DOORBELL BY USING INFRARED PROXIMITY SENSOR

CENTER NAME: RIFT VALLEY TRAINING INSTITUTE

PRESENTED BY: KIPLAGAT BRIAN

INDEX: 5341010797

COURSE NAME: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING (POWER OPTION)

PRESENTED TO: KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL FOR THE

AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (POWER OPTION)

SUPERVISOR: MR. GITU

SERIES: NOVEMBER 2022

DECLARATION
I declare that this project is my own which I did with the help of my supervisor and skills
obtained from my study.

NAME:

Sign:....................................................Date:...................................................

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
This project has been presented with my approval as the Rift valley technical training institute
supervisor to the Kenya National Examination Council.

Mr. Gitu

Sign:....................................................Date :..........................................................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the almighty God for enabling me to reach this far in my academics. I thank
my supervisor for his technical advice that he has given to make this project functional. T also
thank the college for providing me with materials of study and for my research work in the
library. T greatly give thanks to my father for his financial and frequent advice towards success of
this project.

Thank you and God bless you.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this trade project to my Parents, brothers and sisters

Table of Contents

DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................19

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION...........................................................................................19

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................................20

DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................21

ABSTRACT...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER ONE.....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

INTRODUCTION..................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.1 Project description ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2 Project Objective ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3 Project Structure ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.4 Block diagram...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER TWO....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.1 Research.......................... Error! Bookmark not defined,

2.2 Hardware Specifications ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined,

2.2.1 IC1 -7555 ............... Error! Bookmark not defined,

Modes of Operation
Features:.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Astable Mode (Free Running Mode):.....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Mono-Stable Mode (One-Shot):..............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Bistable Mode (Schmitt Trigger):...........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2.2 Piezoelectric Sensor.......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Principle of operation..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Electrical properties................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Sensor designs........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Sensing materials Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2.3 Resistor,..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2.4 Capacitors ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

PROJECT CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN ANALYSISError! Bookmark not

defined.

3.1 Design ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2 Construction ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3 Flow Chart .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Loop,....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.4 Simulation ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.5 Results ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER FOUR................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

PERFORMANCE, EVALUATION AND RESULTS ....Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.1 Introduction,...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2 Load Module .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Description ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.3 Protective Resistor Calculation .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Testing .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.4 Module Red Alarm and Green Armed Led’s ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Description ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Testing .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6 System Details ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.7 Safety .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPEError! Bookmark not defined.

5.1 Discussion and Conclusion Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.2 Recommendation and Future Work................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

REFERENCES....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Abstract

Safety and security rank highly in the priorities of older people on both an individual and policy
level. Older people are commonly targeted as victims of doorstep crime, as they can be perceived as
being vulnerable. As a result, this can have a major effect on the victim’s health and wellbeing. There
have been numerous prevention strategies implemented in an attempt to combat and reduce the number
of doorstep crimes. There is, however, little information available detailing the effectiveness of these
strategies and how they impact on the fear of crime, particularly with repeat victims. There is therefore
clear merit in the creation and piloting of a technology based solution to combat doorstep crime. This
paper presents a developed solution to provide increased security for older people within their home.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The ideology of "successful" or "active ageing" has been presented as a potential panacea for the challenges
faced due to population ageing [1]. Active ageing, as defined by the World Health organization’s Policy
Framework [2], is “the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security in order to
enhance quality of life as people age.lt allows people to realize their potential for wellbeing, throughout
their lives and to participate in society according to their needs, desires and capabilities, whilst providing
them with adequate protection, security and care when they need assistance” [2]. Within the active ageing
policy framework health, participation and security are considered to be the three main pillars to sustaining
the needs of the ageing society [2]. Security concerns activities designed to ensure the protection, dignity
and care (for example: meeting and respecting the physical, social and financial needs and rights) of those
older people unable to guarantee themselves. This covers areas such as, social integrity, social justice, elder
abuse, shelter, crises and consumer practices. Consumer protection within the framework is defined as the
need to “protect consumers from unsafe medications and treatments, and unscrupulous marketing practices,
particularly in older age” [2]. It is not surprising that the framework gives specific mention to the need for
consumer protection for older people given the increase in vulnerability which has been associated with
older age. Doorstep crime has been highlighted as a priority within the Consumer Protection Partnership
(CPP) Priorities Report 2013-2014 as an area which is currently or has the potential to cause, the greatest
detriment to consumers and would most benefit from a co-ordinated CPP response. A recent review [3] has
indicated an attrition of studies addressing doorstep crime since 2006 [3]. This paper considers the nature
and prevalence of doorstep crime, in addition to prevention strategies and proposes a novel technology
based solution to aid in prevention of doorstep crime.

