Biology

Edexcel Biology GCSE
Topic 1: Key Concepts in Biology

Notes
(Content in bold is for higher tier only)
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CONTENTS
1.1 -
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Functions
1.2 -
Specialised Cells and their Functions
1.3 -
Microscopy
1.4 -
Size, Scale and Estimations
1.5 -
Units and Standard Form
1.6 -
Core Practical - Investigating Biological Specimens
1.7 -
Enzyme Action
1.8 -
Enzyme Denaturation
1.9 -
Changing Enzyme Activity
1.10 - Core Practical - Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
1.11 - Rate Calculations
1.12 - Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
1.13B - **Higher and Biology Only** Core Practical - Investigating Macronutrients
1.14B - **Higher and Biology Only** Calorimetry
1.15 - Cell Transport
1.16 - Core Practical - Investigate Osmosis in Potatoes
1.17 - Calculating Percentage Gain and Loss
1.1 - Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Functions
All living things are made of cells, which can either be prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic. They have a:

● Cell membrane
● Cytoplasm
● Nucleus containing DNA
Bacterial cells are prokaryotic and are much smaller. They have a:
● Cell wall
● Cell membrane
● Cytoplasm
● Single circular strand of DNA and plasmids (small rings of DNA found in the
cytoplasm)
The structures mentioned above (e.g. cell membrane) are examples of organelles -
structures in a cell that have different functions. These organelles all have a specific
function.
In animal and plant cells...
Structure Function
Nucleus ● Contains DNA coding for a particular

protein needed to build new cells.
● Enclosed in a nuclear membrane.
Cytoplasm ● Liquid substance in which chemical

reactions occur.
● Contains enzymes (biological catalysts,
i.e. proteins that speed up the rate of
reaction).
● Organelles are found in it
Cell membrane ● Controls what enters and leaves the

cell
Mitochondria ● Where aerobic respiration reactions

occur, providing energy for the cell
Ribosomes ● Where protein synthesis occurs.

● Found on a structure called the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
Only in plant cells…
Structure Function
Chloroplasts ● Where photosynthesis takes place,

providing food for the plant
● Contains chlorophyll pigment (which
makes it green) which harvests the
light needed for photosynthesis.
Permanent vacuole ● Contains cell sap

● Found within the cytoplasm
● Improves cell’s rigidity
Cell wall (also present in algal cells) ● Made from cellulose

● Provides strength to the cell
Bacterial cells are prokaryotic, so do not share as many similarities in the type of organelles
as animal and plant cells do.
In bacterial cells…
Structure Function
Cytoplasm See above
Cell membrane See above
Cell wall Made of a different compound

(peptidogylcan)
Chromosomal DNA (circular) As bacterial cells have no nucleus, this

floats in the cytoplasm
Plasmids Small rings of DNA - code for extra

genes to those provided by chromosomal
DNA
Flagella Long, thin ‘whip-like’ tails attached to

bacteria that allow them to move
1.2 - Specialised Cells and Their Functions
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: a process that involves the cell gaining new
sub-cellular structures in order for it to be suited to its role. Cells can either differentiate
once early on or have the ability to differentiate their whole life (these are called stem cells).
In animals, most cells only differentiate once, but in plants many cells retain the ability.
Examples of specialised cells in animals:
1. Sperm cells: specialised to carry the male’s DNA to the egg cell (ovum) for
successful reproduction
● Streamlined head and long tail to aid swimming
● Many mitochondria (where respiration happens) which supply the energy to
allow the cell to move
● The acrosome (top of the head) has digestive enzymes which break down
the outer layers of membrane of the egg cell
● Haploid nucleus - the word haploid simply means that it has 23
chromosomes, rather than the 46 that most other body cells have
2. Egg cells: specialised to accept a single sperm cell and develop into an
embryo
● Surrounded by a special cell membrane which can only accept one sperm cell
(during fertilisation) and becomes impermeable following this
● Lots of mitochondria to provide an energy source for the developing embryo
● Large size and cytoplasm to allow quick, repeated division as the embryo
grows
3. Ciliated epithelial cells: specialised to waft bacteria (trapped by mucus) to the

stomach
● Long, hair-like processes called cilia waft bacteria trapped by sticky mucus
(produced by nearby goblet cells) down to the stomach, where they are killed
by the stomach acid. This is one of the ways our body protects against illness.
Examples of specialised cells in plants:
1. Root hair cells: specialised to take up water by osmosis and mineral ions by active
transport from the soil as they are found in the tips of roots
● Have a large surface area due to root hairs, meaning more water can move in
● The large permanent vacuole affects the speed of movement of water from
the soil to the cell
● Mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for the active transport of
mineral ions into the root hair cell
2. Xylem cells: specialised to transport water and mineral ions up the plant from the
roots to the shoots
● Upon formation, a chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells
to die. They become hollow and are joined end-to-end to form a continuous
tube so water and mineral ions can move through
● Lignin is deposited in spirals which helps the cells withstand the pressure
from the movement of water
3. Phloem cells: specialised to carry the products of photosynthesis (food) to all parts
of the plants
● Cell walls of each cell form structures called sieve plates when they break
down, allowing the movement of substances from cell to cell
● Despite losing many sub-cellular structures, the energy these cells need to be
alive is supplied by the mitochondria of the companion cells.
1.3 - Microscopy
Extremely small structures such as cells cannot be seen without microscopes, which enlarge
the image.
The first cells of a cork were observed by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a light microscope.
● It has two lenses
● It is usually illuminated from underneath
● They have, approximately, a maximum magnification of 2000x and a resolving power
(this affects resolution: the ability to distinguish between two points) of 200nm The
lower the RP, the more detail is seen.
● Used to view tissues, cells and large sub-cellular structures
In the 1930s the electron microscope was developed, enabling scientists to view deep
inside sub-cellular structures, such as mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts and plasmids.
● Electrons, as opposed to light, are used to form an image because the electrons
have a much smaller wavelength than that of light waves
● There are two types: a scanning electron microscope that create 3D images (at a
slightly lower magnification) and a transmission electron microscope which
creates 2D images detailing organelles
● They have a magnification of up to 2,000,000x and resolving power of 10nm (SEM)
and 0.2nm (TEM)
The discovery of the electron microscope

has allowed us to view many organelles
more clearly - especially very small
structures such as ribosomes (see
image). Transmission electron
microscopes (TEMs) in particular, have
been used to discover viruses such as
poliovirus, smallpox and Ebola - and are
still used for this function today. This is
useful as viruses are much smaller than
bacteria, andare very hard to identify using
a standard light microscope.
Electron microscopes are also used to examine proteins in much greater detail than can be
achieved with a light microscope, which has led to many important scientific discoveries.
1.4 - Size, Scale and Estimations and 1.5 - Units and Standard Form
Common calculations in microscopy:

1. Magnification of a light microscope: magnification of the eyepiece lens x
magnification of the objective lens
2. Size of an object: size of image/magnification = size of object (this formula can be
rearranged to obtain the other values, make sure you are in the same units!)
When working with calculations, it is common to come across very large or small numbers.
Standard form can be useful when working with these numbers.
Through multiplying a certain number by a power of 10, it can get bigger or smaller. To be
able to compare the size of numbers while using standard form, the ‘number’ which being
multiplied by a power of 10 needs to be between 1 and 10.
Examples:
● 1.5 x 10-5 = 0.000015
● 3.4 x 103 = 3400
Cells and organelles are extremely small, and we can use orders of magnitude to
understand how much bigger or smaller one is from another:

If an object is 10 times bigger than another then we say it is 101 times bigger.
3
If an object is 1000 times bigger than another then we say it is 10 times bigger.

