal diseases under climate change
present significant obstacles to management and mitigation strategies. Addressing these
challenges demands a comprehensive approach that considers the intricate interplay
between climate change, fungal pathogen ecology, and host vulnerability. Understanding the
impact of other global change drivers, like land-use change and invasive species, can inform
the design of more effective mitigation strategies. For instance, by acknowledging the role of
habitat fragmentation and degradation in promoting the spread of fungal diseases, land
managers can execute habitat restoration and conservation measures that contribute to
maintaining the resilience of ecosystems to fungal pathogens (García et al., 2013).

Ultimately, promoting international collaboration and cooperation is essential for

tackling the worldwide challenge presented by fungal diseases in the context of climate
change. The formation of research networks, knowledge-sharing platforms, and joint
initiatives can enable the exchange of information, resources, and expertise required for
devising and executing efficient management and mitigation strategies on both regional and
global levels (Fisher et al., 2012).

By examining these various methods within the existing understanding of climate

change and fungal disease dynamics, it becomes possible to create more effective strategies
for addressing the consequences of emerging fungal diseases on ecosystems, food security,
and human health.

In conclusion, the rise of fungal diseases due to climate change is an urgent issue that
presents considerable challenges to ecosystems, food security, and human health. This
literature review has delved into the intricate relationships between climate change, fungal
pathogen ecology, host vulnerability, and the emergence of fungal diseases. It has shown
that climate change factors, such as rising temperature, changing precipitation patterns, and
extreme weather events, can enable the growth, survival, and dispersal of fungal pathogens,
ultimately resulting in increased intensity and prevalence of fungal diseases.
 This review has scrutinized the ramifications of these emerging diseases across
various sectors, including agriculture, forestry, and human health, underscoring the
necessity for efficient management and mitigation strategies. A comprehensive approach,
integrating the development of disease-resistant plant varieties, integrated pest
management, early-warning systems, habitat restoration, and international cooperation, is
vital to confront the global challenge presented by fungal diseases under climate change.

By compiling the current state of knowledge on this subject, this review lays the
groundwork for future research, policy development, and practical interventions aimed at
alleviating the impacts of emerging fungal diseases in an ever-changing world.
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