In this paper we present an intelligent doorbell solution, hereby referred to as Door Step, that can detect
when a caller is at the front door and push notifications to the older person in the home. The older person
can review the captured image of the caller and also has the opportunity to seek assistance from a career.
The career can then respond with are commendation to let them in or not. The Door Step system differs
from the other intelligent doorbells because it focuses on providing security to the older population and
disabled communities by enabling them to review who is at their door and request a careers assistance,
before approaching the door. It also enables the older person to keep their freedom and control of their own
home by notifying and asking them if they need assistance, therefore not bypassing them and going directly
to the career. Unlike other proposed solutions that send notifications directly to a family member.
Nevertheless, if they feel they need assistance, then the Door Step system provides this functionality and
connectivity to provide peace of mind and a feeling of safety to them. Door Step improves and advances the
current state of the art in intelligent doorbells by enabling face recognition, logging of visitors and the
ability to push educational information, such as showing the elderly person how to ensure they have placed
the door chain, locked the back door, etc. before answering the caller.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Doorbells and knocking are often useless for those that are audibly impaired. Someone with hearing
impairments needs to depend on other residents to answer the door for them or purchase expensive
equipment to send them phone notifications. Depending on the neighborhood, the ability to know theres a
visitor at the door is essential for quality of life including community involvement and package delivery.

The inspiration for this system came from one of our homes. Since the doorbell stopped functioning within
certain parts of the home, it was easy to see the impact not knowing someone is at the door can have on a
resident due to the inability to hear a doorbell. This also created a burden on others within the house due to
repeated doorbell presses and searching for person the visitor intends to speak with.

1.1 Purpose of the study

The main objective is to help people to navigate with ease using advance technology. In this technology
controlled world, where people strive to live independently, this project proposes an ultrasonic stick for deaf
people to help them gain personal independence. Since this is economical and not bulky, one can make use
of it easily.

1.4 Objectives of the study

i. To provide insight into our solution

ii. To proof of concept for a scalable and affordable system
iii. To provide data on a navigation system based use ultrasonic sensor for barrier detection and
studies.

1.5 Solution

In this section, we look at current solutions that exist and provide insight into our solution.

1.5.1 Current Solutions

Current solutions are limited in supporting these individuals. Louder doorbells are useless to those that are
completely deaf and can be bothersome for housemates that are not hearing impaired. Some solutions like
Physens Doorbell Kits are viable and affordable solutions but they are not scalable. Physen and other
manufacturers make closed systems that offer limited options. There are also doorbells such as the Rings
doorbell which can send a notification to a phone; however, this solution can be expensive. Rings security
camera doorbell costs $100. That can be well above the financial capabilities of many people. Especially
among deaf individuals, we find that unemployment is high at 47% [4] and many in this population are
senior citizens; therefore, finding an affordable solution is very important. There are also scalable options
such as the IFTTT platform, which can connect various IoT devices that are readily available on their
platform. Unfortunately, this system is closed. Companies must be registered to their system and developed
for it. The IFTTT platform also drops and adds devices to the system without warning. The devices
available to help hearing impaired individuals in the IFTTT platform can be expensive such as connecting
the Ring doorbell to Philips Hue lights which can add up to at least $200.