If an object is 10 times smaller than another then we say it is 10-1 times smaller.
Prefixes go before units of measurement (such as ‘centimetres’) to show the multiple of the
unit.
Prefix Multiply unit by...
Centi 0.01
Milli 0.001
Micro 0.000, 001
Nano 0.000, 000, 001
Estimations are useful in Biology when we don’t know how many of something there is, or if
it would take too long to count. For example, if we take a 1m x 1m square sample of
grassland and count the number of a particular species of plant (e.g dandelions) in that
square, we can estimate the number of dandelions in the whole field by multiplying that
number by however many 1m x 1m squares can fit in the field. For example:
One 1m x 1m square contains 15 dandelions

The entire field measures 50m x 50m, so it fits 50 of the 1m x 1m squares
Multiply 15 by 50: 15 x 50 = 750 dandelions in the whole field
Remember that 750 is just an estimate - the real number will likely be different! The more
squares we look at (or ‘sample’) the closer we will get to the real number.
1.6 - Core Practical: Investigating Biological Specimens
Using microscopes is an important part of investigating biological specimens. We should be

familiar with the parts of a light microscope:
Eyepiece - This is the part of microscope that we look through to view specimens.
Barrel - The upper part of the microscope that can be moved up or down to focus the image.
Turret - The part of the microscope that is rotated to change the magnification lens in use.
Lens - The lens increases the magnification of the specimen. See Section 1.13.
Stage - The flat surface on which we place the specimen.
To use a light microscope, you should:
1. Place the slide on the stage and look through the eyepiece lens
2. Turn the focus wheel to obtain a clear image
3. Start with the lowest objective lens magnification
4. Increase the magnification of the objective lens and refocus.
It is important to remember all 4 steps to gain full marks in a question about microscopy.
In order to use specimens with a light microscope, you have to first prepare the slide. This
is done using the following method:
1. Take a thin layer of cells from your sample by either peeling them off or using a
cotton bud
2. Add a small amount of the correct chemical stain (you will be told by your teacher
which stain to use). Chemical stains are used to make some parts of the specimen
more visible when you look at them through the microscope.
3. Apply the cells to your glass slide by placing them on or wiping the cotton bud
against it.
4. Carefully lower a coverslip onto your slide, taking care to avoid air bubbles.
You should know how to perform magnification calculations. Remember:
Magnification = measured size / actual size

Actual size = measured size / magnification
Total magnification = objective lens magnification x eyepiece lens magnification
1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 - Enzymes: Mechanisms, Denaturation and Factors

Affecting Enzyme Activity
Enzymes are biological catalysts (a substance that increases the rate of reaction without
being used up)
● Enzymes are present in many reactions - allowing them to be controlled.
● They can both break up large molecules and join small ones
● They are protein molecules and the shape of the enzyme is vital to its function.
● This is because each enzyme has its own uniquely shaped active site where the
substrate binds.
The Lock and Key Hypothesis (a simplified explanation of how enzymes work):
1. The shape of the substrate is complementary to the shape of the active site (matches
the shape of the active site), so when they bond it forms an enzyme-substrate
complex.
2. Once bound, the reaction the reaction takes place and the products are released
from the surface of the enzyme.
Enzymes can only catalyse (speed up) reactions when they bind to a substrate that has a
complementary shape, as this is the only way that the substrate will fit into the active site.
This is called enzyme specificity.
Enzymes require an optimum pH and temperature, because they are proteins. They also
need an optimum substrate concentration (see below).
● The optimum temperature in humans is a range around 37 degrees Celsius (body
temperature). This temperature is different in other organisms.
○ The rate of reaction increases with an increase in temperature up to this
optimum, but above this temperature it rapidly decreases and eventually the
reaction stops.
○ When the temperature becomes too hot, the bonds that hold the enzyme
together will begin to break.
○ This changes the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer ‘fit
into’ the enzyme.
○ The enzyme is said to be denatured and can no longer work
● The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 (neutral), but some that are produced in
acidic conditions, such as the stomach, have a lower optimum pH.
○ If the pH is too high or too low, the forces that hold the amino acid chains
that make up the protein will be affected.
○ This will change the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer
fit in.
○ The enzyme is again said to be denatured, and can no longer work.
● As the substrate concentration (concentration of the substance binding to the

enzyme) increases, the rate of reaction will increase - up to a point.
○ This is because, as substrate concentration increases, the rate at which

enzyme-substrate complexes can be formed increases.
○ This only occurs up to a point, however - this is called the saturation point,
and increasing the substrate concentration above this will have no effect on
the rate of reaction. The saturation point is different for every enzyme.
1.10 - Core Practical - Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
In this practical, we are looking at how pH affects the rate of activity of a particular enzyme.
The enzyme being used is called amylase - which breaks down carbohydrates such as
starch into simple sugars such as maltose (see section 1.12 below). We can use iodine
(dark orange colour) to check for the presence of starch in the solution at any time. When
starch is present, the iodine solution will turn to a blue-black colour.
Amylase has an optimal pH, and we can use this experiment to estimate what it might be.
Materials required:
1% amylase solution, 1% starch solution, iodine solution, labelled buffer solutions of
different pH.
1. Place single drops of iodine solution on each well of a tray.

2. Label a test tube with the pH to be tested. Place it in a water beaker with 50ml cold
water and place this above a Bunsen Burner for 3 minutes.
3. Place 2cm3 of amylase solution, 2cm3 of starch solution and 1cm3 of the buffer pH
solution in a test tube and start a stopwatch.
4. After 10 seconds, use a pipette to place a drop the solution into one of the wells
containing iodine solution. The mixture should turn blue-black to indicate that starch
is still present and has not yet been broken down.
5. Repeat Step 4 after another 10 seconds. Continue repeating until the solution
remains orange, and record the time taken
6. Repeat Steps 1-5 with a buffer solution of different pH.
7. Record your results on a graph of pH (on the x-axis) and time taken to complete
reaction (on the y-axis).
Why do we use a Bunsen Burner and water beaker?

We use this equipment to keep the solution at a relatively constant temperature throughout
the reaction (temperature is a control variable in this experiment).
What results do we expect to see?

The optimal pH of amylase will be at whichever pH the reaction completes in the shortest
time. This should be somewhere around pH 7.0.
1.11 - Rate Calculations for Enzyme Activity
Rate calculations are very useful in Biology, and are especially important to determine how
fast an enzyme is working (the rate of reaction). To perform a rate calculation, we use the
formula:
Rate = Change / Time
Change refers to the change in the substance being measured (in this case, the enzyme)
and time refers to the time taken for that change to occur.
Proteases are a type of enzyme used to break down proteins. So as an example, if we

added 5g of protein to a solution containing specific protease enzymes, and it took 30
minutes to convert (‘use up’) all the protein:
Rate = change / time

Rate = 5g / 30 minutes
Rate = 5g / 0.5 hours
Rate = 10g / hour - this is the rate at which the enzyme is catalysing the reaction, and
may change depending on temperature, pH and substrate concentration.
1.12 - Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
1. Carbohydrases convert carbohydrates into simple sugars

● Example: amylase breaks down starch into maltose.
○ It is produced in your salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine
(most of the starch you eat is digested here)
2. Proteases convert proteins into amino acids

