TYPE 1: MATCHING HEADINGS

Ep1: Science and the Stradivarius:Uncovering the secret of quality

A. Violins made by long-dead Italian craftsmen from the Cremona region are beautiful works of
art, coveted by collectors as well as players. Particularly outstanding violins have reputedly
changed hands for over a million pounds. In contrast, fine modern instruments can be bought
for under £100. Do such figures really reflect such large differences in quality? After more
than a hundred years of vigorous debate, this question remains highly contentious, provoking
strongly held but divergent views among musicians, violin makers and scientists alike.
Những cây vĩ cầm được làm bởi những người thợ thủ công người Ý đã chết từ lâu ở vùng
Cremona là những tác phẩm nghệ thuật tuyệt đẹp, được các nhà sưu tập cũng như người chơi đàn
thèm muốn. Những cây vĩ cầm đặc biệt nổi bật đã được trao tay với giá hơn một triệu bảng Anh.
Ngược lại, những nhạc cụ hiện đại tốt có thể được mua với giá dưới 100 bảng Anh. Những con số
như vậy có thực sự phản ánh sự khác biệt lớn như vậy về chất lượng không? Sau hơn một trăm
năm tranh luận sôi nổi, câu hỏi này vẫn còn gây nhiều tranh cãi, gây ra những quan điểm mạnh
mẽ nhưng khác nhau giữa các nhạc sĩ, nhà sản xuất vĩ cầm cũng như các nhà khoa học.
B. Every violin, whether a Stradivarius or the cheapest factory- made copy, has a
distinctive 'voice’ of its 0. Just as any musician can immediately recognise the difference
between Domingo and Pavarotti singing the same operatic aria, so a skilled
violinist can distinguish between different qualities in the sound produced by individual
Stradivari or Guarneri violins. Individual notes on a single instrument sound different each
time they are played, which suggests that the perceived tone of a violin must be related to the
overall design of the instrument, rather than the frequencies of particular resonances on it.
But although various attempts have been made to analyse such global properties, it is
extremely difficult to distinguish between a fine Stradivarius instrument and an indifferent
modern copy on the basis of the measured response alone. The ear is a supreme detection
device, and a system has yet to be developed which can match the brain's sophisticated ability
to assess complex sounds.
Mọi cây vĩ cầm, dù là đàn Stradivarius hay bản sao rẻ nhất do nhà máy sản xuất, đều có một
'giọng' đặc biệt của số 0. Giống như bất kỳ nhạc sĩ nào cũng có thể nhận ra ngay sự khác biệt giữa
Domingo và Pavarotti khi hát cùng một bản aria opera, một nghệ sĩ vĩ cầm điêu luyện cũng có thể
phân biệt giữa các phẩm chất khác nhau trong âm thanh do từng cây đàn violon Stradivari hoặc
Guarneri tạo ra. Các nốt riêng lẻ trên một nhạc cụ sẽ phát ra âm thanh khác nhau mỗi khi chúng
được chơi, điều này cho thấy rằng âm sắc cảm nhận được của một cây vĩ cầm phải liên quan đến
thiết kế tổng thể của nhạc cụ, thay vì tần số của các cộng hưởng cụ thể trên đó. Nhưng mặc dù
nhiều nỗ lực đã được thực hiện để phân tích các thuộc tính toàn cầu như vậy, nhưng vẫn cực kỳ
khó để phân biệt giữa một nhạc cụ Stradivarius tốt và một bản sao hiện đại bình thường chỉ dựa
trên cơ sở phản ứng đo được. Tai là một thiết bị phát hiện tối cao và một hệ thống vẫn chưa được
phát triển có thể phù hợp với khả năng tinh vi của bộ não để đánh giá các âm thanh phức tạp.
C. So how do skilled violinmakers optimise the tone of an instrument during the construction
process? They begin by selecting a wood of the highest possible quality for the front and back
plates (or parts of the violin), which they test by tapping with a hammer and judging how well
it 'rings’. The next important step is to skillfully carve the plates out of the solid wood, taking
great care to get the right degree of arching and variations in thickness. Traditional makers
optimise the thickness by testing the ‘feel’ of the plates when they are flexed, and by the
sounds produced when they are tapped at different positions with the knuckles.
Vậy làm thế nào để những nghệ nhân vĩ cầm lành nghề tối ưu hóa âm thanh của nhạc cụ trong quá
trình chế tạo? Họ bắt đầu bằng cách chọn một loại gỗ có chất lượng cao nhất có thể cho các tấm
trước và sau (hoặc các bộ phận của đàn vĩ cầm), họ kiểm tra bằng cách gõ bằng búa và đánh giá
xem nó 'đổ chuông' tốt như thế nào. Bước quan trọng tiếp theo là khéo léo chạm khắc các tấm ra
khỏi gỗ cứng, hết sức cẩn thận để có độ cong phù hợp và các biến thể về độ dày. Các nhà sản xuất
truyền thống tối ưu hóa độ dày bằng cách kiểm tra 'cảm giác' của các tấm khi chúng được uốn
cong và bằng âm thanh phát ra khi chúng được gõ ở các vị trí khác nhau bằng khớp ngón tay.
D.           However, in the last 50 years or so a group of violin makers has emerged who have
tried to take a more overtly scientific approach to violin making. One common practice they
have adopted is to replace the traditional flexing and tapping of plates by controlled
measurements. During the carving process, the thinned plates are sprinkled with flakes of
glitter and suspended horizontally above a loudspeaker. The glitter forms a pattern each time
the loudspeaker excites a resonance. The aim is to interactively 'tune' these first few free plate
resonances to specified patterns.
Tuy nhiên, trong khoảng 50 năm trở lại đây, một nhóm các nhà sản xuất vĩ cầm đã nổi lên, những
người đã cố gắng thực hiện một cách tiếp cận khoa học hơn đối với việc chế tạo đàn vĩ cầm. Một
thực tế phổ biến mà họ đã áp dụng là thay thế việc uốn và gõ tấm truyền thống bằng các phép đo
có kiểm soát. Trong quá trình chạm khắc, các tấm mỏng được rắc các mảnh lấp lánh và treo
ngang phía trên loa. Lấp lánh tạo thành một mô hình mỗi khi loa tạo ra tiếng vang. Mục đích là để
'điều chỉnh' một cách tương tác một số cộng hưởng đĩa tự do đầu tiên này theo các mẫu được chỉ
định.
E. Unfortunately, there are very few examples of such measurements for really fine Italian
instruments because their owners are naturally reluctant to allow their violins to be taken
apart for the sake of science. The few tests that have been performed suggest that the first
Italian makers may have tuned the resonant modes of the individual plates - which they could
identify as they tapped them - to exact musical intervals. This would be consistent with the
prevailing Renaissance view of ’perfection1, which was measured in terms of numbers and
exact ratios. However, there is no historical data to support this case.
Thật không may, có rất ít ví dụ về các phép đo như vậy đối với các nhạc cụ thực sự tốt của Ý vì
chủ nhân của chúng đương nhiên không muốn cho phép tháo rời đàn violon của họ vì mục đích
khoa học. Một số thử nghiệm đã được thực hiện cho thấy rằng các nhà sản xuất người Ý đầu tiên
có thể đã điều chỉnh các chế độ cộng hưởng của các đĩa riêng lẻ - mà họ có thể xác định khi gõ
vào chúng - theo các quãng âm nhạc chính xác. Điều này nhất quán với quan điểm thịnh hành của
thời Phục hưng về 'sự hoàn hảo1', được đo lường bằng các con số và tỷ lệ chính xác. Tuy nhiên,
không có dữ liệu lịch sử để hỗ trợ trường hợp này.
F.           Another factor that affects sound quality is the presence of moisture. To achieve the
quality of “vibrancy” in a violin requires high-quality wood with low internal damping. By
measuring the pattern of growth-rings in the wood of a Stradivarius, we know that the Italian
violin makers sometimes used planks of wood that had only been seasoned for five years.
However, such wood is now 300 years old, and the intrinsic internal damping will almost
certainly have decreased with time. The age of the wood may therefore automatically
contribute to the improved quality of older instruments. This may also explain why the quality
of a modern instrument appears to improve in its first few years.
Một yếu tố khác ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng âm thanh là sự hiện diện của độ ẩm. Để đạt được chất
lượng “rung động” trong một cây vĩ cầm, cần có gỗ chất lượng cao với độ giảm chấn bên trong
thấp. Bằng cách đo mô hình các vòng sinh trưởng trong gỗ của đàn Stradivarius, chúng ta biết
rằng các nhà sản xuất vĩ cầm người Ý đôi khi sử dụng những tấm ván gỗ mới được ủ trong 5 năm.
Tuy nhiên, gỗ như vậy hiện đã 300 năm tuổi và khả năng giảm chấn bên trong gần như chắc chắn
sẽ giảm theo thời gian. Do đó, tuổi của gỗ có thể tự động góp phần cải thiện chất lượng của các
nhạc cụ cũ hơn. Điều này cũng có thể giải thích tại sao chất lượng của một nhạc cụ hiện đại
dường như được cải thiện trong vài năm đầu tiên.
G.           Another factor thought to account for sound quality is the nature of the varnish used to
protect the instrument. One of the most popular theories for well over a century to account for
the Stradivarius secret has been that the varnish had some sort of 'magic' composition.
However, historical research has shown that it was very similar to the varnish used today. So
 apart from the possibility that the Italian varnish was contaminated with the wings of passing
insects and debris from the workshop floor, there is no convincing evidence to support the
idea of a secret formula.
Một yếu tố khác được cho là ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng âm thanh là bản chất của lớp sơn bóng được
sử dụng để bảo vệ nhạc cụ. Một trong những lý thuyết phổ biến nhất trong hơn một thế kỷ để giải
thích cho bí mật của Stradivarius là lớp sơn bóng có một loại thành phần 'ma thuật' nào đó. Tuy nhiên,
nghiên cứu lịch sử đã chỉ ra rằng nó rất giống với loại sơn bóng được sử dụng ngày nay. Vì vậy, ngoài
khả năng lớp sơn bóng của Ý bị nhiễm cánh côn trùng bay qua và mảnh vụn từ sàn xưởng, không có
bằng chứng thuyết phục nào chứng minh cho ý tưởng về một công thức bí mật.
H.           Other researchers, meanwhile, have claimed that Stradivarius's secret was to soak
the timber in water, to leach out supposedly harmful chemicals, before it was seasoned.
Although this would be consistent with the idea that the masts and cars of recently sunken
Venetian war galleys might have been used to make violins, other scientific and historical
evidence to support this view is unconvincing.
Trong khi đó, các nhà nghiên cứu khác đã tuyên bố rằng bí mật của Stradivarius là ngâm gỗ trong
nước, để loại bỏ các hóa chất được cho là có hại, trước khi nó được tẩm gia vị. Mặc dù điều này
phù hợp với ý kiến cho rằng cột buồm và ô tô của các chiến thuyền ở Venice bị đắm gần đây có
thể đã được sử dụng để làm đàn vĩ cầm, nhưng các bằng chứng khoa học và lịch sử khác ủng hộ
quan điểm này là không thuyết phục.
I.              In conclusion, science has not provided any convincing evidence to set
Cremonese instruments apart from the finest violins made by skilled craftsmen today. Indeed,
some leading soloists do occasionally play on modern instruments. However, the foremost
soloists - and, not surprisingly, violin dealers, who have a vested interest in maintaining the
Cremonese legend of intrinsic superiority - remain utterly unconvinced.
Tóm lại, khoa học đã không cung cấp bất kỳ bằng chứng thuyết phục nào để phân biệt các nhạc
cụ Cremonese với những cây vĩ cầm tốt nhất được làm bởi các thợ thủ công lành nghề ngày nay.
Thật vậy, một số nghệ sĩ độc tấu hàng đầu thỉnh thoảng chơi các nhạc cụ hiện đại. Tuy nhiên,
những nghệ sĩ độc tấu hàng đầu - và, không có gì ngạc nhiên, những người buôn bán vĩ cầm,
những người có quyền lợi trong việc duy trì truyền thuyết về tính ưu việt nội tại của người
Cremon - vẫn hoàn toàn không bị thuyết phục.
List of Headings
i                An analysis of protective coatings vii.             A re-evaluation of documentary
evidence
ii                Applying technology to violin
production viii.           The mathematical basis of earlier
design
iii.               Location - a key factor
ix              Manual woodworking techniques
iv              A controversial range of prices
x          Preferences of top musicians
v           Techniques of mass production
xi.              The use of saturated wood
vi              The advantages of older wood
xii.             The challenge for scientists
 

