Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cement and Concrete Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconres

Fiber orientation effects on ultra-high performance concrete formed by

3D printing
Arun R. Arunothayan a, Behzad Nematollahi a, *, Ravi Ranade b, Shin Hau Bong a,
Jay G. Sanjayan a, Kamal H. Khayat c
a
Center for Smart Infrastructure and Digital Construction, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
b
Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering (CSEE), University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
c
Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite the growing interest in 3D concrete printing, its current progress is limited by reinforcing methods.
Fiber orientation Inclusion of steel fibers is a potential reinforcing solution; however, the effect of printing process on orientation
3D printing of the fibers is still unknown. This study aims to quantitatively investigate the orientation distribution of steel
Ultra-high performance concrete
fibers in 3D printed ultra-high performance concrete. The effects of extrusion nozzle size, Cartesian print speed,
Mechanical properties
and fiber volume fraction on the orientation of fibers were evaluated using digital image analysis. The conse­
Image analysis
quent effects of the fiber orientation on the mechanical properties of the 3D-printed specimens were also
determined. The results were compared with those of the conventionally mold-cast specimens. The results
revealed that the smaller nozzle size and higher fiber volume fraction significantly enhanced the fiber alignment
parallel to the printing direction. This preferential fiber alignment led to superior mechanical performance of the
printed specimens to the mold-cast specimens.

1. Introduction partially replace conventional reinforcement [8–10]. However, pre­

Extrusion-based 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) is an emerging ad­
ditive manufacturing technique that combines cutting-edge digital
and materials technologies to build structures through a layer-by-
layer deposition process [1–4]. Potential advantages such as
geometrical freedom, reduction in waste and cost, along with increase
in speed of construction have made 3DCP an attractive futuristic
alternative for the construction industry [5]. However, limited vari­
eties of printable concretes and complications in the laying up of
conventional reinforcement pose major challenges to the expansion of
this technology [6,7].
To tackle the above challenges, the authors of this study have
recently developed a 3D-printable ultra-high performance fiber-
reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) [8,9]. The ultra-high compressive
strength of the printable UHPFRC (compressive strength >150 MPa)
aids the printing of intricate volumetric profiles with slender sections,
thereby utilizing the geometric freedom offered by 3DCP technology.
Moreover, the very high modulus of rupture (MOR >30 MPa) accom­
panied by deflection-hardening behavior of the printable UHPFRC can
caution must be taken in large scale designs to account for the pro­
nounced size effect in concrete.
In the authors’ previous study [8], the printed UHPFRC specimens
showed superior flexural performance in the direction of printing
compared to the counterpart mold-cast specimens. It was hypothesized
that the enhanced performance of the printed UHPFRC was due to
alignment of short steel fibers in the printing direction, as opposed to
random orientation of fibers in the mold-cast UHPFRC. In fact, random
orientation of short fibers in the composite reduces the efficiency of fi­
bers, considering that the fibers are dispersed in three degrees of
freedom, while the flexural/tensile stresses in most cases act in a specific
direction [11]. Previous studies on mold-cast UHPFRC showed that by
aligning these individual short steel fibers parallel to the principal ten­
sile stress direction in a structural component, the load-carrying ca­
pacity and crack bridging can be improved [12,13]. In the case of mold-
cast UHPFRC, fiber orientation can be influenced and tailored by many
parameters such as rheological properties of fresh matrix [14], casting
time and formwork geometry [15], mixing procedure and placement
methods [16,17], and external electromagnetic forces [18,19].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bnematollahi@swin.edu.au (B. Nematollahi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106384
Received 11 March 2020; Received in revised form 16 November 2020; Accepted 29 January 2021
Available online 16 February 2021
0008-8846/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.R. Arunothayan et al. Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384

Table 1 admixtures and fibers) are adopted from the authors’ previous study [8].
Chemical compositions of cement and silica fume. The binder contained an ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Type GP
Oxides (wt%) OPC Silica fume (General Purpose) complying with AS 3972 [27], and a densified silica
fume complying with AS 3582 [28]. The chemical compositions of OPC
Al2O3 4.47 0.33
SiO2 20.34 98.4 and silica fume are provided in Table 1.
CaO 62.91 0.01 Three types of silica sands, categorized based on their sieve grada­
Fe2O3 4.58 0.31 tion, were used as aggregates. The fine, medium, and coarse silica sands
K2O 0.29 0.01 had median particle sizes (D50) of 176 μm, 498 μm and 840 μm
MgO 1.24
respectively. A wide range of particle size distribution was achieved by
–
Na2O 0.31 0.01
P2O5 – 0.20 combining these three sand gradations. Fig. 1 presents the particle size
TiO2 – 0.01 distribution of the binder materials and sand types used in the study.
SO3 2.58 – A polycarboxylate ether (PCE)-based high-range water-reducing
LOIa 3.27 1.00
admixture (HRWRA) was used in solution form. Nano clay (in the form
Reproduced from [8]. of a highly-purified hydrous magnesium aluminosilicate) was used as
a
LOI = Loss on ignition. the viscosity modifying agent (VMA). Both admixtures comply with AS
1478.1 [29]. Brass-coated straight steel micro fibers measuring 6 mm in
length with an aspect ratio of 30 were used. The properties of the steel
Previous studies on extruded fiber-reinforced cementitious/geo­ fibers are presented in Table 3.
polymer composites showed that fibers generally tend to align in the
extrusion direction due to high shear and compression forces of the
extrusion process [20,21]. Some recent studies on extrusion-based 3D
printable fiber-reinforced cementitious composites have observed that
Table 3
short polymeric/steel fibers tend to align parallel to the direction of
Properties of straight steel fibers.
flow, i.e. the printing direction [22–25]. For instance, Zhu et al. [22]
reported that tensile properties of the printed strain-hardening Length Diameter Density (g/ Young’s modulus Strength
(mm) (μm) cm3) (GPa) (MPa)
cementitious composites (SHCC) reinforced by polyethylene (PE) fi­
bers were superior to those of mold-cast specimens due to the align­ 6 200 7.85 200 2500
ment of the PE fibers along the printing direction. On the other hand,
Figueiredo et al. [26] reported that the PVA fibers in SHCC were mostly
oriented at an inclination to the printing direction. The ‘actual’ Table 4
orientation distribution of short fibers in 3D printed cementitious Printing details of UHPFRC.
composites can be influenced by several parameters including matrix Mixture ID Protocol Fiber Diameter of Cartesian printing
rheology, fiber type and content, nozzle geometry, and print speed. (vol%) nozzle (mm) speed (mm/s)
However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no detailed study has F0-D30- 1 0.0 30 30
yet been conducted to quantitatively investigate the parameters S30a
affecting the fiber orientation in 3D printed fiber-reinforced compos­ F1-D30- 1, 2, 3 1.0 30 30
S30a
ites and the consequent effects on the mechanical properties of the
F2-D30- 1 2.0 30 30
printed composites. The aim of this study is to fill these knowledge gaps S30ab
with the focus on 3D-printed UHPFRC. F1-D10- 2 1.0 10 30
In this paper, a systematic experimental program was developed to S30
achieve the following objectives: (1) To determine the fiber orientation F1-D15- 2 1.0 15 30
S30
distribution in 3D-printable UHPFRC; (2) To investigate the effects of
F1-D20- 2 1.0 20 30
nozzle size, print speed, and fiber volume fraction on the orientation S30
distribution; and (3) To determine the effects of fiber orientation on the F1-D40- 2 1.0 40 30
failure response of 3D-printed UHPFRC beam specimens. Digital image S30
F1-D30- 3 1.0 30 20
analysis was performed on cut sections to quantify the orientation dis­
S20
tribution of the fibers with respect to the direction of printing path. F1-D30- 3 1.0 30 40
Several specimens of the same UHPFRC mixture were cast convention­ S40
ally in molds for comparison with the printed UHPFRC. Comparisons of F1-D30- 3 1.0 30 50
mechanical properties were drawn between 3D printed specimens and S50