1.6. Contribution

Our solution is a proof of concept for a scalable and affordable system. Our doorbell is low power and
connects to a modular system. A gateway consisting of a Raspberry Pi Zero W and an XBee will be able to
connect any device a user desires by using Node-RED.
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Research
2.1.1 Burglar Alarms

Most burglar alarm systems run from a fixed 12V power supply. This is also the standard operating supply
voltage for usual subsystems such as any ultrasonic, PTR, heat, pressure or magnetic sensors etc also the
majority of the Strobe flashing lights and sirens available also run from 12V. Bearing this knowledge in
mind, my burglar alarm control panel should run from a 12V supply, and when an alarm output has to be
activated, a supply of 12V should be supplied.

A standard also exists for how input sensors operate. They normally use a normally closed (N.C.) loop for
sensors, so that an alarm condition is signaled by a switch being opened within the sensor and cutting the
circuit. This also means that should a burglar cut the wires to a sensor, then the loop will be cut and an
alarm signal is generated.

Most commercial burglar alarms have the capability to monitor the input sensors separately, so that in the
event of a burglary, it is known which sensors were and were not triggered so that the point of entry and
extent of break in can be deduced.

2.1.2 MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller (also MCU or pC) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit consisting of a
relatively simple CPU combined with support functions such as a crystal oscillator, timers, and watchdog,
serial and analog I/O etc. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included
on chip, as well as a, typically small, read/write memory.

Thus, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers and other high performance
applications, simplicity is emphasized. Some microcontrollers may operate at clock frequencies as low as
32 KHz, as this is adequate for many typical applications, enabling low power consumption (millwatts or
microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a
button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off)
may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine
control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes
2.1.3 Analog to Digital Converter
An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device which converts continuous
signals to discrete digital numbers. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC).

Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or current) to a digital
number. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can
also be considered ADCs. The digital output may use different coding schemes, such as binary, Gray code
or two's complement binary

2.2 TRANSDUCERS
This section deals with the various possible sensor designs and how they function and which could be
appropriate for particular case.

2.2.1 Infrared motion detector

2.2.1.1 Passive Infrared sensor (PIR sensor

Passive Infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from
objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction of PIR-based motion detectors
(see below). Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with one temperature, such as a human,
passes in front of an infrared source with another temperature, such as a wall.

All objects emit what is known as black body radiation. It is usually infrared radiation that is invisible to the
human eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose. The term passive in this
instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared beam but merely passively accepts incoming
infrared radiation. In passive infrared motion detectors, a sensor containing an infrared-sensitive
phototransistor is placed in the area to be protected. Circuitry within the sensor detects the infrared radiation
emitted by the intruder's body and triggers the alarm. The problem with using this type of detector is that it
can be falsely triggered by warm air movement
or other disturbances that can alter the infrared radiation levels in an area. In order to prevent this
problem, newer systems use two infrared sensors which monitor different zones within a protected
area. Logic within system triggers the alarm only when the two zones are activated in sequence, as
would occur if a person walked through the protected area.

• Pyroelectric Sensors

The pyroelectric sensor is made of a crystalline material that generates a surface electric charge when
exposed to heat in the form of infrared radiation. When the amount of radiation striking the crystal changes,
the amount of charge also changes and can then be measured with a sensitive FET device built into the
sensor. The sensor elements are sensitive to radiation over a wide range so a fdter window is added to the
TO5 package to limit detectable radiation to the 8 to 14mm range which is most sensitive to human body
radiation.