9                The quality of any particular note played on the same violin varies.

10                Scientific instruments analyse complex sound more accurately than

humans.
11                The quality of handmade violins varies according to the musical ability of
the craftsman.

12                Modern violins seem to improve in their early years.

13                Modern violins are gaining in popularity amongst the top violinists

Ep 2: Insect decision-making

Insect decision-making

It has long been held that decision made collectively by large groups of people are more likely to turn
out to be accurate than decisions made by individuals. The idea goes back to the 'jury theorem’ of
Nicolas de Condorcet, an 18th-century French philosopher who was one of the first to apply
mathematics to the social sciences. Condorcet’s theory describes collective decisions, outlining how
democratic decisions tend to outperform dictatorial ones. If, for example, each member of a jury has
only partial information ,the majority decision is more likely to be correct than a decision arrived at
by a single juror. Moreover, the probability of a correct decision increases with the size of the jury.
Now it is becoming clear that group decisions are also extremely valuable for the success of social
animals, such as ants ,bees .birds and dolphins .Bees make collective decisions ,and they do it rather
well, according to Christian List of the London School of Economics ,who has studied group
decision-making in humans and animals. Researchers led by Dr List looked at colonies once the
original colony reaches a certain size. The queen goes off with about two-thirds of the worker bees to
live in a new home or nest, leaving a daughter queen in the old nest with the remaining workers.
Among the bees that depart are some that have searched for and found some new nest sites, and
reported back using a characteristic body movement known as a 'waggle dance' to indicate to the other
bees the suitable places they have located. The longer the dance, the better the site. After a while,
other bees start to visit the sites signaled by their companions to see for themselves and, on their
return, also perform more waggle dances. The process eventually leads to a consensus on the best site
and the breakaway swarm migrates. The decision is remarkably reliable ,with the bees choosing the
best site even when there are only small difference between alternative sites.
But exactly how do bees reach such a robust consensus? To find out ,Dr List and his colleagues used a
computer generated model of the decision-making process. By experimenting with it they found that,
when bees in the model were very good at finding nesting sites but did not share their information,
this dramatically slowed down the migration .leaving the swarm homelss and
vulnerable .Conversely .bees in the model blindly following the waggle dances of others without first
checking. The researchers concluded that the ability of bees to identify successfully and quickly the
best site depends on both the bees ‘interdependence in communicating the whereabouts of the bees
site, and their independence in confirming this information for themselves.
Another situation in which collective decisions are taken occurs when animals are either isolated from
crucial sources of information or dominated by other members of the group. José Halloy of the Free
University of Brussels in Belgium used robotic cockroaches to subvert the behaviour of living
cockroaches and control their decision-making process. In his experiment, the artificial bugs were
introduced to the live ones and soon became sufficiently socially integrated that they were perceived
by the real cockroaches as equals. By manipulating the robots, which were in the minority, Halloy
was able to persuade the living cockroaches to choose an inappropriate shelter-even one which they
had rejected before being infiltrated by the robots.
The way insects put into effect collective decisions can be complex and as important as the decisions
themselves .At the University of Bristol, in the UK, Nigel Franks and his colleagues studied how a
species of ant establishes a new nest. Franks and his associates reported how the insects reduce the
problems associated with making a necessarily swift choice. If the ants’ existing nest become
suddenly threatened, the insects choose certain ants to act as scouts to find a new nest.
How quickly they accomplish the transfer to a new home depends not only on how soon the best
available site is found, but also on how quickly the migration there can be achieved.
Once the suitable new nest is identified , the chosen ants begin to lead others , which have made it to
the new site or which may simply be in the vicinity, back to the original threatened nest. In this way,
those ants which are familiar with the route can help transport ,for example ,the queen and young ants
to the new site, and simultaneously show the way to those ants which have been left behind to guard
the old nest. In this way moving processes are accomplished faster and more efficiently. Thus the
dynamics of collective decision-making are closely related to the efficient implementation of those
decisions .How this might apply to choices that humans make is , as yet,unclear. But it does suggest,
even for humans ,the importance of recruiting dynamic leaders to a cause,because the most important
thing about collective decision-making ,as shown by these insect experiments, is to get others to
follow.
Questions 1-6
Reading Passage has six paragraphs,A-F
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes -16 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i                                         The effect of man-made imitations on insects
ii                                       The need to instruct additional insect guides
iii                                     Signals used by certain insects to indicate a discovery
iv                                     How urgency can affect the process of finding a new home
v                                    The use of trained insects in testing scientific theories
vi                                     The use of virtual scenarios in the study of insect behaviour
vii                                   How the number of decision-makers affects the decision