mold-cast specimens of the same mixtures.
2. Materials and mixture proportions
Table 2 presents the mixture proportions of the 3D-printable
UHPFRCs containing different volume fractions of fibers (0, 1% and
2%). The type and proportions of the ingredients (except for the
Note: In the mixture IDs, the letters F, D and S denote the fiber volume fraction,
diameter of nozzle and Cartesian print speed, respectively. For example, “F1-
D30-S30” denotes the UHPFRC mixture containing 1% volume fraction of steel
fibers printed via a 30 mm diameter nozzle with print speed of 30 mm/s.
a
UHPFRC specimens were mold-cast using these mixtures for comparison
study.
b
Some of the experimental results for this mixture were reported in [48].

Table 2
Mixture proportions of 3D-printable UHPFRC.
OPC Silica fume Fine sand Medium sand Coarse sand Water HRWRAa Fibersb VMA

0.7 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.16 0.01 0, 1%, 2% 0.003

Note: The ratios except for HRWRA and fibers are adopted from [8].
a
PCE-based HRWRA in solution form.
b
All values are mass ratios of the binder mass, except fiber content (volume fraction).

2
A.R. Arunothayan et al. Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384

circular nozzle. The gantry printer and the augur-type extruder are
shown in Fig. 2.
Solid slabs with a cross section of 270 mm × 270 mm were printed
(see Fig. 3). Each slab consisted of six layers, and each layer was 10 mm
thick. Each layer consisted of several filaments printed adjacent to each
other. The extrusion rate was adjusted by controlling the rotation speed
of the augur so that the width of the extruded filament was equal to the
nozzle diameter at all print speeds. The printer was programmed to
move up in 10 mm intervals in conjunction with the layer height of the
slabs. The printing path is shown in white arrows in Fig. 3. The pre­
dominant alignment of steel fibers parallel to the printing direction was
visually witnessed during the printing process. Ten sets of slab speci­
mens were printed using the three protocols given below. The first,
second and third protocols were designed to investigate the influence of
fiber volume fraction, nozzle size and print speed respectively, on fiber
orientation distribution in UHPFRC slab specimens.

- Protocol 1: UHPFRC matrix (without any fibers) and UHPFRC com­

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of dry materials; Reproduced from [8]. posite with volume fraction of 1% and 2% steel fibers were printed
using a circular nozzle of 30 mm diameter at the print speed of 30
3. Details of experiments mm/s.

3.1. Mixing

The same mixing protocol was followed for all mixtures. Dry mate­
rials (OPC, silica fume and sands) were first mixed in a 60 L-capacity
planetary mixer for 3 min. Approximately, 75% of the mix water was
then gradually added and mixed for 5 min. The HRWRA was mixed with
the remaining water and added to the mixture in a step-by-step process
as recommended by Wille et al. [30]. The mixing was continued until the
desired mixture rheology was achieved. Subsequently, for fiber-
reinforced mixtures, short steel fibers were gradually added and mixed
for additional 6 min. Fiber dispersion in the mixture was checked by
visual inspection. In the final step, nano clay was added gradually to
tailor the rheological properties of the mixture to be suitable for
printing.

3.2. Printing process

A steel frame gantry type 3D printer with an effective printable

workspace of 1.8 m (L) × 1.6 m (W) × 1.8 m (H) was used for this study.
An augur-type extruder was mounted to the actuator of the gantry sys­
tem. The tri-axial linear movement of the actuator across the printing
Fig. 3. 3D-printed UHPFRC slab specimen.
platform was controlled by a customized computer program. A steel
Note: The slab shown in this Fig. was printed using “F2-D30-S30” mixture.
plate was connected diagonally to the extruder inlet to ease the material
Reproduced from [48].
feeding process. The outlet of the extruder was attached to a detachable

Fig. 2. (a) Gantry type 3D printer (b) Extruder.