Typically, the FET source terminal pin 2 connects through a pull down resistor of about 100
K to ground and feeds into a two stage amplifier having signal conditioning circuits. The amplifier is
typically bandwidth limited to below 10Hz to reject high frequency noise and is followed by a
window comparator that responds to both the positive and negative transitions of the sensor output
signal. A well filtered power source of from 3 to 15 volts should be connected to the FET drain
terminal pin 1.
TYPICAL CONFIGURATION
FRESNEL LENS

\
THERMAL ENERGY

Figure 1.1

The PIR325 sensor has two sensing elements connected in a voltage bucking configuration. This
arrangement cancels signals caused by vibration, temperature changes and sunlight. A body passing in front
of the sensor will activate first one and
then the other element whereas other sources will affect both elements simultaneously and be cancelled.
The radiation source must pass across the sensor in a horizontal direction when sensor pins 1 and 2 are on a
horizontal plane so that the elements are sequentially exposed to the TR source. A focusing_device is
usually used in front of the sensor.

infrared source movement

Figure 2.2

Fresnel lens

A Fresnel lens (pronounced Frennel) is a Plano Convex lens that has been collapsed on itself to form a flat
lens that retains its optical characteristics but is much smaller in thickness and therefore has less absorption
losses.
 PLANO FRESNEL
CONVEX

Figure 2.3

Our FL65 Fresnel lens is made of an infrared transmitting material that has an TR transmission range of 8
to 14um which is most sensitive to human body radiation. It is designed to have its grooves facing the IR
sensing element so that a smooth surface is presented to the subject side of the lens which is usually the
outside of an enclosure that houses the sensor.

The lens element is round with a diameter of 1 inch and has a flange that is 1.5 inches square. This flange is
used for mounting the lens in a suitable frame or enclosure. Mounting can best and most easily be done
with strips of Scotch tape. Silicone rubber can also be used if it overlaps the edges to form a captive mount.
There is no known adhesive that will bond to the lens material.

The FL65 has a focal length of 0.65 inches from the lens to the sensing element. It has been determined by
experiment to have a field of view of approximately 10 degrees when used with a PIR325 Pyroelectric
sensor.
 LENS grooves facing
PIR

active
area

0.015" thickness
Optimum transmittance in the 8 to 14 urn region

Figure 2.4

This relatively inexpensive and easy to use Pyroelectric Sensor and Fresnel Lens can be used in a variety of
science projects, robots and other useful devices.

2.2.1.2 Active Infrared Motion Detector

Figure 2.5

Figure 2 shows the operation of an active infrared motion detector. In the active system each sensor consists
of two housings. One housing contains an infrared-emitting diode and an infrared-sensitive phototransistor.
The other housing contains an infrared reflector. When positioned in front of an entrance to a protected
area, the two housings establish an invisible beam. A person entering the area interrupts the beam causing
an alarm to be triggered. An active motion detector is much more reliable than a passive one, but it requires
careful alignment when it is installed. The detector can be falsely triggered if one of the housings moves
slightly and causes a discontinuous beam.

2.2.1.3 Magnetic reed switches

Though a house is well protected by installing break proof doors and windows it is necessary to monitor the
conditions of the door. This can be done by installing small magnetic switches inside the frame. This
activates the alarm when it is disturbed.

Figure 2.6
2.2.1.4 Breaking glass detector

Modern glass break detectors consist of small microphone connected to a sound processor. The microphone
is tuned to the frequency of breaking glass, and the processor looks for a characteristic sound pattern.
Additionally, the shock sensor detects the tiny shock wave that passes all through the building when a
window suffers an impact. Only when there is sound of breaking glass, and a shock wave, will the alarm
sound. Thus, they are tremendously immune to environmental noise which might cause a false alarm. Glass
break detectors must be located within a range of the glasses to protected, usually ten feet or so.
Additionally, heavy window treatments can significantly reduce the effective range. Up to now the
windows and doors are covered

2.2.1.5 Ultrasonic Motion Detectors

Ultrasonic transducers can be used to detect motion in an area where there are not supposed to be any
moving objects. This type of motion detector is most commonly used in burglar alarm systems since they
are very effective in this application.