1   Paragraph A 3   Paragraph C

2   Paragraph B 4   Paragraph D
5   Paragraph E 6   Paragraph F
Questions 7-10
Look at the following findings (Questions 7-10) and the list of academics below.
Match each finding with the correct academic, A-D
Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once.

7                      Certain members can influence the rest of the group to alter a previous

decision.

8                      Individual verification of a proposed choice is important for successful

decision outcome.

9                      The more individuals taking part in a decision, the better the decision will
be.

10                      The decision-making process of certain insects produces excellent results

even when fine distinctions are required.
List of Academics
A Nicolas de Condorcet C José Halloy
B Christian List and colleagues D Nigel Franks and colleagues
Questions 11-13
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
A study of insect decision-making
A Bristol University study looked at how insects make decisions when their home has

been 11  .    The ants in the experiment relied on the use of individuals

called 12   new nest and efficiently direct the others to go there. The study concluded that
the effective implementation of the ants' decision meant that the insects could change homes quickly.

The study emphasized the necessity, for people well as insects,of having active 13   in
order to execute decisions successfully.
https://mini-ielts.com/1528/reading/insect-decision-making
ep 3: Toxic Stress: A Slow Wear And Tear
Toxic Stress: A Slow Wear And Tear
A. Our bodies are built to respond when under attack. When we sense danger, our brain goes on
alert, our heart rate goes up, and our organs flood with stress hormones like cortisol and
adrenaline. We breathe faster, taking in more oxygen, muscles tense, our senses are sharpened
and beads of sweat appear. This combination of reactions to stress is also known as the "fight-
or-flight" response because it evolved as a survival mechanism, enabling people and other
mammals to react quickly to life-threatening situations. The carefully orchestrated yet near-
instantaneous sequence of hormonal changes and physiological responses helps someone to
fight the threat off or flee to safety. Unfortunately, the body can also overreact to stressors that
are not life-threatening, such as traffic jams, work pressure, and family difficulties.
B. That's all fine when we need to jump out of the way of a speeding bus, or when someone is
following us down a dark alley. In those cases, our stress is considered "positive", because it
is temporary and helps us survive. But our bodies sometimes react in the same way to more
mundane stressors, too. When a child faces constant and unrelenting stress, from neglect, or
abuse, or living in chaos, the response stays activated, and may eventually derail normal
development. This is what is known as "toxic stress". The effects are not the same in every
child, and can be buffered by the support of a parent or caregiver, in which case the stress is
considered "tolerable". But toxic stress can have profound consequences, sometimes even
spanning generations. Figuring out how to address stressors before they change the brain and
our immune and cardiovascular systems is one of the biggest questions in the field of
childhood development today.
C. In 1998, two researchers, Vincent Felitti and Robert Anda, pioneered in publishing a study
demonstrating that people who had experienced abuse or household dysfunction as children
were more likely to have serious health problems, like cancer or liver diseases, and unhealthy
lifestyle habits, like drinking heavily or using drugs as adults. This became known as the
"ACE Study," short for "adverse childhood experiences." Scientists have since linked more
than a dozen forms of ACEs - including homelessness, discrimination, and physical, mental,
and sexual abuse - with a higher risk of poor health in adulthood.
D. Every child reacts to stress differently, and some are naturally more resilient than others.
Nevertheless, the pathways that link adversity in childhood with health problems in adulthood
lead back to toxic stress. As Jenny Anderson, senior reporter at Quartz, explains, "when a
child lives with abuse, neglect, or is witness to violence, he or she is primed for that fight or
flight all the time. The burden of that stress, which is known as 'allostatic load or overload,'
referring to the wear and tear that results from either too much stress or from inefficient
management of internal balance, eg, not turning off the response when it is no longer needed,
can damage small, developing brains and bodies. A brain that thinks it is in constant danger
has trouble organising itself, which can manifest itself later as problems of paying attention,
or sitting still, or following instructions - all of which are needed for learning".
 E. Toxic is a loaded word. Critics say the term is inherently judgmental and may appear to blame
parents for external social circumstances over which they have little control. Others say it is
often misused to describe the source of stress itself rather than the biological process by
which it could negatively affect some children. The term, writes John Devaney, centenary
chair of social work at the University of Edinburgh, "can stigmatise individuals and imply
traumatic happenings in the past".
Some paediatricians do not like the term because of how difficult it is to actually fix the
stressors their patients face, from poverty to racism. They feel it is too fatalistic to tell
families that their child is experiencing toxic stress, and there is little they can do about it. But
Nadine Burke Harris, surgeon general of California, argues that naming the problem means
we can dedicate resources to it so that paediatricians feel like they have tools to treat "toxic
stress".
F. The most effective prevention for toxic stress is to reduce the source of the stress. This can be
tricky, especially if the source of the stress is the child's own family. But parent coaching, and
connecting families with resources to help address the cause of their stress (sufficient food,
housing insecurity, or even the parent's own trauma), can help. Another one is to ensure love
and support from a parent or caregiver. Young children's stress responses are more stable,
even in difficult situations, when they are with an adult they trust.
As Megan Gunnar, a child psychologist and head of the Institute of Child at the University of
Minnesota, said: "When the parent is present and relationship is secure, basically the parent
eats the stress: the kid cries, the parent comes, and it doesn't need to kick in the big biological
guns because the parent is the protective system". That is why Havard's Center on the
Developing Child recommends offering care to caregivers, like mental health or addiction
support, because when they are healthy and well, they can better care for their children.
Question 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number (i – vii) in boxes.
List of Headings
i The controversy around the word “toxic”
ii Effects of different types of stress
iii How to protect children from toxic stress
iv An association of adverse experience with health problems and unhealthy habits
v Body’s reactions in response to the perceived harmful event
vi Signs of being under sustained stress
vii Negative impacts of toxic stress on children’s mental health

1   Paragraph A 4   Paragraph D

2   Paragraph B 5   Paragraph E

3   Paragraph C 6   Paragraph F
Question 7-9
Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text, choose FALSE if the
statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
7   Felitti and Anda were the first to show that ACEs create impacts regarding health
and habits later on in life.

8   Some children have the same level of vulnerability to stressful events.

9   Several paediatricians consider poverty and racism the primary contributors to

toxic stress.
Question 10-13
Look at the following people and the list of statements below.
Match each person with the correct statement, A-E.
Write the correct letter A-E in boxes.
List of statements
A Traumatic experiences in childhood might lead to poor self-management.
B Supportive and responsive relationships with caring parents can prevent or reverse the damaging
effects of toxic stress responses.
C Properly naming a type of stress can facilitate its treatment process.
D The real name of a particular form of stress could denounce a number of people.
E Toxic stress can cause the next generations to suffer from negative consequences on both mental
and physical health problems.