3
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 4. Nozzles with diameters of (a) 10 mm (b) 15 mm (c) 20 mm (d) 30 mm (e) 40 mm.
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of cutting diagram of printed slabs and loading
directions of specimens under (a) compression; and (b) flexure.
- Protocol 2: Circular nozzles of 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm and
40 mm diameters were used to print the UHPFRC with 1% volume
fraction of steel fibers at the print speed of 30 mm/s.
- Protocol 3: Cartesian print speeds of 20 mm/s, 30 mm/s, 40 mm/s
and 50 mm/s were employed to print the UHPFRC with 1% volume
fraction of steel fibers using a circular nozzle of 30 mm diameter.
The mixture protocols, nozzle diameter, fiber content (by vol%) and
Cartesian print speed are presented in Table 4. The nozzles used for these
experiments are shown in Fig. 4. It should be noted that flow rate via the
nozzle outlet changes with changes in nozzle size and Cartesian print
speed in Protocol 2 and 3, respectively. The selected ranges in Protocol 2
and 3 are deemed on practical limitations of the print facility and ma­
terial capabilities. For comparison, conventional mold-cast specimens
were made by casting fresh UHPFRC mixtures, prepared using Protocol
1, into 50 mm cubic molds and 40 mm × 40 mm × 160 mm prismatic
molds for evaluating the compressive and flexural properties.
3.3. Curing
The curing process recommended in [31] was adopted in this study.
After completion of the printing process, all printed slabs were covered
with plastic sheets for 48 h at room temperature (23 ± 3 ◦ C). The mold-
cast specimens were demolded after 24 h and kept at room temperature
for additional 24 h. All printed slabs and mold-cast specimens were then
immersed in water and transferred to the oven for steam curing at 90 ◦ C
4
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
Fig. 6. Image processing analysis method for fiber orientation evaluation.
for 48 h. At the end of the steam curing regime, all samples were taken
out of the oven and left at room temperature for another 72 h. The total
curing period was seven days before carrying out the mechanical testing.
The authors observed that further curing of up to 28 days does not
change the compressive strength significantly. Similar observations
were reported elsewhere [31].
3.4. Mechanical testing
At the end of seven-day curing period, 50 mm cubes for compressive
strength tests and 50 mm × 50 mm × 200 mm prisms for flexural
strength tests were sawn from the printed slabs. All sides of the sawn
specimens were then ground flat before testing. The sawn specimens
were loaded under compression and flexure. A constant load control rate
of 0.33 MPa/s was applied to measure the compressive strength. Three-
point bending test with a displacement control rate of 1 mm/min was
used to investigate the flexural behavior. The specimens were loaded in
three directions under compression (see Fig. 5a) and four directions
under flexure (see Fig. 5b) to investigate the anisotropic behavior of the
printed UHPFRC. In each loading direction, at least six specimens were
tested in compression and three specimens were tested in flexure. The
same load and displacement control rates were used for testing the mold-
cast specimens under compression and flexure, respectively.
3.5. Fiber alignment evaluation
Several assessment methods were successfully used in the literature
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 7. Compressive strength of the mold-cast and printed UHPFRC.
Note: The results for "F2-D30-S30" are adopted from [48].
to measure the fiber orientation in concrete. Direct methods such as
manual counting of the number of fibers in a cut section [32], scanning
electron microscopy analysis [20], digital image analysis [12,15],
computed tomography scanning [33], and X-ray scanning [18] were
used to acquire and process data. Indirect methods such as AC imped­
ance spectroscopy, magnetic induction, and microwave imaging were
also used in some studies to detect the conductive fibers in concrete
sections [34–36]. Although computed tomography scanning method is
highly sophisticated as it provides 3D images for fiber orientation
analysis, the image processing technique is well established, and finer
details can be identified with the acquisition of high-resolution images
and processing techniques [37]. Therefore, the image processing tech­
nique was used in this study for fiber orientation evaluation, as illus­
trated in Fig. 6.
Three 50 mm cubes were sawn from the printed slabs to evaluate the
fiber orientation in the printed UHPFRC. Additional 50 mm cube spec­
imens were mold-cast for comparison. Thin sections (with a thickness of
15 mm) were then cut across the horizontal planes (X-Y planes) of the
Fig. 8. Modulus of rupture of the mold-cast and printed UHPFRC.
Note: The results for "F2-D30-S30" are adopted from [48].
5
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
Fig. 9. MOR of printed UHPFRC specimens extruded via different nozzle sizes.
50 mm sawn and mold-cast cubes. Each section was ground with coarse
and fine grit sandpapers to obtain smooth and flat surfaces. A flatbed
photo scanner [38] was used to acquire high resolution RGB images of
the thin cut sections. The acquired RGB images were digitally converted
first into grayscale images, and then into binary images using a suitable
intensity threshold to distinguish the steel fibers from the matrix back­
ground. Objects not corresponding to fibers were detected and elimi­
nated by filling areas smaller and larger than the size threshold.
Following the identification of the fibers, the inclination angle of
each fiber with respect to the printing direction (X-axis) was measured.
Each binary image was digitally magnified to measure the inclination
angles of the fibers with adequate precision. An image processing
MATLAB algorithm was used for the inclination angle measurements. At
least 300 steel fibers were identified and measured for each case. Similar
methodology was adopted for fiber orientation evaluation in mold-cast
UHPFRC [12,13,39].
From the image analysis, the average fiber orientation number, ηθ,
can be calculated based on Eq. (1).
Nf
1 ∑
ηθ = cosθn (1)
Nf n=1
where, θn is the in-plane angle of the nth fiber measured with respect to
the desired direction and Nf is the total number of fibers identified. It can
be noted that ηθ approaches to unity when all the fibers are aligned
parallel the desired direction (θ = 0). Similarly, ηθ = 0 when the fibers
are oriented perpendicular to the desired direction (θ = 2π ).
Fig. 10. MOR of UHPFRC specimens printed at different print speeds.
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 11. Flexural stress-deflection curves of the UHPFRC specimens with 1% and 2% fiber volume fraction.
The fiber orientation across the vertical planes (X-Z and Y-Z planes)
of printed slabs was not evaluated. Since the UHPFRC is deposited layer-
by-layer, it can be assumed that there is no fiber crossing the interface
between neighboring layers. In addition, the vicinity for free rotation of
6 mm fibers in the X-Z and Y-Z planes is further limited by thickness of
each layer (i.e., 10 mm). As a result, the fiber orientation distribution in
the X-Z and Y-Z planes and its effects on mechanical properties of 3D-
printed specimens were not investigated in this study.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Compressive strength
Fig. 7 shows the compressive strength results of the mold-cast and
3D-printed UHPFRC specimens at different fiber volume fractions. The
inclusion of steel fibers increased the compressive strength of both mold-
cast and printed specimens, regardless of the testing direction.
In the printed specimens, the compressive strength depended on the
loading direction regardless of the steel fiber content in the UHPFRC. In
all cases, the compressive strength in the print direction (see 3DP-X in
Fig. 7) was the highest. This can be attributed to the compaction of the
material in the printing direction [7,40] due to the applied mechanical
pressure (augur rotation) during the extrusion process. In the other two
directions (see 3DP-Y and 3DP-Z in Fig. 7), the compressive strength was
comparable but lower (up to 13%) than that in the print direction (i.e.,
3DP-X). Similar anisotropic behavior has been reported in previous
studies for different types of printed concrete [41–43].
The compressive strength of the mold-cast specimens was slightly
lower than that of printed specimens tested in X-direction. However, the
difference was within the scatter of the results, and therefore not sig­
nificant. Both printed and mold-cast specimens containing 1% or 2%
steel fibers showed mean compressive strength in the range of 125–160