● Example: pepsin, which is produced in the stomach, other forms can be found
in pancreas and small intestine.
3. Lipases convert lipids (fats) into fatty acids and glycerol

● Produced in the pancreas and small intestine.
Soluble glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol pass into the bloodstream to be
carried to all the cells around the body.
They are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, with some glucose being
used in respiration. Building these new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins requires some
different, more complex enzymes to increase the rate of reaction.
1.13B **Higher and Biology Only** - Core Practical: Investigating

Macronutrients
We can perform special food tests to identify the presence of starch, reducing sugars,
protein, and lipids (fats and oils).
Nutrient being tested for Reagent/Test Method
Starch Iodine solution Add iodine solution to the

food sample. If starch is
present, the colour will
change from orange to
blue-black.
Reducing sugars Benedict’s Solution Add 2cm3 of the sample

solution and 2cm3 of blue
Benedict’s solution to a
test tube. Place in a
boiling water bath for 5
minutes, or until there is
no further change in
colour. Presence of
reducing sugar is
indicated by a colour
change to reddish-brown.
Protein Biuret Test (Potassium Add 1cm3 of 40%

hydroxide and copper potassium hydroxide to
sulfate) the food sample, and then
add the same amount of
1% copper sulfate.
Shake well and observe
colour change if protein is
present (blue -> violet)
Lipids (fats and oils) Emulsion Test Add 2cm3 ethanol to food
sample and shake
thoroughly.
Add 2cm3 deionised water
and shake thoroughly.
If lipids are present, this
will be indicated by the
formation of a white
emulsion layer at the top
of the sample.
How could we improve these experiments?

We should use a control in each experiment to ensure we know what a positive and
negative result looks like. For example, a positive control for the Biuret test would be
anything containing protein (e.g egg white) whereas a negative control would be a
solution that does not contain protein (e.g distilled water).
1.14B **Higher and Biology Only** - Calorimetry
Calorimetry is a way to measure the energy taken in and given out during a chemical
reaction. We can use this to measure the amount of ‘energy’ (calories) in food.
To do this, we can:
1. Take a tube of 50ml cold water.

2. Record the starting temperature of the water.
3. Place the test tube at 45 degrees and hold a burning food sample just beneath
it.
4. When the food is burned up, record the final temperature of the water.
We can work out the energy transferred to the water using the equation:
Energy transferred = mass of water x 4.2 x temperature increase
Energy transferred is measured in Joules (J)

Mass of water is measured in grams (g)
4.2 is a constant that refers to the ‘specific heat capacity’ of water - we need this to
convert between temperature (degrees Celsius) and energy (Joules). It is measured in
J/g.
Temperature increase is measured in degrees Celsius.
1.15 - Transport in and Out of Cells
Substances like oxygen, glucose and waste products need to be transported in and out of
cells constantly to support life processes. This transport generally occurs in one of 3 ways:
Diffusion - a form of passive transport (does not require energy). It is important to

remember that molecules move in every direction and collide with each other, but the net (or
resultant) movement is from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
Osmosis - osmosis is also a form of passive transport (does not require energy) but it only
applies to water. The same rules as diffusion apply - however there is no such thing as
‘concentration of water’, so we say that movement is from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution, across a selectively permeable membrane. Another way to think
about this is that movement of water occurs from an area of high solute concentration to
lower solute concentration (e.g if the solute was salt, from more ‘salty’ solution to less ‘salty’
solution).
Active Transport - active transport is a form of transport that does require energy. This
energy comes from ATP, which is the molecule produced in respiration. Active transport is
used to move molecules against a concentration gradient (i.e from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration).
1.16 - Core Practical - Osmosis in Potatoes and 1.17 - Percentage

Gain and Loss of Mass
A useful example to measure percentage gain or loss of mass is potato disks. This can be
achieved by the following method:
1. Cut potato into small discs of equal size (e.g 2cm diameter).
2. Blot the potato disks gently with tissue paper to remove excess water.
3. Measure the initial mass of each disk.
4. Place the disks in sucrose solutions of different concentrations (1%, 2% etc)
5. Blot with tissue paper again and record new mass.
6. Find difference in mass (end mass - start mass) and use the percentage change
equation to calculate percentage gain or loss of mass.
The percentage change equation is (change in mass / start mass) x 100.

Make sure to record your final result as a percentage (%).
What are the independent, dependent and control variables in this experiment?
● We are changing the concentration of the sucrose solution so this is the
independent variable.
● We are measuring the change in mass of the potato disks, therefore this is the
dependent variable.
● We are controlling the diameter of the disks (2cm) therefore this is a control variable.
What is happening in this experiment?

Water is moving by osmosis from a more dilute solution (in the potato) to a more
concentrated solution (the sucrose solution) across a selectively permeable membrane
(the cell membranes of all the potato cells holding water).
Topic 2: Cells and Control

Notes

CONTENTS
2.1 - Mitosis
2.2 - Importance of Mitosis
2.3 - Products formed by Mitosis
2.4 and 2.5 - Growth and Cancer
2.6 - Cell Differentiation and Specialised Cells
2.7 - Monitoring Growth using Percentiles
2.8 - Stem Cells in Embryos, Animals and Plants
2.9 - Benefits and Risks of Stem Cell use in Medicine
2.10B - **Biology Only** Structure and Function of the Brain
2.11B - **Higher and Biology Only** CT and PET Scanning
2.12B - **Higher and Biology Only** Treating Brain Injury
2.13 - Structure and Function of the Nervous System
2.14 - The Reflex Arc
2.15 - **Biology Only** Structure and Function of the Eye
2.16 and 2.17- **Biology Only** Defects of the Eye and their Treatment
2.1, 2.2, 2.3 - Mitosis and its Importance
Chromosomes
The nucleus contains your genetic information.
● This is found in the form of chromosomes, which contain coils of DNA.
● A gene is a short section of DNA that codes for a protein and as a result controls a
characteristic- therefore each chromosome carries many genes.
● There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell of the body, as you inherit one from
your mother and one from your father - resulting in 46 chromosomes in total in
each cell.
● Sex cells (gametes) are the exception: there are half the number of chromosomes,
resulting in 23 chromosomes in total in each gamete cell.
● A diploid number of chromosomes is the amount found in body cells (46 in humans)
● A haploid number of chromosomes is half this amount (23 in humans), and is found
in gametes (sperm and egg cells), which combine to form the diploid amount.
Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a series of steps that the cell has to undergo in order to divide. Mitosis is a
step in this cycle- the stage when the cell divides.
Stage 1 (Interphase): In this stage the cell grows, organelles (such as ribosome and
mitochondria) grow and increase in number, the synthesis of proteins occurs, DNA is
replicated (forming the characteristic ‘X’ shape) and energy stores are increased
Stage 2 (Mitosis): The chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and cell fibres pull
each chromosome of the ‘X’ to either side of the cell.
Stage 3 (Cytokinesis): Two identical daughter cells form when the cytoplasm and cell
membranes divide
Cell division by mitosis in multicellular organisms is important in their growth and