10   Megan Gunnar 12   John Devaney

11   Jenny Anderson 13   Nadine Burke Harris

https://mini-ielts.com/1525/reading/toxic-stress-a-slow-wear-and-tear
ep 4: Chinstrap Penguin Population In The Last 50 Years

A. The chinstrap penguin has a cap of black plumage, a white face, and a continuous band of
black feathers extending from one side of the head to the other, the “chinstrap.” The northern
part of the Antarctic Peninsula, several Antarctic and subantarctic islands, and the uninhabited
Balleny Islands between Antarctica and New Zealand are the habitats of the species.
B. Antarctic penguin colonies in some parts of the Antarctic have declined over the last 50 years,
mostly because of climate change, researchers say. The colonies of chinstrap penguins, also
known as ringed or bearded penguins, have dramatically dropped since they were last
surveyed almost 50 years ago, scientists discovered. The findings became surprising because,
until now, the chinstraps have been deemed of “least concern” by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN). “We really didn’t know what to expect, and then we found
this huge decline on Elephant Island,” Noah Strycker, an ornithologist and penguin researcher
at Stony Brook University, told CNN from Greenpeace’s Esperanza ship in the Antarctic. “It’s
a little bit worrying as it means that something is shifting in the ecosystem and the fall in
penguin numbers is reflecting that shift.”
C. Every colony of Elephant Island, which is a crucial penguin habitat northeast of the Antarctic
Peninsula, when surveyed, experienced a population fall, as per the independent researchers
who joined a Greenpeace expedition to the region. Elephant Island was last surveyed in 1971,
and there were 122,550 pairs of penguins across all colonies. However, the recent count
revealed just 52,786 pairs with a drop of almost 60%. On Elephant Island, the size of the
population change varied from colony to colony, and the most significant decline was
recorded at a colony known as Chinstrap Camp, which is 77%.
D. Just the days after temperatures hit an all-time high in the Antarctic with 18.3 Celsius (64.94
Fahrenheit) recorded on February 6, the latest study is published. The previous high 17.5 C
(63.5 F) was recorded in March 2015. Scientists recorded the temperature at Argentina’s
Esperanza research station, according to the meteorological agency of the country.
E. The reduced sea ice and warmer oceans due to climate change have led to less krill, the main
component of the penguins’ diet. “Climate change is probably the underlying factor, and the
effects are rippling through the food chain,” Strycker said. “Penguins, seals, and whales all
depend on krill, which depends on ice. So if climate change affects the ice, that impacts on
everything else.” Heather J. Lynch, associate professor of ecology and evolution at New
York’s Stony Brook University and one of the expedition’s research leads, said: “Such
significant declines in penguin numbers suggest that the Southern Ocean’s ecosystem has
fundamentally changed in the last 50 years and that the impacts of this are rippling up the
food web to species like chinstrap penguins.” She added that “while several factors may have
a role to play, all the evidence we have pointed to climate change as being responsible for the
changes we are seeing.”
F. However, some good news was also there, as the researchers reported an increase in gentoo
penguins population in neighbouring colonies, beyond Elephant Island. “It’s interesting, as a
tale of two penguins on the Antarctic Peninsula,” said Strycker. “Gentoo is a species from
further north and they appear to be colonizing the area and are actually increasing in
numbers.”
G. The Greenpeace ship Esperanza has been documenting the threat to the oceans worldwide and
taking the scientists for travelling abroad. For the first time, the Low Island in the South
Shetland Islands, north of the Antarctic Peninsula, has been surveyed properly. The manual
and drone techniques are used by the researchers, from Stony Brook and Northeastern
University in Boston, to survey a series of significant but relatively unknown colonies of
chinstrap penguin here. The results are, however, not yet available. Greenpeace has been
campaigning for the three Antarctic sanctuaries that it would establish to offer protection to
many of the colonies surveyed. These would be off-limits to humans.
H. Louisa Casson, Greenpeace Oceans Campaigner, said in a statement: “Penguins are an iconic
species, but this new research shows how the climate emergency is decimating their numbers
and having far-reaching impacts on wildlife in the most remote corners of Earth. This is a
critical year for our oceans. “Governments must respond to the science and agree on a strong
Global Ocean Treaty at the United Nations this spring that can create a network of ocean
sanctuaries to protect marine life and help these creatures adapt to our rapidly changing
climate.”
Question 1 - 7
The Reading Passage has 8 paragraphs labelled A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

1   the highest temperatures ever. 5   measures to protect ocean

2   the difference between current
and past records on penguin population.
3   places where people cannot go
to.
species.
6   factors contributing to the
decline in the amount of food available.
7   description of a specific specie

4   places where chinstrap penguins

live.
Question 8-10
Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text, 
choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, 
or choose NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.

8   The IUCN showed little concern about the fall in penguin numbers.

9   Climate change is a reason for the changes in the food chain of chinstrap penguins.

10   Gentoo penguins are not affected by climate change.

Question 11 - 13
Complete the note below.
Choose ONLY ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.
The Greenpeace ship has been used to:

  record the 11   to marine life over the world.

 carry the 12   overseas.

  Build 13   to protect many surveyed colonies.

https://mini-ielts.com/1523/reading/chinstrap-penguin-population-in-the-last-50-years
ep 5: E-training
A  E-learning is the unifying term to describe the fields of online learning, web-based training, and
technology-delivered instruction, which can be a great benefit to corporate e-learning. IBM, for
instance, claims that the institution of its e-training program, Basic Blue, whose purpose is to train
new managers, saved the company in the range of $200 million in 1999. Cutting the travel expenses
required to bring employees and instructors to a central classroom account for the lion’s share of the
savings. With an online course, employees can learn from any Internet-connected PC, anywhere in the
world. Ernst and Young reduced training costs by 35 percent while improving consistency and
scalability.
B In addition to generally positive economic benefits, other advantages such as convenience,
standardized delivery, self-paced learning, and a variety of available content, have made e-learning a
high priority for many corporations. E-learning is widely believed to offer flexible “any time, any
place” learning. The claim for “any place” is valid in principle and is a great development. Many
people can engage with rich learning materials that simply were not possible in a paper of broadcast
distance learning era. For teaching specific information and skills, e-training holds great promise. It
can be especially effective at helping employees prepare for IT certification programs. E-learning also
seems to effectively address topics such as sexual harassment education’, safety training and
management training – all areas where a clear set of objectives can be identified. Ultimately, training
experts recommend a “blended” approach that combines both online and in-person training as the
instruction requires. E-learning is not an end-all solution. But if it helps decrease costs and
windowless classrooms filled with snoring students, it definitely has its advantages.
C Much of the discussion about implementing e-learning has focused on the technology, but as
Driscoll and others have reminded us, e-learning is not just about the technology, but also many
human factors. As any capable manager knows, teaching employees new skills is critical to a
smoothly run business. Having said that, however, the traditional route of classroom instruction runs
the risk of being expensive, slow and, oftentimes, ineffective. Perhaps the classroom’s greatest
disadvantage is the fact that it takes employees out of their jobs. Every minute an employee is sitting
in a classroom training session is a minute they’re not out on the floor working. It now looks as if
there is a way to circumvent these traditional training drawbacks. E-training promises more effective
teaching techniques by integrating audio, video, animation, text and interactive materials with the
intent of teaching each student at his or her own pace. In addition to higher performance results, there
are other immediate benefits to students such as increased time on task, higher levels of motivation,
and reduced test anxiety for many learners.
D On the other hand, nobody said E-training technology would be cheap. E-training service providers,
on the average, charge from $10,000 to $60,000 to develop one hour of online instruction. This price
varies depending on the complexity of the training topic and the media used. HTML pages are a little
cheaper to develop while streaming-video presentations or flash animations cost more. Course content
is just the starting place for the cost. A complete e-learning solution also includes the technology
platform (the computers, applications and network connections that are used to deliver the courses).
This technology platform, known as a learning management system (LMS), can either be installed
onsite or outsourced. Add to that cost the necessary investments in network bandwidth to deliver
multimedia courses, and you’re left holding one heck of a bill. For the LMS infrastructure and a dozen
or so online courses, costs can top $500,000 in the first year. These kinds of costs mean that custom e-
training is, for the time being, an option only for large organizations. For those companies that have a
large enough staff, the e-training concept pays for itself. Aware of this fact, large companies are
investing heavily in online training. Today, over half of the 400-plus courses that Rockwell Collins
offers are delivered instantly to its clients in an e-learning format, a change that has reduced its annual
training costs by 40%. Many other success stories exist.
E E-learning isn’t expected to replace the classroom entirely. For one thing, bandwidth limitations are
still an issue in presenting multimedia over the Internet. Furthermore, e-training isn’t suited to every
mode of instruction or topic. For instance, it’s rather ineffective imparting cultural values or building
teams. If your company has a unique corporate culture is would be difficult to convey that to first-
time employees through a computer monitor. Group training sessions are more ideal for these
purposes. In addition, there is a perceived loss of research time because of the work involved in
developing and teaching online classes. Professor Wallin estimated that it required between 500 and
1,000 person-hours, that is, Wallin-hours, to keep the course at the appropriate level of currency and
usefulness. (Distance learning instructors often need technical skills, no matter how advanced the
courseware system.) That amounts to between a quarter and half of a person-year. Finally, teaching
materials require computer literacy and access to equipment. Any e-Learning system involves basic
equipment and a minimum level of computer knowledge in order to perform the tasks required by the
system. A student that does not possess these skills, or have access to these tools, cannot succeed in
an e-Learning program.
F While few people debate the obvious advantages of e-learning, systematic research is needed to
confirm that learners are actually acquiring and using the skills that are being taught online, and that
e-learning is the best way to achieve the outcomes in a corporate environment. Nowadays, a go-
between style of Blended learning, which refers to a mixing of different learning environments, is
gaining popularity. It combines traditional face-to-face classroom methods with more modern
computer-mediated activities. According to its proponents, the strategy creates a more integrated
approach for both instructors and learners. Formerly, technology-based materials played a supporting
role in face-to-face instruction. Through a blended learning approach, technology will be more
important.
Questions 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs, A-F
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-F from the list below.
Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i           overview of the benefits for application of E-training
ii          IBM’s successful choice of training
iii         Future directions and a new style of teaching
iv         learners’ achievement and advanced teaching materials
v          limitations when E-training compares with traditional class
vi         multimedia over the Internet can be a solution
vii        technology can be a huge financial burden
viii       the distance learners outperformed the traditional university learners worldwide
ix         other advantages besides economic consideration
x          Training offered to help people learn using computers 
 