MPa (in all testing directions).
4.2. Modulus of rupture
4.2.1. Protocol 1: effects of fiber volume fraction
Fig. 8 presents the modulus of rupture (MOR) of the mold-cast and
printed UHPFRC specimens at different fiber volume fractions. Similar
to the compressive strength, the anisotropic behavior was observed in
the MOR. In the printed specimens, the MOR values observed for the
specimens loaded in the Z and Y directions (see 3DP-Z and 3DP-Y in
Fig. 8) were greater than that for the specimens loaded in X and Z′ di­
rections (see 3DP-X and 3DP-Z′ in Fig. 8). This can be attributed to the
orientation of steel fibers in the printing direction (X-direction). When
the specimens are loaded under three-point bending, the highest tensile
6
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
stresses occur at the center of the span at the bottom face. Therefore,
fibers oriented in the span direction effectively bridge flexural cracks
and resist crack propagation. For the specimens tested in X and Z′ di­
rection (see 3DP-X and 3DP-Z′ in Fig. 8), the MOR values were relatively
low as the fibers were mostly parallel to the flexural crack planes, and
therefore ineffective, in these specimens. The low MOR values can be
attributed to the localized premature failure of the specimens at the
weak interlayers that are closer to the center of the prism specimens.
Similar trends were observed in the UHPFRC specimens without steel
fibers. This is associated with the increased compaction in the direction
of printing, as discussed previously.
Among the specimens spanning in X-direction, the higher MOR
values were observed in 3DP-Z specimens than in 3DP-Y specimens. This
could be related to the enhanced compaction of bottom layers due to the
self-weight of the layers printed on top of them.
The MOR values of the printed specimens were compared to that of
the mold-cast specimens. The printed specimens spanning in X-direction
(3DP-Y and 3DP-Z) showed higher MOR values than the mold-cast
specimens. At 2% volume fraction of fiber addition, up to 39% in­
crease in MOR values was observed. This can be attributed to the pref­
erential alignment of steel fibers along the printing direction as
compared to a more uniform fiber orientation distribution in the mold-
cast specimens, as discussed in Section 4.5.
4.2.2. Protocol 2: effects of nozzle size
Fig. 9 presents the MOR of printed UHPFRC specimens extruded via
different nozzle diameters. It can be noted that the MOR of specimens
spanning in the X-direction (3DP-Z and 3DP-Y) varied inversely with the
nozzle diameter as it influences the fiber orientation. Up to 27% increase
in MOR values was observed in UHPFRC-1%-10 specimens compared to
that of UHPFRC-1%-40 specimens. The MOR values were similar for
specimens made with 30 mm and 40 mm diameter nozzles. This suggests
the existence of an upper bound of the nozzle diameter to fiber length
ratio above which the fiber orientation in the mixture becomes inde­
pendent of the nozzle size. Similar to protocol 1, among the specimens
printed with the same nozzle diameter, the MOR of 3DP-Z specimens
was the highest followed by that of 3DP-Y, 3DP-X, and 3DP-Z′
specimens.
4.2.3. Protocol 3: effects of Cartesian print speed
Fig. 10 presents the MOR of printed UHPFRC specimens extruded at
different Cartesian print speeds. It can be noted that variations in MOR
values were negligible at different print speeds. This observation pro­
poses a hypothesis that the fiber orientation in the mixture is indepen­
dent of the print speed. Among the specimens printed at the same print
speed, the directional anisotropy of MOR values were consistent with
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 12. Flexural stress-deflection responses of the UHPFRC specimens extruded via different nozzle sizes.
Protocol 1 and Protocol 2 (i.e., MOR: 3DP-Z > 3DP -Y > 3DP-X, 3DP-Z′ ).
4.3. Flexural stress-deflection response
4.3.1. Protocol 1: effects of fiber volume fraction
Fig. 11 shows the flexural stress-deflection graphs for the mold-cast
and printed specimens with 1% and 2% volume fractions of steel fi­
bers. Deflection-hardening failure behavior was observed for the printed
specimens spanning in the X-direction (3DP-Z and 3DP-Y) at 1% and 2%
volume fractions of steel fibers. This observation further supports the
7
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
existence of fiber alignment in the printing direction (X-direction). In
contrast, the specimens spanning in the Y-direction (3DP-Z′ and 3DP-X)
did not show deflection-hardening. Moreover, the post-peak residual
strengths of 3DP-Z′ and 3DP-X specimens reduced at 2% volume fraction
of fibers compared to that of 1%. It should be noted that the failure crack
was initiated prematurely at the weak interlayer, which was indicated
by the loss of fracture energy, and propagated towards the load appli­
cation point via the matrix, which was indicated by the post-peak re­
sidual strength. This reduction in the post-peak flexural strengths
indicates that the fiber alignment towards the printing direction was
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 13. Flexural stress-deflection responses of the UHPFRC specimens printed at different print speeds.
greater at 2% volumetric fiber addition.
In the mold-cast UHPFRC specimens, a slight deflection-softening
behavior was observed at 1% volume fraction of steel fibers, whereas
a deflection-hardening behavior was observed at 2% volume fraction of
steel fibers. Compared to the printed specimens spanning in the X-di­
rection, the mold-cast specimens possess a more random orientation
distribution of fibers which leads to inferior flexural response.
4.3.2. Protocol 2: effects of nozzle size
Fig. 12 shows the flexural stress-deflection curves of the UHPFRC
with 1% volume fraction of steel fibers extruded via different nozzle
diameters. A slight deflection-hardening behavior was observed in all
the specimens that spanned in the printing direction (3DP-Z and 3DP-Y).
On the other hand, all specimens spanning in the Y-direction (3DP-X
and 3DP-Z′ ) showed either brittle or deflection-softening behavior,
depending on the nozzle size. As observed in Fig. 12, brittle failure was
observed in the 3DP-X and 3DP-Z′ specimens extruded via nozzle di­
ameters less than or equal to 20 mm (no post-peak residual strength).
However, the specimens extruded via 30 mm and 40 mm diameter
nozzles showed deflection-softening behavior. These observations
reinforce the hypothesis that the reduction in nozzle size increases the
preferential fiber orientation towards the printing direction.
It should be noted that the flexural stress-deflection curves of the
specimens extruded via 30 mm and 40 mm diameter nozzles were
identical irrespective of the loading directions. Therefore, it can be
argued that the influence of the nozzle diameter on the fiber orientation
was less significant in the cases where nozzle diameter exceeds an upper
bound (30 mm in this case).
8
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
4.3.3. Protocol 3: effects of Cartesian print speed
Fig. 13 shows the flexural stress-deflection curves of the UHPFRC
printed at different print speeds. In consistent with Protocol 1 and 2,
deflection-hardening behavior was observed in all specimens that
spanned in the printing direction (3DP-Z and 3DP-Y) while deflection-
softening behavior was observed in all specimens that spanned
perpendicular to the printing direction (3DP-X and 3DP-Z′ ). For any
given testing direction, identical graphs were observed at all print
speeds employed.
4.4. Fiber orientation evaluation
4.4.1. Protocol 1: effects of fiber volume fraction
Fig. 14 shows the frequency distribution of fiber orientation angle of
the mold-cast and printed UHPFRC specimens with 1% and 2% volume
fractions of steel fibers. The histograms of the printed specimens were
left-skewed indicating the tendency of the majority fibers to align in the
direction of printing. In contrast, the mold-cast specimens showed
symmetrical distribution of the histograms, indicating a more random
fiber orientation distribution in the mixture. The symmetrical distribu­
tion of the steel fibers in mold-cast UHPFRC specimens have also been
reported in [12,39,44].
Fig. 15 shows the normalized probability density functions (PDF) of
the mold-cast and printed UHPFRC specimens. The area under the PDF
between two orientation angles provides the probability of measuring a
value between those two angles. The printed specimens showed a left-
skewed fiber orientation compared to the mold-cast counterparts.
When the fiber volume in the UHPFRC was increased from 1% to 2%, the
A.R. Arunothayan et al. Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384