Figure 2.7 shows the operation of an ultrasonic motion detector. There are two transducers: one emits an
ultrasonic wave and the other picks up reflections from the different objects in the area. The reflected waves
arrive at the receiver in constant phase if none of the objects in the area are moving. If something moves,
the received signal is shifted in phase. A phase comparator detects the shifted phase and sends a triggering
pulse to the alarm.
Ultrasonic motion detectors have certain advantages and disadvantages when compared with other types of
motion detectors. The main advantages are that they are very sensitive and extremely fast acting. However,
the largest problem with this type of motion detector is that it sometimes responds to normal environmental
vibration that can be caused by a passing car or a plane overhead. Some types of motion detectors use
infrared sensors to avoid this problem, but even these detectors have some problems

Figure 2.7

2.2.1.5.1 LV-MaxSonar-EZIHigh Performance Sonar Range Finder

With 2.5V - 5.5V power the LV-MaxSonar-EZl provides very short to long range detection and ranging, in
an incredibly small package. The LV-MaxSonarEZl detects objects from 0-inches to 254-inches (6.45-
meters) and provides sonar range information from 6-inches out to 254-incheswith 1-inch resolution.
Objects from 0-inches to 6-inches range as 6-inches. The interface output formats included are pulse width
output, analog voltage output, and serial digital output.

Features
• Continuously variable gain for beam control and side lobe suppression

• Object detection includes zero range objects

• 2.5V to 5.5V supply with2mA typical current draw

• Readings can occur up to every 50mS, (20-Hz rate)
• Free run operation can continually measure and output range information

• Triggered operation provides the range reading as desired

• Designed for protected indoor environments

• Sensor operates at 42 KHz

Benefits

• Very low cost sonar ranger

• Reliable and stable range data

• Sensor dead zone virtually gone

• lowest power ranger

• Quality beam characteristics

• Mounting holes provided on the circuit board

• Very low power ranger, excellent for multiple sensor or battery based systems

• Can be triggered externally or internally

• Sensor reports the range reading directly, frees up user processor

Beam Characteristics

People detection requires high sensitivity, yet a narrow beam angle requires low sensitivity. The

LV-MaxSonarO-EZIO balances the detection of people with a narrow beam width. Sample results for
measured beam patterns are shown below on a 12-inch grid. The detection

Pattern is shown for;

(A) 0.25-inch diameter dowel, note the narrow beam for close small objects,

(B) 1-inch diameter dowel; note the long narrow detection pattern,

(C) 3.25-inch diameter rod, note the long controlled detection pattern,

(D) 11-inch wide board moved left to right with the board parallel to the front sensor face and the
sensor stationary. This shows the sensor’s range capability.

Note: The displayed beam width of (D) is a function of the secular nature of sonar and the shape of the
board (i.e. flat mirror like) and should never be confused with actual sensor beam width.
2.2.2 VARIOUS APPROACH.

Tn order to design this project the main decision I need to make is what approach I will take for the main
alarm processing. In this chapter discussion of these designs dealt with and the reason why one design was
chosen.

2.2.2.1 Discrete Component Based Design

This is one of the earliest forms of design which involve discrete components to build the digital systems.

Disadvantages:

• Huge power consumption

• Large size of a complete system

• Difficult to debug the complete system

These systems includes the use of digital gates such as NAND, AND , NOR gates etc .such as
74yy series.

To build the system as stated the following components would be used

• AND, OR gates

• Delay circuits that can be implemented using flip-flop,555 timer ICS.

• Motion detector such as infrared motion detector would involve infrared

sensitive transistor that are biased to conduct by infrared emitted energy

Generally if these project where to be implemented using this way it would be quite bulky
expensive and very hard to trouble shoot it in case of failure.

2.2.2.2 COMPUTER BASED DESIGN

Computers are very powerful device that can implement the control unit with minimum components .the
only important part is the interface between the sensors, switches, alarm and buzzer to the computer .This
can be done through the lpt printer port (parallel port) which has eight pins and five input pins. To get more
pin one can add another input card or include a microcontroller to communicate with the computer serially.
By writing software to manipulate the voltage at these pins one is able to scan the conditions of the sensor
and perform the appropriate action .However to interface the circuit to computer one as to be careful as the
parallel port only accept up to a maximum of 5volts.while things like relay switches ear usually
accompanied by the transient which are be harmful to the printer port. These demands use of optiosolator to
electrically separate the computer from the external circuits

Limitations for computer based design:

• High cost of computer

• The computer has to be continuously, this means the need for dedicated computer
which is uneconomical

• Due to constant power losses there is need to include power backups which and the
cost.