development, and when replacing damaged cells. Mitosis is also a vital part of asexual
reproduction, as this type of reproduction only involves one organism, so to produce
offspring it simply replicates its own cells.
Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells, each with identical sets of chromosomes to the parent
cell.
Because the sets of chromosomes in the daughter cell’s nucleus are the same as in the
parent cell’s nucleus, mitosis produces 2 genetically identical diploid daughter cells.
2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 - Growth, Differentiation and Cancer
In animals, growth occurs via cell division and differentiation. Cell division occurs by
mitosis as described above, after which cells can differentiate to specialised forms,
specially adapted to their function. For example, cells of the muscular system can bring
about movement, and cells of the circulatory system are specialised to transport substances.
In animals, almost all cells differentiate at an early stage and then lose this ability. Most
specialised cells can make more of the same cell by undergoing mitosis (the process that
involves a cell dividing to produce 2 identical cells). Others such as red blood cells (which
lose their nucleus) cannot divide and are replaced by adult stem cells (which retain their
ability to undergo differentiation).
In mature animals, cell division mostly only happens to repair or replace damaged cells, as
they undergo little growth.
In plants, growth occurs by cell division and differentiation, but also by a unique process
called elongation. Plant cells can grow longer in a specific direction by absorbing water into
their vacuoles, and this is controlled by substances called auxins. (See Topic 1.6.15 for
more information)
In plants, many types of cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life. They only
differentiate when they reach their final position in the plant, but they can still re-differentiate
when it is moved to another position.
Cancer occurs as a result of small changes in cells, that lead to uncontrolled cell division.
The group of cells that results from this uncontrolled division is called a tumour.
2.7 - Monitoring Growth using Percentiles
It is often important to measure the growth of an organism - whether for a farmer to check on
the progress of their crops, or for doctors to check whether a child is growing at a normal
rate. To do so we use percentiles charts, which can tell us the rate at which an organism of
interest is growing.
The growth of babies can be measured using mass, length or head circumference.
A baby born at the 50th percentile for mass is heavier than 50% of babies.
Another way to think about this is that for every 100 babies born, a baby in the 75th
percentile will be heavier than 25 of them.
Being in a high percentile (e.g 90th percentile or higher) can indicate a health problem.
2.8 and 2.9 - Stem Cells in Embryos, Animals and Plants and
Benefits/Risks of their Use in Medicine
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell which can undergo division to produce many more
similar cells, of which some will differentiate to have different functions.
Types of stem cells

1. Embryonic stem cells
● Form when an egg and sperm cell fuse to form a zygote
● They can differentiate into any type of cell in the body
● Scientists can clone these cells (though culturing them) and direct them to
differentiate into almost any cell in the body
● These could potentially be used to replace insulin-producing cells in those
suffering from diabetes, new neural cells for diseases such as Alzheimer’s, or
nerve cells for those paralysed with spinal cord injuries
2. Adult stem cells
● If found in bone marrow they can form many types of cells including blood
cells
3. Meristems in plants
● Found in root and shoot tips
● They can differentiate into any type of plant, and have this ability throughout
the life of the plant
● They can be used to make clones of the plant- this may be necessary if the
parent plant has certain desirable features (such as disease resistance), for
research or to save a rare plant from extinction
Therapeutic cloning involves an embryo being produced with the same genes as the
patient.
● The embryo produced could then be harvested to obtain the embryonic stem cells.
● These could be grown into any cells the patient needed, such as new tissues or
organs.
● The advantage is that they would not be rejected as they would have the exact same
genetic make-up as the individual.
Benefits vs. problems of research with stem cells
Benefits Problems
Can be used to replace damaged or We do not completely understand the

diseased body parts. process of differentiation, so it is hard to
control stem cells to form the cells we
desire.
Unwanted embryos from fertility clinics Removal of stem cells results in destruction
could be used as they would otherwise be of the embryo.
discarded.
Research into the process of differentiation. People may have religious or ethical
objections as it is seen as interference with
the natural process of reproduction.
If the growing stem cells are contaminated

with a virus, an infection can be transferred
to the individual.
Money and time could be better spent on

other areas of medicine.
2.10B **Biology Only** - Structure and Function of the Brain
The brain, along with the spinal cord, makes up our Central Nervous System, or CNS. The
CNS is responsible for controlling consciousness, movements thoughts and emotions,
among other things.
The brain is made up of several important structures, each contributing their own function.
Cerebral hemispheres: The most recognisable part of the brain, the two large cerebral
hemispheres take up most of the skull and sit on the left and right-hand sides. Together,
these two parts are known as the cerebrum (not to be confused with cerebellum!) and
perform a huge variety of functions, including consciousness, memory, intelligence as
well as visual and sensory processing.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is a large ‘lump-like’ structure found at the bottom of the brain,
on the rear side.
It is responsible for controlling fine movements of muscles, so we can move in complex
ways. For example, when you catch a ball, your cerebellum (responsible for your
co-ordination) will be highly active.
Medulla oblongata: The medulla oblongata, as the name suggests, is a small ‘elongated’
structure, and is found in the brainstem, at the base of the brain. It is responsible for
maintaining basic autonomic (‘automatic) bodily functions, such as breathing, digestion,
swallowing and sneezing.
2.11B and 2.12B **Higher and Biology Only** - CT and PET
Scanning, Treating Brain Injury
Doctors often need to look inside the brain to examine brain tissue for injury and
disease. Usually, they are not able to cut the skull open and physically examine the
brain as this is highly invasive - and often does not provide any clues about brain
function.
In this case, we can use CT (Computerised Tomography) and PET (Positron Emission
Tomography) scans to look inside the brain much more easily.
CT scans fire X-Ray radiation at the brain from several different angles to generate a
3D image of the brain. This is useful for examining bleeding within the skull, and
damage to brain structures. This is usually not recommended for pregnant women
and children, as it exposes the patient to higher doses of radiation than a normal
X-ray.
For PET scans, a radioactive ‘tracer’ is injected into the blood before the scan. The
scan itself is sensitive to the tracer, so areas where the tracer builds up (which will
also be areas with greater blood flow) will be highlighted more brightly on the
resulting scan. This is useful for identifying cancerous tumours, as these use more
blood than normal tissue.
Investigating brain function and treating brain damage and disease is difficult
because:
● It is complex and delicate
● It is easily damaged
● Drugs given to treat diseases cannot always reach the brain because of the
membranes that surround it
● It is not fully understood which part of the brain does what.
Cancerous tumours can form in the brain as in any other part of the body (recall that
changes in cells leading to uncontrolled cell division is what results in a cancerous
tumour).
These tumours can push against other structures and blood vessels in the brain,
restricting their function. Often, tumours can be buried deep in the brain or spinal
cord, making them especially difficult to remove.
2.13 and 2.14 - Structure and Function of the Nervous System and
The Reflex Arc
The nervous system allows us to react to our surroundings, and coordinate actions in
response to stimuli.
1. Receptor cells convert a stimulus into an electrical impulse.

2. This electrical impulse travels along cells called sensory neurons to the central
nervous system (CNS).
3. Here, the information is processed and the appropriate response is coordinated,
resulting in an electrical impulse being sent along motor neurones to effectors.
4. The effectors carry out the response (this may be muscles contracting or glands
secreting hormones).
Automatic responses which take place before you have time to think are called reflexes.
They are important as they prevent the individual from getting hurt. This because the
information travels down a pathway called a reflex arc, allowing vital responses to take
place quickly. This pathway is different from the usual response to stimuli because the
impulse does not pass through the conscious areas of your brain.
1. A stimulus is detected by receptors.
2. Impulses are sent along a sensory neuron.
3. In the CNS the impulse passes to a relay neuron.
4. Impulses are sent along a motor neuron.
5. The impulse reaches an effector resulting in the appropriate response.
6.
Examples of reflex arcs are: pupils getting smaller to avoid damage from bright lights,
moving your hand from a hot surface to prevent damage.
Synapses are the gaps between two neurons.