Fig. 14. Frequency distribution of the UHPFRC specimens with 1% and 2% fiber volume fractions.
Note: The results for 2% fiber volume fractions ("F2-D30-S30 3DP" and "F2 Mold-cast") are adopted from [48].

probability distribution function was further skewed towards left. This

can be attributed to increased physical fiber interactions with the in­
crease in fiber content in a given volume. As higher fiber contents are
extruded out of the same nozzle (i.e., 30 mm diameter in this paper), the
probability of inter-fiber interactions increases. These interaction forces
further align the fibers to orient in the printing direction.
It should be noted that the fiber orientation is also influenced by the
length of the flow [33]. Therefore, the upper bound of the nozzle
diameter to fiber length ratio could also depend on the nozzle length.
With longer nozzles, the travel path from the shear zone (at the augur
inside the extruder) to the nozzle outlet will increase, and hence the
fiber orientation could become further distinctive.

4.4.2. Protocol 2: effects of nozzle size

Fig. 16 presents the frequency distribution of fiber orientation angles
observed in the UHPFRC specimens, containing 1% volume fraction of
steel fibers, extruded via different nozzle diameters. Fig. 17 presents the
corresponding PDF of the UHPFRC specimens extruded via different
nozzle diameters. The PDFs of all the printed specimens were left
skewed, which indicates the tendency of the majority of the fibers to
align in the direction of printing. The histogram of specimens extruded
via 10 mm and 15 mm diameter nozzles were extremely left skewed in Fig. 15. Normalized probability density functions of the UHPFRC specimens of
comparison to the rest. High frequency of orientation angles lesser than 1% and 2% fiber volume fraction.
10◦ was observed in specimens extruded via 10 mm diameter nozzle. Note: The results for 2% fiber volume fractions ("F2-D30-S30 3DP" and "F2
The convergent extrusion via the smaller nozzle sizes (≤20 mm) induce Mold-cast") are adopted from [48].
an elongational flow that deforms the visco-plastic print material and