2.2.23 MICROCONTROLER BASED DESIGN

Circumstances that we find ourselves in today are in the field of microcontrollers which had their
beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made it possible
to store hundreds of thousands of transistors in to one chip. That was a perquisite for production of
microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding external peripheral such as memory, input -
output lines timers and other .further increasing of the volume of the package resulted in creation of
integrated circuits .these integrated circuits contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first
chip containing a microcomputer, or what would later be known as microcontroller came about.

Microcontroller differs from microprocessor in many ways. First and fore most important is its
functionality. Tn order for a microprocessor to be used other components such as memory, or components
for receiving and sending data must be added to it .in short that means that microprocessor is very heat of
computer in other hand microcontroller is designed to be all of that in one. No other external component are
needed for its application because all necessary peripherals are already built into it ,thus we save the time
and space needed to construct devices.
Tn this project microcontroller will form the heart of the system. This would perform the function of
polling sensors interpreting input and perform the necessary action. This is so because using instead of
using intelligent sensor s that would be reporting to central unit the project will utilize dump sensors.

Most microcontrollers come with several ports than several bit wide for example in this case the Atmegal68
from Atmel Company has two 8bit ports and one 7bit port. These ports can be connected to the various
sensors whose high condition are 5.5volts and low are 1.8 volts.

Advantages of microcontroller based design

• Can be produced in small packages that users can be able to configure on their own

• Low Power Consumption thus cheap to maintain can be run by batteries

 - Active Mode: 250 pA at 1 MHz, 1.8V15 pA at 32 kHz, 1.8V (including Oscillator) -Power-
down Mode: O.lpAat 1.8V

• They stand alone equipments that require little maintenance.

• They are easy to debug in case of fault as they consist of very few copheriperial components.

• They are easy to upgrade due to compatibility of AVR microcontrollers of differed series for
example the code written for ATmega48 can be run in ATmega88 with minor modification.

• The ATmega48/88/168 has Advanced_RISC_Architecture (reduced instruction set computer).

-131 Powerful Instructions - Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

- 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

- Fully Static Operation

- Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz

- On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

Thus they are easy to learn and develop software having in mind the need to shorten
development time and reduce time to market. This is very important aspect in modern world.
High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

- 4/8/16K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

- 256/512/512 Bytes EEPROM

- 512/IK/IK Bytes Internal SR AM

- Write/Erase cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

- Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C

- Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

- Programming Lock for Software Security

Thus reduce cost of field up grades since the cost of upgrading a system code can be dramatically
reduced, with very little effort and planning, flash based system can be designed to have code
upgrades in the field for AT mega FLASH device the entire code can be rewritten with new code
new code segments and parameter tables can be easily added in program memory areas left blank
for upgrade purpose, only portion of code (such as key algorithm) require update. • Calibration
and customization of your system

Calibration need not be done only in factory .during installation of the system can be
calibrated to actual operating environment. In fact recalibration can be easily done during
periodic servicing and maintenance.

Customization need not to be done in factory only. In many situations customizing a product
at installation time is very useful, .a good example is

a home or car security systems where ID code, access code and other such information can be
burned in after the actual configuration is determined.

Add unique Id code to your system during manufacturing.

Many products require a unique ID number or a serial number. An example application would
be remote keyless entry device. Each transmitter has a unique “binary key” that makes it very
easy to program in the access code at the very end of the manufacturing process and prior to
final test. Serial number, revision code, date code, manufacture ID and a variety of other
useful information can also be added to any product for traceability
CHAPTER 3: SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 Working Process

Doorbells are simple electrical systems. Repairing one is normally easy and a good lesson in basic
electricity-as long as you can find the key components. Because buttons, buzzers, and transformers are
relatively inexpensive, replacing these faulty components usually makes more sense than trying to make
involved repairs on them.
Don’t be intimidated by the steps involving a multi-meter (or voltmeter or ohmmeter); these electrical tools
are important and inexpensive.
Door Bell Circuit Diagram:

Circuit diagram
• LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
• Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms.
• Variable resistors.
• LED (Light Emitting Diode).