1     Paragraph A 
2     Paragraph B 5     Paragraph E

3     Paragraph C 6     Paragraph F

4     Paragraph D
Questions 7-10
The reading Passage has six paragraphs A-F
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-F, in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
 

7     Projected Basic Blue in IBM achieved great success.

8     E-learning wins as a priority for many corporations as its flexibility.

9     The combination of traditional and e-training environments may prevail.

10     Example of fast electronic delivery for a company’s products to its

customers.
Questions 11-13
Choose THREE correct letters, among A-E
Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.

A     Technical facilities are hardly obtained.

B     Presenting multimedia over the Internet is restricted due to the bandwidth limit.

C     It is ineffective imparting a unique corporate value to fresh employees.

D     Employees need to block a long time leaving their position attending training.

E     More preparation time is needed to keep the course at a suitable level.

https://mini-ielts.com/1521/reading/e-training
ep 6:
THE STORY OF COFFEE
A Coffee was first discovered in Eastern Africa in an area we know today as Ethiopia. A popular
legend refers to a goat herder by the name of Kaldi, who observed his goats acting unusually friskily
after eating berries from a bush. Curious about this phenomenon, Kaldi tried eating the berries
himself. He found that these berries gave him renewed energy.
B The news of this energy laden fruit quickly moved throughout the region. Coffee berries were
transported from Ethiopia to the Arabian Peninsula, and were first cultivated in what today is the
country of Yemen. Coffee remained a secret in Arabia before spreading to Turkey and then to the
European continent by means of Venetian trade merchants.
C Coffee was first eaten as a food though later people in Arabia would make a drink out of boiling the
beans for its narcotic effects and medicinal value. Coffee for a time was known as Arabian wine to
Muslims who were banned from alcohol by Islam. It was not until after coffee had been eaten as a
food product, a wine and a medicine that it was discovered, probably by complete accident in Turkey,
that by roasting the beans a delicious drink could be made. The roasted beans were first crushed and
then boiled in water, creating a crude version of the beverage we enjoy today. The first coffee houses
were opened in Europe in the 17th Century and in 1675, the Viennese established the habit of refining
the brew by filtering out the grounds, sweetening it, and adding a dash of milk.
D If you were to explore the planet for coffee, you would find about 60 species of coffee plants
growing wild in Africa, Malaysia, and other regions. But only about ten of them are actually
cultivated. Of these ten, two species are responsible for almost all the coffee produced in the world:
Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora (usually known as Robusta). Because of ecological differences
existing among the various coffee producing countries, both types have undergone many mutations
and now exist in many sub-species.
E Although wild plants can reach 10 - 12 metres in height, the plantation one reaches a height of
around four metres. This makes the harvest and flowering easier, and cultivation more economical.
The flowers are white and sweet-scented like the Spanish jasmine. Flowers give way to a red, darkish
berry. At first sight, the fruit is like a big cherry both in size and in colour. The berry is coated with a
thin, red film (epicarp) containing a white, sugary mucilaginous flesh (mesocarp). Inside the pulp
there are the seeds in the form of two beans coupled at their flat surface. Beans are in turn coated with
a kind of resistant, golden yellow parchment, (called endocarp). When peeled, the real bean appears
with another very thin silvery film. The bean is bluish green verging on bronze, and is at the most 11
millimetres long and 8 millimetres wide.
F Coffee plants need special conditions to give a satisfactory crop. The climate needs to be hot-wet or
hot temperate, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, with frequent rains and
temperatures varying from 15 to 25 Degrees C. The soil should be deep, hard, permeable, well
irrigated, with well-drained subsoil. The best lands are the hilly ones or from just-tilled woods. The
perfect altitude is between 600 and 1200 metres, though some varieties thrive at 2000-2200 metres.
Cultivation aimed at protecting the plants at every stage of growth is needed. Sowing should be in
sheltered nurseries from which, after about six months, the seedlings should be moved to plantations
in the rainy season where they are usually alternated with other plants to shield them from wind and
excessive sunlight. Only when the plant is five years old can it be counted upon to give a regular
yield. This is between 400 grams and two kilos of arabica beans for each plant, and 600 grams and
two kilos for robusta beans.
G Harvesting time depends on the geographic situation and it can vary greatly therefore according to
the various producing countries. First, the ripe beans are picked from the branches. Pickers can
selectively pick approximately 250 to 300 pounds of coffee cherry a day. At the end of the day, the
pickers bring their heavy burlap bags to pulping mills where the cherry coffee can be pulped (or wet
milled). The pulped beans then rest, covered in pure rainwater to ferment overnight. The next day the
wet beans are hand-distributed upon the drying floor to be sun dried. This drying process takes from
one to two weeks depending on the amount of sunny days available. To make sure they dry evenly,
the beans need to be raked many times during this drying time. Two weeks later the sun dried beans,
now called parchment, are scooped up, bagged and taken to be milled. Huge milling machines then
remove the parchment and silver skin, which renders a green bean suitable for roasting. The green
beans are roasted according to the customers’ specifications and, after cooling, the beans are then
packaged and mailed to customers.
Questions 1-6
The reading passage on The Story of Coffee has 7 paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B – G.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.
I. Growing Coffee
ii.    Problems with Manufacture vii. Modern Coffee
iii.    Processing the Bean viii.    The Spread of Coffee
iv.    First Contact ix.    Consuming Coffee
v. Arabian Coffee x. Climates for Coffee
vi.  Coffee Varieties xi. The Coffee Plant
Example               Answer
Paragraph   A            iv

1     Paragraph  B 4     Paragraph  E

2     Paragraph  C 5     Paragraph  F

3     Paragraph  D 6     Paragraph  G
Questions 7-9
Complete the labels on the diagram of a coffee bean below.
Choose your answers from the text and write them in boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet.

7 

8 

9 
Questions 10-13
Using the information in the passage, complete the flowchart below.
Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.

Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
 Coffee Production Process

10  12 

11  13 
https://mini-ielts.com/1520/reading/the-story-of-coffee
ep7: Education Philosophy
A Although we lack accurate statistics about child mortality in the pre-industrial period, we do have
evidence that in the 1660s, the mortality rate for children who died within 14 days of birth was as
much as 30 per cent. Nearly all families suffered some premature death. Since all parents expected to
bury some of their children, they found it difficult to invest in their newborn children. Moreover, to
protect themselves from the emotional consequences of children’s death, parents avoided making any
emotional commitment to an infant. It is no wonder that we find mothers leave their babies in gutters
or refer to the death in the same paragraph with reference to pickles.
B The 18th century witnessed the transformation from an agrarian economy to an industrial one, one
of the vital social changes taking place in the Western world. An increasing number of people moved
from their villages and small towns to big cities where life was quite different. Social supports which
had previously existed in smaller communities were replaced by ruthless problems such as poverty,
crime, substandard housing and disease. Due to the need for additional income to support the family,
young children from the poorest families were forced into early employment and thus their childhood
became painfully short. Children as young as 7 might be required to work full-time, subjected to
unpleasant and unhealthy circumstances, from factories to prostitution. Although such a role has
disappeared in most wealthy countries, the practice of childhood employment still remains a staple in
underdeveloped countries and rarely disappeared entirely.
C The lives of children underwent a drastic change during the 1800s in the United States. Previously,
children from both rural and urban families were expected to participate in everyday labour due to the
bulk of manual hard working. Nevertheless, thanks to the technological advances of the mid-1800s,
coupled with the rise of the middle class and redefinition of roles of family members, work and home
became less synonymous over time. People began to purchase toys and books for their children. When
the country depended more upon machines, children in rural and urban areas, were less likely to be
required to work at home. Beginning from the Industrial Revolution and rising slowly over the course
of the 19th century, this trend increased exponentially after civil war. John Locke, one of the most
influential writers of his period, created the first clear and comprehensive statement of the
‘environmental position’ that family education determines a child’s life, and via this, he became the
father of modem learning theory. During the colonial period, his teachings about child care gained a
lot of recognition in America.
D According to Jean Jacques Rousseau, who lived in an era of the American and French Revolution,
people were ‘noble savages’ in the original state of nature, meaning they are innocent, free and
uncorrupted. In 1762, Rousseau wrote a famous novel Emile to convey his educational philosophy
through a story of a boy’s education from infancy to adult-hood. This work was based on his
extensive observation of children and adolescents, their individuality, his developmental theory and
on the memories of his own childhood. He contrasts children with adults and describes their age-
specific characteristics in terms of historical perspective and developmental psychology. Johan
Heinrich Pestalozzi, living during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, sought to develop
schools to nurture children’s all-round development. He agreed with Rousseau that humans are
naturally good but were spoiled by a corrupt society. His approach to teaching consists of the general
and special methods, and his theory was based upon establishing an emotionally healthy homelike
learning environment, which had to be in place before more specific instructions occurred.
E One of the best-documented cases of Pestalozzi’s theory concerned a so-called feral child named
Victor, who was captured in a small town in the south of France in 1800. Prepubescent, mute, naked,
and perhaps 11 or 12 years old, Victor had been seen foraging for food in the gardens of the locals in
the area and sometimes accepted people’s direct offers of food before his final capture. Eventually, he
was brought to Paris and expected to answer some profound questions about the nature of human, but
that goal was quashed very soon. A young physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard was optimistic about
the future of Victor and initiated a five-year education plan to civilise him and teach him to speak.
With a subsidy from the government, Itard recruited a local woman Madame Guerin to assist him to
provide a semblance of a home for Victor, and he spent an enormous amount of time and effort
working with Victor. Itard’s goal to teach Victor the basics of speech could never be fully achieved,
but Victor had learnt some elementary forms of communication.
F Although other educators were beginning to recognise the simple truth embedded in Rousseau’s
philosophy, it is not enough to identify the stages of children’s development alone. There must be
certain education which had to be geared towards those stages. One of the early examples was the
invention of kindergarten, which was a word and a movement created by a German-born educator,
Friedrich Froebel in 1840. Froebel placed a high value on the importance of play in children’s
learning. His invention would spread around the world eventually in a verity of forms. Froebel’s ideas
were inspired through his cooperation with Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Froebel didn’t introduce the
notion of kindergarten until 58 years old, and he had been a teacher for four decades. The notion was
a haven and a preparation for children who were about to enter the regimented educational system.
The use of guided or structured play was a cornerstone of his kindergarten education because he
believed that play was the most significant aspect of development at this time of life. Play served as a
mechanism for a child to grow emotionally and to achieve a sense of self-worth. Meanwhile, teachers
served to organise materials and a structured environment in which each child, as an individual, could
achieve these goals. When Froebel died in 1852, dozens of kindergartens had been created in
Germany. Kindergartens began to increase in Europe, and the movement eventually reached and
flourished in the United States in the 20th century.
Questions 1-4
Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-E from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i           The inheritance and development of educational concepts of different thinkers
ii          Why children had to work to alleviate the burden on family
iii         Why children are not highly valued
iv         The explanation for children dying in hospital at their early age
v          The first appearance of modem educational philosophy
vi         The application of a creative learning method on a wild kid
vii        The emergence and spread of the notion of kindergarten 

1      Paragraph A  3     Paragraph D

2      Paragraph C 4     Paragraph E
Questions 5-8
Look at the following events (Questions 5-8) and the list of dates below.
Match each event with the correct date, A, B or C.
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of Dates
A          the 18th century (1700-1799)
B          the 19th century (1800-1899)
C          the 20th century (1900-1999)

5     the need for children to work 7     the emergence of a

kindergarten
6     the rise of the middle class
8     the spread of kindergartens
around the U.S.
Questions 9-13
Look at the following opinions or deeds (Questions 9-13) and the list of people below.
Match each opinion or deed with the correct person, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of People
A          Jean Jacques Rousseau C          Jean Marc Gaspard Itard
B          Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi D          Friedrich Froebel

9       was not successful to prove the theory

10     observed a child’s record

11     requested a study setting with emotional comfort firstly

12     proposed that corruption was not a characteristic in people’s nature

13     was responsible for an increase in the number of a type of school

https://mini-ielts.com/1495/reading/education-philosophy
Ep 8: Conflicting climatic phenomena co-existing on the Mars