9
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 16. Frequency distribution histograms of the UHPFRC specimens extruded via different nozzle sizes.
causes more inter-fiber interactions in the matrix, resulting in the
reorientation of the fibers in the printing direction [20,33,45]. However,
the fiber orientation distribution in UHPFRC extruded with the 30 mm
nozzle was similar to that with the 40 mm nozzle, which supports the
existence of an upper bound of nozzle diameter to fiber length ratio,
above which the fiber orientation is not influenced by the nozzle size but
purely by the mechanical pressure of the extrusion process. In addition,
30 mm and 40 mm diameter nozzles do not effectively converge the flow
(see Fig. 4) and facilitate a low sheared plug-flow type extrusion. Thus,
nozzles with diameters comparatively larger than the fiber length (30
10
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
mm nozzle diameter in this case) do not lead to any significantly
alignment in the fibers in the printing direction.
It should be noted that the extrusion flow rate increases with the
nozzle size for a given print speed. The applied mechanical pressure on
the extrusion material was higher for the larger nozzle sizes compared to
that of the smaller nozzle sizes. However, smaller flow volumes extruded
via smaller nozzle sizes aligned more fibers in the printing direction
compared to larger flow volumes extruded via larger nozzle sizes. The
effect of flow volume on the fiber orientation was insignificant between
30 mm and 40 mm nozzle sizes. These observations show that the effect
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
Fig. 17. Normalized probability distribution curves of the UHPFRC specimens
extruded via different nozzle sizes.
of contracting nozzle design on fiber orientation is more dominant than
the effect of the mechanical pressure applied at the extruder. The effects
of cartesian print speed were investigated in Protocol 3 to further
explain this observation.
Fig. 18. Normalized probability distribution curves of the UHPFRC specimens printed at different print speeds.
11
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
4.4.3. Protocol 3: effects of Cartesian print speed
Fig. 18 presents the frequency distributions of fiber orientation an­
gles observed in the UHPFRC specimens printed using a 30 mm diameter
nozzle at different Cartesian print speeds. Fig. 19 presents the corre­
sponding PDF. The effect of print speed was negligible in the orientation
of fibers except a slight left skewed PDF observed at 50 mm/s print
speed. However, improved fiber orientation was achieved at all print
speeds compared to that of the mold-cast specimens reported under
Protocol 1.
This finding supports the above observation in Protocol 2 regarding
the insignificant effect of the extrusion pressure on fiber orientation in
UHPFRC, which can be attributed to the high yield stress and viscosity of
the printable UHPFRC. The high yield stress and viscosity, obtained by
dense particle packing and the addition of VMA, are essential for
printable concretes to retain their shape while carrying the loads from
subsequent layers printed on top [46]. This unorthodox characteristic of
the printable UHPFRC could facilitate a plug flow type extrusion via a
larger nozzle diameter with constant cross section and halt the free
movement of the fibers to orient in the printing direction due to print
speed variations. Martinie and Roussel [47] observed a similar low-
sheared region at the center of the flow (i.e. far from the lateral walls)
in the mold-cast fiber-reinforced cement pastes, where the fiber orien­
tation was isotropic. Furthermore, the travel path of the material from
the shear zone (augur inside the extruder) to the print platform (nozzle
outlet) is short, which further reduces the effect of extrusion pressure on
fiber orientation. Based on the above, it can be concluded that the
convergent flow behavior in the smaller contracting nozzles (≤ 20 mm)
is the primary contributor to the fiber orientation in printable UHPFRC.
A.R. Arunothayan et al. Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384

divisions is shown in Fig. 20b.

The results showed an increase in orientation near to the nozzle walls
than to the center. The orientation difference between these two por­
tions increased in the larger nozzle diameters. This shows the existence
of a low-sheared flow at the center of the larger nozzles (i.e. far from the
nozzle walls) where the fiber orientation is predominantly influenced by
the mechanical pressure and the gravitational forces of the printing
process. As discussed previously, the contraction in the smaller nozzles
deformed the high-viscous UHPFRC and oriented the fibers in both
(A&B) divisions to the printing direction.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated the effects of nozzle size, Cartesian print

speed and fiber volume fraction on the orientation distribution of steel
fibers and their consequent effects on the mechanical properties of 3D
printed ultra-high performance concrete. The results are also compared
with those of the specimens made by conventional mold-casting. The
following specific conclusions are made:

Fig. 19. Normalized probability distribution curves of the UHPFRC specimens
printed at different print speeds.
While the application of extrusion pressure increases fiber alignment
along the printing direction in the printed specimens compared to the
mold-cast specimens (Protocol 1), the magnitude of the extrusion pres­
sure (and print speed) had less significant effect on the fiber alignment,
indicating the possibility of a threshold extrusion pressure above which
the effect on fiber orientation is reduced.
This explanation can also be extended to the identical fiber orien­
tations observed between 30 mm and 40 mm diameter nozzle extrusions
in Protocol 2. On the other hand, it can be argued that the increase in
print speed could show an improved fiber orientation in a contracting
nozzle design (≤ 20 mm) or a longer nozzle design.
4.5. Fiber orientation number
To identify the contraction effects of the nozzle on the fiber orien­
tation, the outlet section diameter of the nozzles in Protocol 2 was
separated into two divisions as shown in Fig. 20a, and the fiber orien­
tation number of these divisions were separately evaluated. The first
division (denoted A in Fig. 20a) was assumed quarter of the nozzle
diameter from either side of the wall and the second division (denoted B
in Fig. 20a), the quarter of the nozzle diameter distance either side form
the center. The evaluation of the fiber orientation number within these
(1) The 3D printing process influences the fiber orientation in the
UHPFRC composites. Printed specimens with 1% and 2% volume
fraction of micro steel fibers measuring 6 mm in length exhibited
greater alignment in the printing direction than the mold-cast
specimens.
(2) The fiber orientation distribution in the printed UHPFRC speci­
mens depends on the volume fraction of fibers in the mixture.
Higher fiber volume fraction leads to greater inter-fiber interac­
tion and, therefore, greater preferential alignment in the printing
direction.
(3) The fiber orientation distribution in the printed UHPFRC speci­
mens also depends on the size of the nozzle used for extrusion.
Smaller nozzle diameters increase preferential alignment of fibers
in the printing direction. Among the nozzle diameters investi­
gated in this study, the specimens printed with 10 mm diameter
nozzle showed the highest frequency of orientation angles (lesser
than 10◦ to the print direction). However, beyond a certain nozzle
diameter to fiber length ratio, the influence of nozzle diameter on
the fiber orientation distribution becomes insignificant.
(4) The fiber orientation distribution in the printed UHPFRC speci­
mens is identical for different Cartesian print speeds employed in
this study. Although the effects of mechanical pressure and the
gravitational forces of the 3D printing process increased the fiber
alignment in the printed specimens compared to mold-cast
specimens (as stated in conclusion 1), the increment was

Fig. 20. (a) Division of print cross sections (d is the nozzle diameter) (b) Fiber orientation number of UHPFRC specimens extruded via different nozzle sizes at
the divisions.