A conventional doorbell has wires that connect the chimes or bell to the button and transformer, which
converts standard power to low voltage. Older systems may be 6 or 8 volts, and newer ones are 12 to 14
volts for bells and buzzers and 16 volts for chimes. To produce this power, a transformer converts standard
household 120-volt current into the lower voltage. Two small-gauge wires run from the transformer to the
bell or buzzer; a pushbutton switch interrupts one of these. When you push on the button, it completes the
circuit, delivering low- voltage electricity to the bell unit. At the bell unit, one or two spring-loaded pistons
slide through the windings of an electromagnet. The electrical surge sent from the transformer charges the
magnet, pulling the pistons against their springs; when the charge stops, the springs thrust the pistons
against the bell or chimes: “ding-dong!” Many doorbell units make two sounds: one for the front door, the
other for the back door. Terminals on the bell unit are marked “front,” “back,” and “trans” (for transformer).
One wire from the transformer goes to the “trans” terminal, and one wire from each button goes to either the
“front” or “back” terminals. The button connected to the “front” terminal produces a “ding-dong,” and the
one secured to the
“back” terminal just produces “ding.”

3.2 Hardware Implementation and Results:

Schematic Diagram:

Fig 3. Schematic diagram

The schematic diagram of the wireless doorbell is shown above, when any object is brought nearer to the IR
LED, Photo-Diode pair, the amount of IR rays from IR LED which reflects and falls on the IR photodiode
increases and therefore voltage at the resistor increases. When any object approaches the IR proximity
sensor, the voltage at photodiode increases and at some point the voltage at non-inverting input becomes
more than inverting input, which causes Op-Amp to turn on the LED.

Components Required:
In this project the components used to develop this touch less doorbells circuit are named below:

• LM 358

• IR SENSOR

• Resistor
 • LED

• Connecting wires LM 358:

The LM358 is a low power dual operational amplifier integrated circuit originally introduced by
National Semiconductor. It is used in detector circuits. The abbreviation LM358 indicates an 8-pin
integrated circuit, comprising two operational amplifiers at low power. The LM358 is designed for general
use as amplifiers, high-pass filters, low band pass filters, and analog adders.

1OU
T 1
11N- 2 7
1IN+ 3 6
GND 4 5

V
CC
2OUT
2IN-
2IN+

Fig 4. Pin diagram of LM358

The LM358 IC is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel op-amp IC. It is designed and
introduced by national semiconductor. It consists of two internally frequency compensated, high gain, Op-
amps. This IC is designed for specially to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages.
The LM358 IC is available in a chip sized package and applications of this op amp include conventional op-
amp circuits,

DC gain blocks and transducer amplifiers. LM358 IC is a good, standard operational amplifier and it is
suitable for your needs. It can handle 3-32V DC supply & source up to 20mA per channel. This op-amp is
apt, if you want to operate two separate op-amps for a single power supply. It’s available in an 8-pin DIP
package

Features of LM358 IC

The features of the LM358 IC are

• It consists of two op-amps internally and frequency compensated for unity gain

• The large voltage gain is 100 dB

• Wide bandwidth is 1MHz

• Range of wide power supplies includes single and dual power supplies.
 • Range of Single power supply is from 3 V to 32V

• Range of dual power supplies is from + or -1.5V to + or -16V

• The supply current drain is very low, i.e., 500pA

• 2mV low input offset voltage

• Common mode input voltage range comprises ground

• The power supply voltage and differential i/p voltages are similar □ Output voltage swing is large.