● When the impulse reaches the end of the first neuron, a chemical called a
neurotransmitter is released into the synapse.
● This neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse.
● When the neurotransmitter reaches the second neuron, it triggers the impulse to
begin again in the next neuron. Different neurotransmitters have different effects on
the frequency and speed of the impulse in the second neuron.
Some nerves are myelinated, i.e they are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The advantage
of having nerves surrounded by myelin is that it allows the nerve transmission (or action
potential) to travel faster. Myelin is produced by cells called Schwann cells.
2.15, 2.16 and 2.17 **Biology Only** - Structure and Function of the
Eye and Defects of the Eye and their Treatment
The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour. It has
many different structures within it. They are adapted to allow the eye to change its shape in
order to focus on near or distant objects (a process called accommodation), and to dim
light.
1. Retina: Layer of light sensitive cells found at the back of the eye.
When light hits this, the cells are stimulated. Impulses are sent to the brain, which
interprets the information to create an image.
The retina contains rod cells and cone cells, each of which convert light to nerve
impulses destined for the brain. Rod cells are more sensitive to light so they are
better for seeing in low light, whereas cone cells allow colour vision.
2. Cornea: The see-through layer at the front of the eye.
It allows light through and the curved surface bends and focuses light onto the retina.
3. Iris: Muscles that surround the pupil.
They contract or relax to alter the size of the pupil.
In bright light, the circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax to make the
pupil smaller- avoiding damage to the retina.
In dim light, the circular muscles relax and the radial muscles contract to make the
pupil larger- so more light can enter to create a better image.
4. Ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments: Hold the lens in place.
They control its shape and allow us to focus on objects nearer or further away.
5. Lens: Transparent, curved surface on the front of the eye.
The lens, like the cornea, reflects light onto the retina.
The process of accommodation:

To focus on a near object:
● The ciliary muscles contract
● The suspensory ligaments loosen
● The lens is then thicker and more curved- this refracts the light more
To focus on a distant object
● The ciliary muscles relax
● The suspensory ligaments tighten
● The lens then becomes thinner - light is refracted less.
Some eye defects occur when light cannot focus on the retina.
1. Short sightedness is called myopia.
● The lens is too curved, so distant objects appear blurry.
2. Long sightedness is called hyperopia.
● The lens is too flat, so it cannot refract light enough.
Other eye defects include cataracts and colour blindness:
Cataracts means clouding of the lens of the eye. This can often occur congenitally (from
birth) but can also develop over time. It restricts vision and can be treated by replacing the
lens of the eye in surgery.
Colour blindness is the inability to see certain colours. Full colour blindness is rare,
whereas specific colour blindness (e.g red-green) is very common. This usually occurs
because people with the condition do not have enough cone cells in their retina. This is
usually genetic.
There are a number of treatment methods:

● They can be treated with spectacle lenses - concave lenses to spread out
the light to treat myopia and convex lenses to bring the rays together to treat
hyperopia
● Contact lenses - work in the same way as glasses but allow activities such
as sport to be carried out, hard or soft contact lenses last for different lengths
of time
● Laser eye surgery - lasers can be used to either reduce the thickness of the
cornea (so it refracts light less) to treat myopia or change its curvature (so it
refracts light more strongly) to treat hyperopia
● Replacement lens - Hyperopia can be treated by replacing the lens with an
artificial one made of clear plastic (or adding the plastic on top of the natural
lens). The risks include damage to retina or cataracts developing.
Topic 3: Genetics
Notes

CONTENTS
3.1B and 3.2B - **Biology Only** Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual and
Asexual Reproduction
3.3 - Role of Meiosis
3.4 - The Structure of DNA
3.5 and 3.6 - The Genome and Extracting DNA
3.7B and 3.8B - **Biology and Higher Only** The Stages of Protein Synthesis
3.9B and 3.10B - **Biology and Higher Only** Genetic Variants and their Effects
3.11B - **Biology Only** Mendelian Genetics
3.12 - Alleles
3.13 - Basic Genetics Terminology
3.14 - Monohybrid Inheritance and Genetic Diagrams
3.15 - Sex of Offspring
3.16 - Outcomes and Pedigree Analysis
3.17B - **Biology Only** ABO Blood Group Inheritance
3.18B - **Biology and Higher Only** Sex-linked Inheritance
3.19 - Multiple-Gene Inheritance and Causes of Variation
3.21, 3.22 and 3.23 - Human Genome Project, Genetic Variation and Mutation
affecting Phenotype
3.1B and 3.2B - Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction involves the joining of male and female gametes, each
containing genetic information from the mother or father.
● Sperm and egg cells in animals
● Pollen and egg cells in flowering plants
Gametes are formed by meiosis, as they are non identical.

A normal cell has 46 chromosomes. There are two sets of chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs). In
each pair, one chromosome is from the father and the second set are from the mother.
Each gamete has 23 chromosomes and they fuse in fertilisation.
The genetic information from each parent is mixed, producing variation in the
offspring.
2. Asexual reproduction involves one parent with no gametes joining.

It happens using the process of mitosis, where two identical cells are formed from
one cell.
There is no mixing of genetic information.
It leads to clones, which are genetically identical to each other and the parent.
Examples of organisms that reproduce this way are bacteria, some plants and some
animals.
Advantages of sexual reproduction Advantages of asexual reproduction
Produces variation in offspring. Only one parent is needed.

● This means that if the environment
changes it is likely that an organism
in the species will have a
characteristic that allows them to
survive (called a survival
advantage).
● Although some individuals may die,
variation decreases the chance of
the whole species becoming
extinct.
It allows us to use selective breeding. Uses less energy and is faster as

● This type of reproduction mixes the organisms do not need to find a mate.
genetic information from two
organisms
● Organisms with different desirable
characteristics can be bred to
produce offspring with even more
desirable characteristics.
● This speeds up natural selection.
● An example is to increase food
production by breeding two animals
with lots of meat.
In favorable conditions lots of identical

offspring can be produced.
3.3 - The Importance of Meiosis
While mitosis is used for the division of ordinary body cells to produce diploid (2n) daughter
cells, meiosis is used to produce haploid gametes (sperm and egg cells). Gametes only
have one copy of each chromosome.
Meiosis is the formation of four non-identical cells from one cell.
● The cell makes copies of its chromosomes, so it has double the amount of genetic
information.
● The cell divides into two cells, each with half the amount of chromosomes (46).
● The cell divides again producing four cells, each with a quarter the amount of
chromosomes (23).
● These cells are called gametes and they are all genetically different from each
other because the chromosomes are shuffled during the process, resulting in random
chromosomes ending up in each of the four cells.
These gametes with 23 chromosomes join at fertilisation to produce a cell with 46

chromosomes, the normal number.
● This cell divides by mitosis to produce many copies.
● More and more cells are produced, and an embryo forms.
● The cells begin to take on different roles after this stage (differentiation).
3.4, 3.5, 3.6 - The Structure of DNA, The Genome and Extracting
DNA
DNA, found in the nucleus, is a chemical that contains genetic material.