12
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
observed to be independent of the rate of pressure application or
print speed.
(5) In printed filaments, fibers closer to the nozzle walls aligned more
towards the printing direction than the fibers close to the center
of the nozzle. This difference in alignment was significant in
larger nozzles, which shows the existence of a low-sheared flow at
the center of larger nozzles.
(6) The preferential alignment of fibers in the printing direction
enhanced the flexural performance of the UHPFRC specimens in
that direction. At 2% fiber volume fraction, up to 39% increase
was observed in the modulus of rupture values of the printed
specimens as compared to that of the mold-cast specimens. At 1%
fiber volume fraction, the modulus of rupture values of the
UHPFRC specimens extruded via 10 mm diameter nozzle was up
to 27% higher than that of the specimens extruded via 40 mm
diameter nozzle. Identical flexural behavior was observed at
different print speeds employed in this study.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Arun R Arunothayan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investiga­
tion, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft
Behzad Nematollahi: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Su­
pervision, Writing - review & editing.
Ravi Ranade: Writing - review & editing.
Shin Hau Bong: Investigation, Formal analysis.
Jay Sanjayan: Funding acquisition, Supervision.
Kamal H Khayat: Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Authors greatly acknowledge the support provided with the
Australian Research Council Linkage Infrastructure Grant
LE170100168, Discovery Project Grant DP210101680, and Discovery
Early Career Researcher Award DE180101587. The authors thank Dura
Technology Malaysia, Active Minerals International LLC and BASF
Australia Ltd for the supply of materials. The authors are also thankful to
the staff of Digital Construction Laboratory at Swinburne University of
Technology.
References
[1] J.G. Sanjayan, A. Nazari, B. Nematollahi, 3D Concrete Printing Technology:
Construction and Building Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2019.
[2] T. Wangler, N. Roussel, F.P. Bos, T.A. Salet, R.J. Flatt, Digital concrete: a review,
Cem. Concr. Res. 123 (2019) 105780.
[3] R.A. Buswell, W.L. de Silva, S. Jones, J. Dirrenberger, 3D printing using concrete
extrusion: a roadmap for research, Cem. Concr. Res. 112 (2018) 37–49.
[4] B. Khoshnevis, Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and
information technologies, Autom. Constr. 13 (2004) 5–19.
[5] F. Bos, R. Wolfs, Z. Ahmed, T. Salet, Additive manufacturing of concrete in
construction: potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing, Virtual Phys.
Prototyping 11 (3) (2016) 209–225.
[6] B. Nematollahi, M. Xia, J. Sanjayan, Current progress of 3D concrete printing
technologies, International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in
Construction (ISARC), 2017, pp. 260–267.
[7] D. Asprone, C. Menna, F.P. Bos, T.A.M. Salet, J. Mata-Falcon, W. Kaufmann,
Rethinking reinforcement for digital fabrication with concrete, Cem. Concr. Res.
112 (2018) 111–121.
[8] R. Arunothayan, B. Nematollahi, R. Ranade, S.H. Bong, J. Sanjayan, Development
of 3D-printable ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete for digital
construction, Const. Build. Mater. 257 (2020) 119546.
[9] R. Arunothayan, B. Nematollahi, S.H. Bong, R. Ranade, J. Sanjayan, Hardened
Properties of 3D Printable Ultra-high Performance Fiber-reinforced Concrete for
13
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
Digital Construction Applications, Rheology and Processing of Construction
Materials, Springer, 2019, pp. 355–362.
[10] K.H. Khayat, W. Meng, K. Vallurupalli, L. Teng, Rheological properties of ultra-
high-performance concrete — an overview, Cem. Concr. Res. 124 (2019)
105828.
[11] D.-Y. Yoo, N. Banthia, Y.-S. Yoon, Predicting the flexural behavior of ultra-
high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 74 (2016)
71–87.
[12] A. Abrishambaf, M. Pimentel, S. Nunes, Influence of fibre orientation on the tensile
behaviour of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced cementitious composites,
Cem. Concr. Res. 97 (2017) 28–40.
[13] S.-T. Kang, B.Y. Lee, J.-K. Kim, Y.Y. Kim, The effect of fibre distribution
characteristics on the flexural strength of steel fibre-reinforced ultra high strength
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (5) (2011) 2450–2457.
[14] W. Meng, K.H. Khayat, Improving flexural performance of ultra-high-performance
concrete by rheology control of suspending mortar, Compos. B. Eng. 117 (2017)
26–34.
[15] B. Zhou, Y. Uchida, Influence of flowability, casting time and formwork geometry
on fiber orientation and mechanical properties of UHPFRC, Cem. Concr. Res. 95
(2017) 164–177.
[16] L.F.M. Duque, B. Graybeal, Fiber orientation distribution and tensile mechanical
response in UHPFRC, Mater. Struct. 50 (1) (2017) 55.
[17] D.-Y. Yoo, G. Zi, S.-T. Kang, Y.-S. Yoon, Biaxial flexural behavior of ultra-high-
performance fiber-reinforced concrete with different fiber lengths and placement
methods, Cem. Concr. Compos. 63 (2015) 51–66.
[18] M. Wijffels, R. Wolfs, A. Suiker, T. Salet, Magnetic orientation of steel fibres in self-
compacting concrete beams: effect on failure behaviour, Cem. Concr. Compos. 80
(2017) 342–355.
[19] V.P. Villar, N.F. Medina, Alignment of hooked-end fibres in matrices with similar