A On Mars, signs of wetness keep pouring in: deeply carved river valleys, vast deltas and widespread
remnants of evaporating seas have convinced many experts that liquid water may have covered large
parts of the Red Planet for a billion years or more. But most efforts to explain how Martian climate
ever permitted such clement conditions come up dry. Bitterly cold and parched today, Mars needed a
potent greenhouse atmosphere to sustain its watery past. A thick layer of heat-trapping carbon dioxide
from volcanoes probably shrouded the young planet, but climate models indicate time and again that
C02 alone could not have kept the surface above freezing.
B Now, inspired by the surprising discovery that sulfur minerals are pervasive in the Martian soil,
scientists are beginning to suspect that C02 had a warm-up partner: sulfur dioxide (S02). Like C02,
S02 is a common gas emitted when volcanoes erupt, a frequent occurrence on Mars when it was still
young. A hundredth or even a thousandth of a percent S02 in Mars's early atmosphere could have
provided the extra boost of greenhouse warming that the Red Planet needed to stay wet, explains
geochemist Daniel p. Schrag of Harvard University.
C That may not sound like much, but for many gases, even minuscule concentrations are hard to
maintain. On our home planet, S02 provides no significant long-term warmth because it combines
almost instantly with oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfate, a type of salt. Early Mars would have
been virtually free of atmospheric oxygen, though, so S02 would have stuck around much longer.
D "When you take away oxygen, it's a profound change, and the atmosphere works really differently,"
Schrag remarks. According to Schrag and his colleagues, that difference also implies that S02 would
have played a starring role in the Martian water cycle—thus resolving another climate conundrum,
namely, a lack of certain rocks.
E Schrag's team contends that on early Mars, much of the S02 would have combined with airborne
water droplets and fallen as sulfurous acid rain, rather than transforming into a salt as on Earth. The
resulting acidity would have inhibited the formation of thick layers of limestone and other carbonate
rocks. Researchers assumed Mars would be chock-full of carbonate rocks because their formation is
such a fundamental consequence of the humid, C02-rich atmosphere. Over millions of years, this
rock-forming process has sequestered enough of the carbon dioxide spewed from earthly volcanoes to
limit the buildup of the gas in the atmosphere. stifling this C02-sequestration step on early Mars
would have forced more of the gas to accumulate in the atmosphere—another way S02 could have
boosted greenhouse warming, Schrag suggests.
F Some scientists doubt that S02 was really up to these climatic tasks . Even in an oxygen-free
atmosphere, S02 is still extremely fragile; the sun's ultraviolet radiation splits apart S02 molecules
quite readily, points out James F. Kasting, an atmospheric chemist at Pennsylvania state University. In
Easting's computer models of Earth's early climate, which is often compared with that of early Mars,
this photochemical destruction capped S02 concentrations at one thousandth as much as Schrag and
his colleagues describe. "There may be ways to make this idea work," Kasting says. "But it would
take some detailed modeling to convince skeptics, including me, that it is actually feasible."
G Schrag admits that the details are uncertain, but he cites estimates by other researchers who suggest
that early Martian volcanoes could have spewed enough S02 to keep pace with the S02 destroyed
photochemically. Previous findings also indicate that a thick C02 atmosphere would have effectively
scattered the most destructive wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation—yet another example of an
apparently mutually beneficial partnership between C02 and S02 on early Mars.
H Kasting maintains that an S02 climate feedback could not have made early Mars as warm as Earth,
but he does allow for the possibility that S02 concentrations may have remained high enough to keep
the planet partly defrosted, with perhaps enough rainfall to form river valleys. Over that point, Schrag
does not quibble. "Our hypothesis doesn't depend at all on whether there was a big ocean, a few lakes
or just a few little puddles," he says. " Warm doesn't mean warm like the Amazon. It could mean
warm like Iceland— just warm enough to create those river valleys . " with S02, it only takes a little.
If sulfur dioxide warmed early Mars, as a new hypothesis suggests, minerals called sulfites would
have formed in standing water at the surface. No sulfites have yet turned up, possibly because no one
was looking for them. The next-generation rover, the Mars Science Laboratory, is well equipped for
the search. Scheduled to launch in 2009, the rover (shown here in an artist's conception) will be the
first to carry an x-ray diffractometer, which can scan and identify the crystal structure of any mineral
it encounters.
Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-H, in boxes 1-6 on
your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

1   A problem indirectly solved by 3   A potential contributor to the

SO2 warmth of the Mars interacting with CO2

2   A device with an astounding 4   The destructive effect brought

ability for detection by the sunlight proposed by the opponents
5   A specific condition on early 6   Conflicting climatic phenomena
Mars to guarantee the SO2 to maintain in the co-existing on the Mars
atmosphere for a long time
Questions 7-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 7-9 on
your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false

NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage

7   Schrag has provided concrete proofs to fight against the skeptics for his view.

8   More and more evidences show up to be in favor of the leading role SO2 has for
the warming up the Mars.

9   The sulfites have not been detected probably because of no concern for them.
Questions 10-13
Summary
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No More than
Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your
answer sheet.

An opinion held by Schrag’s team indicates that 10   formed from the integration of SO2

with 11   would have stopped the built up of thick layers of limestone as well as certain
carbonate rocks. Wetness and abundance in CO2 could directly result in the good production rocky

layer of 12  . As time went by, sufficient CO2 was emitted from the volcanoes and
restricted the formation of the gas in the afr. To stop this process made SO2 possible to

accelerate 13 
 https://mini-ielts.com/1484/reading/conflicting-climatic-phenomena-co-existing-on-the-mars
ep 9:
Reclaiming the future of aral sea
A The Aral Sea gets almost all its water from the Amu and Syr rivers. Over millennium the Amu’s
course has drifted away from the sea, causing it to shrink. But the lake always rebounded as the Amu
shifted back again. Today heavy irrigation for crops such as cotton and rice siphons off much of the
two rivers, severely cutting flow into their deltas and thus into the sea. Evaporation vastly outpaces
any rainfall, snowmelt or groundwater supply, reducing water volume and raising salinity. The Soviet
Union hid the sea’s demise for decades until 1985, when leader Mikhail Gorbachev revealed the great
environmental and human tragedy. By the late 1980s the sea’s level had dropped so much that the
water had separated into two distinct bodies: the Small Aral (north) and the Large Aral (south). By
2007 the south had split into a deep western basin, a shallow eastern basin and a small, isolated gulf.
The Large Aral’s volume had dropped from 708 to only 75 cubic kilometers (km3), and salinity had
risen from 14 to more than 100 grams per liter (g/1). The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union
divided the lake between newly formed Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, ending a grand Soviet plan to
channel in water from distant Siberian rivers and establishing competition for the dwindling resource.
B Desiccation of the Aral Sea has wrought severe consequences. Greatly reduced river flows ended
the spring floods that sustained wetlands with freshwater and enriched sediment. Fish species in the
lakes dropped from 32 to 6 because of rising salinity and loss of spawning and feeding grounds (most
survived in the river deltas). Commercial fisheries, which caught 40,000 metric tons of fish in 1960,
were gone by the mid-1980s; more than 60,000 related jobs were lost. The most common
remaining lake occupant was the Black Sea flounder, a saltwater fish introduced in the 1970s, but by
2003 it had disappeared from the southern lakes because salinity was more than 70 g/1, double that of
a typical ocean. Shipping on the Aral also ceased because the water receded many kilometers from the
major ports of Aralsk to the north and Moynak in the south; keeping increasingly long channels open
to the cities became too costly. Groundwater levels dropped with falling lake levels, intensifying
desertification.
C The receding sea has exposed and dried 54,000 square kilometers of seabed, which is choked with
salt and in some places laced with pesticides and other agricultural chemicals deposited by runoff
from area farming. Strong windstorms blow salt, dust and contaminants as far as 500 km. Winds from
the north and northeast drive the most severe storms, seriously impacting the Amu delta to the south
—the most densely settled and most economically and ecologically important area in the region.
Afrbome sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride and sodium sulfate kill or retard the growth of natural
vegetation and crops—a cruel irony given that irrigating those crops starves the sea. Health experts
say the local population suffers from high levels of respiratory illnesses, throat and esophageal cancer,
and digestive disorders caused by breathing and ingesting salt-laden air and water. Liver and kidney
ailments, as well as eye problems, are common. The loss of fish has also greatly reduced dietary
variety, worsening malnutrition and anemia, particularly in pregnant women.
D Returning the entire Aral Sea to its 1960s state is unrealistic. The annual inflow from the Syr and
Amu rivers would have to be quadrupled from the recent average of 13 km3. The only means would
be to curtail irrigation, which accounts for 92 percent of water withdrawals. Yet four of the five
former Soviet republics in the Aral Sea basin (Kazakhstan is the exception) intend to expand
irrigation, mainly to feed growing populations. Switching to less water- intensive crops, such as
replacing cotton with winter wheat, could help, but the two primary irrigating nations, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan, intend to keep cotton to earn foreign currency. The extensive irrigation canals could be
greatly improved; many are simply cuts through sand, and they allow enormous quantities of water to
seep away. Modernizing the entire system could save 12 km3 a year but would cost at least $16
billion. The basin states do not have the money or the political will. Kazakhstan has nonetheless tried
to partially restore the northern Aral.
E We expect salinities in the Small Aral to settle at three to 14 g/1, depending on location. At these
levels many more indigenous species should return, although the saltwater kambala would disappear
from most places. Further restoration is possible. For example, if irrigation improvements raised the
average annual inflow from the Syr to 4.5 km3, which is entirely feasible, the lake’s level could
stabilize at about 47 meters. This change would bring the shoreline to within eight kilometers of
Aralsk, the former major port city, close enough to allow recovery of an earlier channel that
connected the city to the receding waters. The channel would give large commercial fishing vessels
access to the sea, and shipping could restart. Marshlands and fish populations would improve even
more because of a further reduction in salinity. Outflow to the southern lakes could also increase,
helping then restoration. Such a plan would require a much longer and higher dike, as well as
reconstruction of the gate facility, and it is not clear that Kazakhstan has the means or desire to pursue
it. The country is, however, now discussing more modest proposals to bring water closer to Aralsk.
F The Large Aral faces a difficult future; it continues to shrink rapidly. Only a long, narrow channel
connects the shallow eastern basin and the deeper western basin, and this could close altogether. If
countries along the Amu make no changes, we estimate that at current rates of groundwater in and
evaporation out, an isolated eastern basin would stabilize at an area of 4,300 square kilometers (km2).
But it would average only 2.5 meters deep. Salinity would exceed 100 g/1, possibly reaching 200 g/1;
the only creatures that could live in it would be brine shrimp and bacteria. The western basin’s fate
depends on ground- water inflow, estimates for which are uncertain. Someone has noted numerous
fresh- water springs on the western cliffs. The most reliable calculations indicate that the basin would
settle at about 2,100 km2. The lake would still be relatively deep, reaching 37 meters in spots, but
salinity would rise well above 100 g/1.
Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-F, in boxes 1-6 on
your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