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, and this is a polymer that contains
instructions for the body.
● It is made up of many small parts called nucleotides.
● Each nucleotide is made up of one sugar molecule, one phosphate
molecule (which form the backbone) and o ne of the four types of organic
bases.
● The four types of organic bases are A, C, G, T.
● Each DNA molecule is made up of two DNA strands which are twisted
together. Each base is connected to another base in the other strand.
● A bases only connect to T bases, and C bases only connect to G bases. This
is called complementary base pairing.
● The order of the different bases forms a genetic code - e.g. A, G, T, T, C, A,
A etc.
DNA is a polymer (long molecule) made up of two strands which are wound around each
other to form a structure called a double helix.
A gene is a short section of DNA. Each gene codes for many amino acids, which are joined
together to make a specific protein.
● There are 20 types of amino acid.
The word genome describes all the genetic information (DNA) of a single organism. The
human genome has been studied, which has improved our understanding of the genes
linked to different types of disease, the treatment of inherited disorders and has helped in
tracing human migration patterns from the past.
Extracting DNA from Fruit
It is possible to extract DNA from fruit using household ingredients:
- Gently mix together 50ml cold water, half a teaspoon of salt and 10ml washing up
liquid. Gently heat this mixture at 50C for 5-10 minutes.
- Peel the skins of a kiwi and chop into small pieces. Pulverise the kiwis.
- Add the solution from Step 1 to the kiwi.
- Filter the solution using a few sheets of kitchen paper and a sieve. Pour the filtrate
into a test tube.
- Add 10ml of pineapple juice to the filtrate and allow to rest for a few minutes.
- Add 2 teaspoons of cold ethanol to the solution and wait 10 minutes.
What should we see?

A white mass should precipitate at the top of the tube after 10 minutes; this is the DNA from
the kiwi.
Why do we add pineapple juice?

Pineapple juice contains an enzyme called bromelain which breaks down proteins attached
to the DNA. This helps us see the DNA more clearly.
Why do we add ethanol?

Ethanol causes the DNA to precipitate out of the solution - making it visible at the top of the
container.
3.7B and 3.8B **Biology and Higher Only** - The Stages of Protein
Synthesis
● Each group of three bases (e.g ACT, AGG, GAC) codes for an amino
acid.
● The amino acids are joined together and fold to make a protein. It is the
different types and order of amino acids that determine which type of
protein it is. Often these proteins are enzymes, which need to have a
very specific shape.
● Therefore it is the order of bases in DNA that determine which proteins
are produced.
There are also non-coding parts of DNA that do not code for proteins. Some of them
are responsible for switching genes on or off, i.e. controlling whether the gene is used
to form a protein or not.
Protein synthesis: the process of producing a protein from DNA
If a gene is coded to make a protein, it has been expressed.
1. DNA contains the genetic code for making a protein, but it cannot move out of
the nucleus as it is too big.
2. The mRNA nucleotides themselves are then joined together, creating a new
strand called the mRNA strand. This is a template of the original DNA.
3. An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to non-coding DNA located in front of
a gene on the DNA strand.
4. The two strands of DNA pull apart from each other, and RNA polymerase
allows mRNA nucleotides (messenger RNA: a different type of nucleotide) to
match to their complementary base on the strand.
5. The mRNA then moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm and onto structures
called ribosomes.
6. At the ribosomes, the bases on the mRNA are read in threes (triplets) to code
for an amino acid (the first three bases code for one amino acid, the second
three bases code for another etc).
7. The corresponding amino acids are brought to the ribosomes by carrier
molecules called tRNAs - transport RNAs.
8. These amino acids connect together to form a polypeptide (amino acids linked
by peptide bonds).
9. When the chain is complete the protein folds to form a unique 3D structure,
which is the final protein.
3.9B and 3.10B **Biology and Higher Only** - Genetic Variants and
their Effects
Genetic variants are small changes in the order of bases that make up a strand of
DNA. They can affect the structure of proteins in different ways, depending on
whether they occur in coding DNA or non-coding DNA.
Genotype refers to the genes present in the DNA of an individual, whereas phenotype
refers to the visible effects of those genes (e.g the proteins that they code for).
Coding DNA: A genetic variant will alter the sequence of bases (e.g ACT -> AGT) and
therefore will change the sequence of amino acids (e.g Glycine -> Valine). This alters
the final structure of the protein produced.
Non-Coding DNA: A genetic variant in the coding DNA can affect phenotype
differently. The enzyme RNA polymerase (see Section 3.8B) binds to non-coding DNA,
and a change in the order of bases in this non-coding DNA can affect the amount of
RNA polymerase that can bind to it. If less RNA polymerase is able to bind, less
mRNA can be formed and the structure of the final protein is affected.
Mutations change the sequences of bases in DNA. Either:
1. A base is inserted into the code

● As they are read in threes, this changes the way it is read.
● It may change all the amino acids coded for after this insertion.
2. A base is deleted from the code
● Like insertions they change the way it is read.
● It may change all the amino acids coded for after this deletion.
3. A base is substituted
● This will only change one amino acid in the sequence or it may not
change the amino acid (as the new sequence can sometimes still code
for the same amino acid)
A change in the type/sequence of amino acids will affect the way it folds and therefore
the structure.
Most mutations do not alter the protein or only do so slightly.
Some can have a serious effect and can change the shape
● The substrate will not fit into the active site so it cannot act as a protein.
● A structural protein may lose its shape.
There can also be mutations in the non-coding parts of DNA that control whether the
genes are expressed.
3.11B **Biology Only** - Mendelian Genetics
Gregor Mendel
● Trained in mathematics and natural history in Vienna
● Worked in the monastery gardens and observed the characteristics passed on to the
next generation in plants
● He carried out breeding experiments on pea plants.
● He used smooth peas, wrinkled peas, green peas and yellow peas and observed the
offspring to see which characteristics they had inherited
● Through keeping a record of everything he did and eventually publishing his work in
1866, he came to these conclusions:
○ Offspring have some characteristics that their parents have because they
inherit ‘hereditary units’ from each.
○ One unit is received from each parent.
○ Units can be dominant or recessive, and cannot be mixed together.
Mendel was not recognised till after his death as genes and chromosomes were not yet
discovered, so people could not understand.
● In the late 19th century chromosomes as a part of cell division were observed
● In the 20th century, it was understood that chromosomes and units had similar
behaviours. It was decided that units (now known as genes) were on the
chromosomes.
● The structure of DNA was determined in 1953, which meant we were able to
understand how genes worked.
3.12 and 3.12 - Alleles and Basic Definitions
You need to know the definitions for a number of terms:
Gamete An organism’s reproductive cell (egg in female and sperm in males),

which has half the number of chromosomes (23).
Chromosome A structure found in the nucleus which is made up of a long strand of

DNA.
Gene A short section of DNA that codes for a protein, and therefore
contribute to a characteristic.
Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as fur
colour in mice and red-green colour blindness in humans. However,
most characteristics are the result of many different genes interacting.
Alleles The different forms of the gene - humans have two alleles for each
gene as they inherit one from each parent.
Dominant allele Only one (out of the two alleles) is needed for it to be expressed and
for the corresponding phenotype to be observed.
Recessive allele Two copies are needed for it to be expressed and for the
corresponding the phenotype to be observed.
Homozygous When both inherited alleles are the same (i.e. two dominant alleles or
two recessive alleles).
Heterozygous When one of the inherited alleles is dominant and the other is
recessive.
Genotype The combination of alleles an individual has, e.g. Aa
Phenotype The physical characteristics that are observed in the individual, e.g.
eye colour
Zygote The stage of development immediately after fertilisation - a diploid