rheological behaviour to cementitious composites through homogeneous magnetic
fields, Constr. Build. Mater. 163 (2018) 256–266.
[20] Y. Shao, S.P. Shah, Mechanical properties of PVA fiber reinforced cement
composites fabricated by extrusion processing, ACI Mater. J. 94 (1997) 555–564.
[21] Z. Li, Y. Zhang, X. Zhou, Short fiber reinforced geopolymer composites
manufactured by extrusion, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 17 (6) (2005) 624–631.
[22] B. Zhu, J. Pan, B. Nematollahi, Z. Zhou, Y. Zhang, J. Sanjayan, Development of 3D
printable engineered cementitious composites with ultra-high tensile ductility for
digital construction, Mater. Design. 181 (2019) 108088.
[23] F. Bos, E. Bosco, T. Salet, Ductility of 3D printed concrete reinforced with short
straight steel fibers, Virtual Phys. Prototyping (2018) 1–15.
[24] B. Nematollahi, P. Vijay, J. Sanjayan, A. Nazari, M. Xia, V. Naidu Nerella,
V. Mechtcherine, Effect of polypropylene fibre addition on properties of
Geopolymers made by 3D printing for digital construction, Mater. 11 (12) (2018)
2352.
[25] H. Ogura, V. Nerella, V. Mechtcherine, Developing and testing of strain-hardening
cement-based composites (SHCC) in the context of 3D-printing, Mater. 11 (8)
(2018) 1375.
[26] S.C. Figueiredo, C.R. Rodríguez, Z.Y. Ahmed, D.H. Bos, Y. Xu, T.M. Salet,
O. Çopuroğlu, E. Schlangen, F.P. Bos, Mechanical behavior of printed strain
hardening cementitious composites, Mater. 13 (10) (2020) 2253.
[27] AS 3972. General Purpose and Blended Cements, Standards Australia (2010).
[28] AS 3582.3. Supplementary cementitious materials for use with portland and
blended cement, Standards Australia (2016).
[29] AS 1478.1, Chemical admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout-admixtures for
concrete, Standards Australia (2000).
[30] K. Wille, A.E. Naaman, G.J. Parra-Montesinos, Ultra-High Performance Concrete
with Compressive Strength Exceeding 150 MPa (22 ksi): A Simpler Way, ACI
Mater. J. 108(1) (2011).
[31] Association Francaise de Génie Civil (AFGC), Ultra High Performance Fiber-
Reinforced Concretes: Interim Recommendations, AFGC Scientific and Technical
Documents (2002).
[32] Å. L Døssland, Fibre reinforcement in load carrying concrete structures: laboratory
and field investigations compared with theory and finite element analysis,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2008 (PhD Thesis).
[33] P. Stähli, R. Custer, J.G.M. van Mier, On flow properties, fibre distribution, fibre
orientation and flexural behaviour of FRC, Mater. Struct. 41 (2008) 189–196.
[34] L. Ferrara, M. Faifer, S. Toscani, A magnetic method for non destructive monitoring
of fiber dispersion and orientation in steel fiber reinforced cementitious
composites—part 1: method calibration, Mater. Struct. 45 (2012) 575–589.
[35] N. Ozyurt, L.Y. Woo, T.O. Mason, S.P. Shah, Monitoring fiber dispersion in fiber-
reinforced cementitious materials: comparison of AC-impedance spectroscopy and
image analysis, ACI Mater. J. 104 (2007) 434–435.
[36] G. Roqueta, L. Jofre, J. Romeu, S. Blanch, Microwave time-domain reflection
imaging of steel fiber distribution on reinforced concrete, IEEE Trans. Instrum.
Meas. 60 (12) (2011) 3913–3922.
[37] G. Žirgulis, M.R. Geiker, O. Švec, T. Kanstad, Potential methods for quality control
of fibre distribution in FRC SCC. 7th RILEM International Conference on Self-
Compacting Concrete, 2013 pp. 115–122.
[38] HP Scanjet G3110 User Guide. http://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/c
01538568, (Accessed 25 Feb 2020).
[39] H. Huang, X. Gao, L. Li, H. Wang, Improvement effect of steel fiber orientation
control on mechanical performance of UHPC, Constr. Build. Mater. 188 (2018)
709–721.
[40] J.G. Sanjayan, B. Nematollahi, M. Xia, T. Marchment, Effect of surface moisture on
inter-layer strength of 3D printed concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 172 (2018)
468–475.
A.R. Arunothayan et al.
[41] T.T. Le, S.A. Austin, S. Lim, R.A. Buswell, R. Law, A.G. Gibb, T. Thorpe, Hardened
properties of high-performance printing concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (3) (2012)
558–566.
[42] B. Panda, S.C. Paul, M.J. Tan, Anisotropic mechanical performance of 3D printed
fiber reinforced sustainable construction material, Mater. Lett. 209 (2017)
146–149.
[43] S.H. Bong, B. Nematollahi, A. Nazari, M. Xia, J. Sanjayan, Method of optimisation
for ambient temperature cured sustainable geopolymers for 3D printing
construction applications, Mater. 12 (6) (2019) 902.
[44] S.-T. Kang, J.-K. Kim, Investigation on the flexural behavior of UHPCC considering
the effect of fiber orientation distribution, Constr. Build. Mater. 28 (1) (2012)
57–65.
14
Cement and Concrete Research 143 (2021) 106384
[45] A. Perrot, D. Rangeard, V.N. Nerella, V. Mechtcherine, Extrusion of cement-based
materials-an overview, RILEM Tech. Lett. 3 (2018) 91–97.
[46] N. Roussel, Rheological requirements for printable concretes, Cem. Concr. Res. 112
(2018) 76–85.
[47] L. Martinie, N. Roussel, Simple tools for fiber orientation prediction in industrial
practice, Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (10) (2011) 993–1000.
[48] A.R. Arunothayan, B. Nematollahi, J. Sanjayan, R. Ranade, S.H. Bong, K. Khayat,
Quantitative evaluation of orientation of steel fibers in 3D-printed ultra-high
performance concrete, in: Second RILEM International Conference on Concrete and
Digital Fabrication, Springer, 2020, pp. 389–397.