Pin Configuration of LM358 IC:

The pin diagram of LM358 IC comprises of 8 pins, where

OUTPUTB

INVERTING INPUT B

NON INVERTING
INHIT 8

Fig 5. Pin diagram of LM358

• Pin-1 and pin-8 are output of the comparator

• Pin-2 and pin-6 are inverting input

• Pin-3 and pin-5 are non-inverting input

• Pin-4 is GND terminal

• Pin-8 is VCC+ IR Sensor:

Infrared technology addresses a wide variety of wireless applications. The main areas are sensing and
remote controls. In the electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared portion is divided into three regions: near
infrared region, mid infrared region and far infrared region. The wavelengths of these regions and their
applications are shown below.

• Near infrared region — 700 nm to 1400 nm — IR sensors, fiber optic

• Mid infrared region — 1400 nm to 3000 nm — Heat sensing

• Far infrared region — 3000 nm to 1 mm — Thermal imaging LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through it.
Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is
obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor
device.

Fig 6. LED

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low- intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of
consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs
are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high light output.
CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 TEST AND RESULT

The reliability and functionality tests of this device was carried out to know how reliable the system is.
Though there is a delay in both the time taken to open and time taken to close to be able to work efficiently
and prevent the effect of torque on the motor and the device at large. The test was carried out for 10 days
and these results were gotten as shown in the table below:
4.1.1 TABLE OF TEST RESULTS

Table 4.1: Test results

DAYS TIME OPEN TIME CLOSE

(SECS) (SECS)

4.57
1 2.06
4.78 2.19
2
3 3.54 2.14

4 3.5
2.1
5 4.28 2.38

3.36 2.43
6
7 4.83 2.48

4.13 2.71
8
9 4 2.67

5.27 2.78
10
4.1.2 LINE CHART OF RELIABILITY/FUNCTIONALITY OF THE DESIGNED

SYSTEM

123456789 10
DAYS

— TIME OPEN (SECS) —TIME CLOSE (SECS)

Fig 4.1: Line chart of reliability/ functionality of the designed system
4.2 DICUSSION OF RESULTS

Looking at the table and the graph of reliability/functionality, it can be deduced that for each of the days it
rained, the system signalled the user first before it actually started to rain thereby giving the user ample
time to retrieve/recover valuable items and preventing them from being wetted by rain water. The time here
referres to recovery time and it is the foundation of this design. It is deduced that the protector opens when
it confirms that there is water on the board and closes when there is no more water.
4.3 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

Table 4.2: Bill of engineering measurement and evaluation (BEME)

S/N ITEMS QUANTITY UNIT TOTAL PRICE

PRICE (N) (N)

PCB
1 1 1000 1000
89s52 chip
2 1 800 800
3 C828 NPN Transistor 3 50 150

4 16 by 2 LCD
1 1000 1000
5 5 V voltage regulator 1 100 100
6 Capacitors 2 30 60

7 1C Socket 1 50 50

8 Switch 1 100 100

9 Resistors 5 20 100

10 6v relays 3 200 600

11 9v battery 2 100 200

12 Bread board 1 500 500

13 Vero board 1 300 300

14 Disc drive 1 1500 1500

15 Knockout box 1 500 500

16 Soldering iron 1 3000 3000

17 Multi meter 1 4000 4000

18 Screw 12 5 60

19 Connection wires 2 yards 100 200

20 Screw driver 1 100 100

21 Soldering lead 1 roll 200 200

21 Transport 7500

22 Programming 20,000

23 Miscellaneous estimate 10,000

24 Total 51,120
CHAPTER FIVE
5 .Conclusion

Technology advancements have made our lives much easier. New innovated products are launched
every day and affect our daily lives. One of the products that must be mentioned is a wireless doorbell. In
the earlier days, a simple doorknocker was enough to intimate the house owner about the presence of an
individual at the door. However, today house owners desire to install various alarm systems in their home.
Wireless doorbells are gaining popularity as they feature an array of varied options, and owners are relived
of the hassle of complicated wiring. Wireless doorbell functions through a transmitter that sends a coded
signal when the outside button is pressed. There is a myriad of advantages of having a wireless doorbell in
place of wired one.
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