1   A mission impossible 4   A promising recovery in the

future
2   An extremely worrying trend for
one main part of Aral Sea 5   A strongly affected populated
district
3   An uncompleted project because
of political reasons 6   The disclosure of a big secret
Questions 7-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 7-9 on
your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
7   In response to the increasingly growing number in the population, not all nations
near the Aral Sea consider plans which will enhance the severity of the problems the Aral Sea is faced
with.

8   The willingness for Kazakhstan to take the restoration action to save the Small Aral
Sea is somehow not certain.

9   The western basin seems to have a destined future regardless of the influx of the
groundwater.
Questions 10-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No More than
Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your
answer sheet.

The 10   produced by the floodwaters, which were ceased because of the decrease

in 11   of the Aral Sea, are main sources to keep the survival of the wetlands. The types of

fishes living in it experienced a devastating tragedy out of the increase in 12   and

decrease in spots for 13   with a good example of the extinction of a specific fish. What is
more, fisheries and shipping suffered greatly from these vast changes.
https://mini-ielts.com/1481/reading/reclaiming-the-future-of-aral-sea
ep 10: Light pollution

{A} If humans were truly at home under the light of the moon and stars, we would go into darkness
happily, the midnight world as visible to us as it is to the vast number of nocturnal species on this
planet. Instead, we are diurnal creatures, with eyes adapted to living in the sun’s light. This is a basic
evolutionary fact, even though most of us don’t think of ourselves as diurnal beings any more than we
think of ourselves as primates or mammals, or Earthlings. Yet it’s the only way to explain what we’ve
done to the night: We’ve engineered it to receive us by filling it with light.
{B} This kind of engineering is no different than damming a river. Its benefits come with
consequences—called light pollution—whose effects scientists are only now beginning to study.
Light pollution is largely the result of bad lighting design, which allows artificial light to shine
outward and upward into the sky, where it’s not wanted, instead of focusing it downward, where it is.
Ill-designed lighting washes out the darkness of night and radically alters the light levels and light
rhythms—to which many forms of life, including ourselves, have adapted.
{C} Now most of humanity lives under intersecting domes of reflected, refracted light, of scattering
rays from overlit cities and suburbs, from light-flooded highways and factories. Nearly all of
nighttime Europe is a nebula of light, as is most of the United States and all of Japan. In the south
Atlantic the glow from a single fishing fleet squid fishermen during their prey with metal halide lamps
—can be seen from space, burning brighter, in fact, than Buenos Aires or Rio de Janeiro.
{D} We’ve lit up the night as if it were an unoccupied country when nothing could be further from the
truth. Among mammals alone, the number of nocturnal species is astonishing. Light is a powerful
biological force, and in many species, it acts as a magnet, a process being studied by researchers such
as Travis Longcore and Catherine Rich, co-founders of the Los Angeles-based Urban Wildlands
Group. The effect is so powerful that scientists speak of songbirds and seabirds being “captured” by
searchlights on land or by the light from gas flares on marine oil platforms, circling and circling in the
thousands until they drop. Migrating at night, birds are apt to collide with brightly lit tall buildings;
immature birds on their first journey suffer disproportionately.
{E} Insects, of course, cluster around streetlights, and feeding at those insect clusters is now ingrained
in the lives of many bat species. In some Swiss valleys, the European lesser horseshoe bat began to
vanish after streetlights were installed, perhaps because those valleys were suddenly filled with light-
feeding pipistrelle bats. Other nocturnal mammals—including desert rodents, fruit bats, opossums,
and badgers-forage more cautiously under the permanent full moon of light pollution because they’ve
become easier targets for predators.
{F} Some birds—blackbirds and nightingales, among others—sing at unnatural hours in the presence
of artificial light. Scientists have determined that long artificial days— and artificially short nights
induce early breeding in a wide range of birds. And because a longer day allows for longer feeding, it
can also affect migration schedules. One population of Bewick’s swans wintering in England put on
fat more rapidly than usual, priming them to begin their Siberian migration early. The problem, of
course, is that migration, like most other aspects of bird behaviour, is a precisely timed biological
behaviour. Leaving early may mean arriving too soon for nesting conditions to be right
{G} Nesting sea turtles, which show a natural predisposition for dark beaches, find fewer and fewer of
them to nest on. Their hatchlings, which gravitate toward the brighter, more reflective sea horizon,
find themselves confused by artificial lighting behind the beach. In Florida alone, hatchling losses
number in the hundreds of thousands every year. Frogs and toads living near brightly lit highways
suffer nocturnal light levels that are as much as a million times brighter than normal, throwing nearly
every aspect of their behaviour out of joint, including their nighttime breeding choruses.
{H} Of all the pollution we face, light pollution is perhaps the most easily remedied. Simple changes
in lighting design and installation yield immediate changes in the amount of light spilt into the
atmosphere and, often, immediate energy savings.
{I} It was once thought that light pollution only affected astronomers, who need to see the night sky in
all its glorious clarity. And, in fact, some of the earliest civic efforts to control light pollution—in
Flagstaff, Arizona, half a century ago—were made to protect the view from Lowell Observatory,
which sits high above that city. Flagstaff has tightened its regulations since then, and in 2001 it was
declared the first International Dark Sky City. By now the effort to control light pollution has spread
around the globe. More and more cities and even entire countries, such as the Czech Republic, have
committed themselves to reducing unwanted glare.
{J} Unlike astronomers, most of us may not need an undiminished view of the night sky for our work,
but like most other creatures we do need darkness. Darkness is as essential to our biological welfare,
to our internal clockwork, as light itself. The regular oscillation of waking and sleep in our lives, one
of our circadian rhythms—is nothing less than a biological expression of the regular oscillation of
light on Earth. So fundamental are these rhythms to our being that altering them is like altering
gravity.
Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has ten paragraphs A-J. 
Which paragraph contains the following information? 
Write the correct letter A-J, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

1   A reason that contributes to light 4   The popularity of light pollution

pollution. in the world.  

2   A city has lessened light 5   Methods to reduce light

pollution successfully.   pollution.

3   The importance of darkness. 6   The reason why we have

changed the night
.Questions 7-8
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, or D. 
Write your answers in boxes 7-8 on your answer sheet.
Question 7: How does light pollution influence creatures?

A   by bad lighting design C   by changing the directions of light

B   by changing the cities and suburbs D   by changing the light creatures are used
creatures are used to to
Question 8: Some aspects of animals’ lives are affected by unwanted light, EXCEPT:

A   Migration C   Natural life span

B   Reproduction D   Feeding
Questions 9-13
Light pollution has affected many forms of life. Use the information in the passage to match the
animals with the relevant information below. Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 9-13 on your
answer sheet.

9   Songbirds 12   Bewick’s swans

10   Horseshoe bat 13   Sea turtles

11   Nightingales

(A) eat too much and migrate in advance.   competitors. 

(B) would not like to sing songs at night. (E) have become easier targets for predators. 
(C) is attracted by the light and then a crash (F) be active at unusual times. 
happens. (G) have trouble inbreeding.
(D) suffers from food shortages because of
https://mini-ielts.com/1479/reading/light-pollution

---End of the Test---