(2n) cell formed from the fusion of two haploid gametes
Alleles (different forms of the same gene) lead to differences in inherited characteristics.
This is because different alleles code for different forms of the same protein - an allele that
codes for a damaged form of a protein can cause illness. For example, in a condition
called Huntington’s Disease, an allele of the gene that codes for a particular protein is
different. This leads to the protein becoming folded incorrectly and causing the condition.
3.14 - Monohybrid Inheritance and Genetic Diagrams
Family trees show the inheritance

of different phenotypes over
generations in the same family.
A monohybrid (single gene)

cross looks at the probability of
the offspring of two parents having
certain genotypes and
phenotypes.This is done using the
alleles the two parents have for a
gene and a Punnett square
diagram. You should be able to
draw and use a Punnett square
diagram.
Uppercase letters are used to represent dominant characteristics. Lowercase letters

represent recessive characteristics. You can choose any letter but usually either A or B is
used for simplicity. Notice that combining the alleles shown above results in ¼ chance of
having an offspring who is homozygous dominant (BB, or has two dominant alleles),
and there is no chance of having a homozygous recessive offspring (as both parents have
the allele). Whether or not the Bb (heterozygous recessive) offspring show symptoms
depends on whether the condition itself is recessive or dominant.
Family pedigrees are used to show how a condition (or more specifically, the allele which
causes it) are passed down through different generations. We can use them to better
visualise certain patterns - for example, the way that recessive alleles normally ‘skip a
generation’:
We usually use squares to represent males, and circles to represent females in the
lineage.
Black shapes represent an affected individual, and white shapes represent an unaffected
individual.
A line through the shape means that the individual is deceased.
A line passing directly between two shapes means that the two are partners, and a line
overhanging a group of individuals means that they are siblings.
3.15 - Sex of Offspring
Human body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

● 22 control characteristics, and the chromosomes in each pair look very similar
● The 23rd pair carries sex determining genes, and the two chromosomes can look
different to each other (Y chromosomes are much smaller than X chromosomes)
The two possible chromosomes in the 23rd pair are X chromosomes and Y
chromosomes. When cells undergo meiosis to form a gamete, one sex chromosome goes
into each gamete.
● Females have two X chromosomes, so therefore only pass on X chromosomes in
their eggs.
● Males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome, so therefore can pass on X or Y
chromosomes in their sperm.
Punnett squares can be used to show sex inheritance. As

shown in this diagram, there is a 50% chance of the child being
male, and a 50% chance of the child being female.
3.16 - Outcomes and Pedigree Analysis
We can use monohybrid crosses (Punnett squares) and pedigree analysis to analyse the
probabilities of particular outcomes:
If the cystic fibrosis gene is autosomal recessive, and we use C/c for the normal and
defective allele respectively:
We can see that the risk of having both defective alleles (CC) is one out of four, or ¼ (25%).
3.17B **Biology Only** - ABO Blood Group Inheritance
There are often important patterns to be seen in inheritance of particular genes. For
example, sometimes 2 dominant alleles can be expressed together in the same individual.
This is called codominance. When three or more alleles can be present at the same loci
(but not necessarily expressed at once), we say that multiple alleles are present at the
same position, or locus.
An example of codominance and multiple alleles is the ABO blood group system, where
there are alleles for A, B and O that can all be expressed at the same locus (position). Only
two of them are expressed at once, however, with the following pattern (note that the O
allele is recessive, and the A and B alleles are dominant):
A and O alleles: becomes type A
A and B alleles: becomes type AB (codominantly expressed)
A and A alleles: becomes type A
B and B alleles: becomes type B
O and O alleles: becomes type O
It should be clear from the above that Type O blood is significantly more rare than types
involving A or B alleles.
3.18B **Biology and Higher Only** - Sex-linked Inheritance
Some alleles are not found on chromosome pairs 1-22: instead, they are found on the
sex chromosomes X and Y. Remember that in humans, males carry an X and a Y
chromosome (XY), whereas females carry two X chromosomes (XX). If these alleles
cause a genetic disorder, it is known as a sex-linked genetic disorder. The majority of
sex-linked conditions are found on the X chromosome.
When using Punnett squares to demonstrate sex-linked inheritance, we can use XD to
represent an X chromosome with the affected gene, and X to represent one that is
unaffected, for example.
X-linked conditions can be recessive or dominant.
Usually, X-linked recessive syndromes are more common in males - because in

females, there is an extra X chromosome to mask the effect of the recessive allele.
However, in males, there is only one X chromosome and if it contains the defective
allele, the individual will have the condition.
3.19 and 3.20 - Multiple-gene Inheritance and Causes of Variation
Most phenotypic features are the result of multiple genes acting together, and not single
genes. For example, as many as 16 genes are thought to be responsible for human eye
colour.
Variation between individuals is an important factor in allowing natural selection to happen,

and it originates from one of two main areas:
a) Genetic variation - different characteristics can arise as a result of both random

mutation and sexual reproduction. Random mutation occurs in gametes to
produce offspring with ‘brand new’ phenotypic characteristics, whereas sexual
reproduction causes the offspring to have a new combination of characteristics from
both its mother, and its father.
b) Environmental variation - characteristics can also be caused by an organism’s

environment, but these changes are generally not heritable (there is no change in the DNA
of the organism). For example, a child who does not receive adequate nutrition will not grow
to their full height, however this has no effect on their potential height as determined by their
genetics.
3.21, 3.22 and 3.23 - Human Genome Project, Genetic Variation and
Mutation affecting Phenotype
Remember - the word genome describes all the genetic information of that organism. The
human genome has been studied, or ‘mapped’ as part of the Human Genome Project,
which has:
- improved our understanding of the genes linked to different types of disease

- helped in the treatment of inherited disorders
- helped in tracing human migration patterns from the past.
By mapping the entire human genome, we are better able to understand which genes
cause inherited disorders and which genes are linked with each other.
There is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species - this arises
through random mutation.
Genetic mutation can have varying effects on the phenotype. For example, the majority of
mutations have no effect on the phenotype as they occur in DNA which does not code for
proteins (non-coding DNA). Some mutations can have a small effect on the phenotype,
and other mutations, rarely, can significantly affect the phenotype - for example, changing
one base can change one amino acid in a protein. If the protein was an enzyme, this has the
potential to change the shape of the active site so that substrates can no longer bind to it.
Topic 4: Natural Selection and Genetic

Modification
Notes

CONTENTS
4.1B - * *Biology Only** Darwin and Wallace’s Theory

4.2 - Evolution by Natural Selection
4.3 - Emerging Resistance
4.4 - Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution
4.5 - Dating Stone Tools
4.6B - **Biology Only** Anatomical Evidence for Evolution
4.7 - Five Kingdoms vs. Three Domains
4.8 - Selective Breeding
4.9B - **Biology Only** Tissue Culture
4.10 - Genetic Engineering
4.11 - **Higher Only** Stages of Genetic Engineering
4.12B - **Biology Only** Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Organisms
4.13B - **Biology Only** Agricultural Solutions
4.14 - Implications of Genetic Engineering and Selective Breeding
4.1B **Biology Only** - Darwin and Wallace’s Theories and 4.2 -
Evolution by Natural Selection
Alfred Russel Wallace developed the theory of speciation, and therefore evolution by
natural selection.
● On his travels, he had the idea that the individuals who did not have characteristics to
help them survive a change in the environment would die out.
● He published joint studies with Darwin.
● The publication of ‘On the Origin of Species’ meant Darwin received the credit for
the theory.
● He continued to work across the world to collect evidence – one of his most
important works was on warning colouration in animals
● Much more evidence over time has resulted in our current understanding.
The process of speciation:

1. Variation exists within a population as a result of genetic mutations.
2. Alleles which provide a survival advantage are selected for through natural selection.
3. Populations of a species can become isolated, for example through physical barriers
such as a rock fall preventing them from breeding together.
4. Different alleles may be advantageous in the new environment, leading to them being
selected for.
5. Over time the selection of different alleles will increase the genetic variation
between the two populations.
6. When they are no longer able to breed together to produce fertile offspring, a
new species has formed.
Charles Darwin
● Scientist and naturalist
● Put forward the theory of evolution
● This was supported by experimentation and his knowledge of geology and fossils
that he discovered on a round the world expedition
● Published ‘On the Origin of Species’ in 1859
Theory of Evolution:
● Variation exists within species as a result of mutations in DNA
● Organisms with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to
survive to reproductive age and breed successfully – called survival of the fittest.
● The beneficial characteristics are then passed on to the next generation
● Over many generations the frequency of alleles for this advantageous characteristic
increase within the population
There was lots of controversy surrounding his ideas for many reasons:
1. It contradicted the idea that God was the creator of all species on Earth.
2. There was not enough evidence at the time as few studies had been done on how
organisms change over time.
3. The mechanism of inheritance and variation were not known at the time.
4.3 - Emerging Resistance
Bacteria are labelled resistant when they are not killed by antibiotics which previously were
used as cures against them.
● Bacteria reproduce at a fast rate.

● Mutations during reproduction can result in new genes, such as the gene for
antibiotic resistance. This the creation of a new strain.
● Exposure to antibiotics creates a selection pressure, as those with antibiotic resistant
genes survive and those without die.
● As a result those with antibiotic resistance can reproduce and pass on the
advantageous gene to their offspring. Therefore, the presence of these new,
resistant bacteria supports Darwin’s theory of natural selection (as the new bacteria
have been selected by the environment to have a feature (resistance) advantageous
to survival.)
● This population of antibiotic resistant bacteria increases.
● Bacterial diseases spreads rapidly because people are not immune to these new
resistant bacteria and there is no treatment for it.
An example is MRSA.
● Called a ‘superbug’ as it is resistant to many different types of antibiotics
● Common in hospitals: spreads when doctors and nurses move to different patients
4.4 - Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution
Fossil evidence shows how developments in organisms arose slowly. This is because we
can use carbon dating and related techniques to estimate when a fossil was formed, giving
us a more complete picture of how an organism or species developed over time. Examples
of these include:
a) Ardi - Ardipithecus ramidus, or Ardi, is the oldest known human ancestor - estimated
to have lived 4.4 million years ago.
Her fossilised skeleton contains many ‘humanoid’ features but also resembles an ape
- thus, it is phenotypically somewhere between the two. The presence of this
‘intermediate’ organism is good evidence that natural selection, and eventually
evolution, occurred gradually.
The bone structure in Ardi’s feet also gives us a clue - it is different from that of
chimpanzees, suggesting that the two evolved separately rather than together.
b) Lucy - This fossilised skeleton dates from 3.2 million years ago. Her bone structure
suggests that she walked in an upright, human-like position. However, Lucy had a
small, chimp-like skull and brain and therefore represents another intermediate
between apes and early humans.
c) Fossils discovered by the archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey in the 1950s
helped support the theory of natural selection, especially an early fossil which
contained remnants of stone tools (thought to be an early toolmaker), and Homo
habilis, which is now considered to be one of the most important early human
species.
4.5 - Dating Stone Tools and 4.6B **Biology Only** - Anatomical

Evidence for Evolution
We can use stone tools found as part of archaeological digs as evidence for human
evolution. It is clear how stone tools have become more complex as our brains evolved in
complexity:
Early Stone Age tools - Homo habilis (1.5 million years ago)
- Used basic pebble tools (‘Oldowan tools’) created by smashing rocks together.
- These tools had simple uses, such as cracking nuts.
Late Stone Age tools - Homo neanderthalensis (40,000 years ago) and modern Homo
sapiens
- These more advanced species used pointed arrowheads, spears and hooks
- This enabled more advanced tasks to be carried out, such as catching fish.
We can date these tools using two main methods:
1. Radiometric carbon dating - by looking at the natural radioactive decay of an

isotope of Carbon (Carbon-14) we can estimate how long ago an organism lived. If
any once-living material is found with a tool, such as a piece of wood or fur, we can
date this to find the age of the rock.
2. Stratifying rock layers - looking at the layer of sediment in which a rock was found
is a useful tool for archaeologists. Each layer of sediment, and everything within it,
must have been formed at the same time. Therefore, we can date once-living fossils
in this layer and use this to estimate when the tools were formed.
Looking at how anatomical features developed over time using fossils also provides
important evidence for evolution.
A pentadactyl limb is a limb with five digits. This can be seen in a number of organisms,
implying that they all come from a common ancestor - and that each ‘branched off’ at some
stage of evolution. This could have been due to different selection pressures within
different environments.
The human hand has five digits (four fingers and a thumb), but bats, cats, horses and birds
also have this pattern within their limbs. However, that does not mean that we evolved
directly from these animals but humans are distantly related to them via a common
ancestor.
4.7 - Five Kingdoms vs. Three Domains
It is important to classify organisms so that we know about the genetic relationships between
species and organisms. We can do this by the old Five Kingdoms system, or the newer
Three Domains system.
Five Kingdoms system

The Five Kingdoms Classification splits all organisms into one of 5 groups:
- Animals
- Plants
- Fungi
- Prokaryotes (e.g bacteria)
- Protists (e.g algae, amoebas and other single-celled eukaryotic organisms)
Each kingdom is then subdivided into a phylum, class, genus, order and species. These
are different for each organism. For example, a human (Homo sapiens) would be of the
Animal kingdom, its phylum is Chordata, class is Mammalia and Order is Primate.
The binomial naming system is based on the genus and species; for example, Homo
sapiens is of the genus Homo, which also contains Homo habilis and Homo erectus, to
name a few.
Three-domain system
● Developments in science such as the improvement of the microscope and increased
knowledge of biochemistry (for example, RNA sequence analysis) found that some
species were more distantly related than first thought
● Carl Woese added three large groups called domains above kingdoms
○ Archaea: primitive bacteria which live in extreme environments such as hot
springs
○ Bacteria: true bacteria (despite having similar features to archaea)
○ Eukaryota: organisms who have a nucleus enclosed in membranes, includes
the kingdoms protists, fungi, plants and animals
4.8 - Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is when humans choose which organisms to breed in order to produce
offspring with a certain desirable characteristic (e.g animals with more meat, plants with
disease resistance or big flowers).
This has been happening for many years since animals were domesticated and plants were
grown for food.
● Parents with desired characteristics are chosen.

● They are bred together.
● From the offspring those with desired characteristics are bred together.
● The process is repeated many times until all the offspring have the desired
characteristic.
The problem is that it can lead to inbreeding.

● Breeding those with similar desirable characteristics means it is likely you are
breeding closely related individuals.
● This results in the reduction of the gene pool, as the number of different alleles
reduce (as they mostly have the same alleles).
● This means if the environment changes or there is a new disease, the species
could become extinct as they all have the same genetic make-up (so the chance of a
few organisms having a survival advantage and not dying is reduced). This is
particularly relevant in selective breeding of plants, as one disease could spread
rapidly and destroy the entire population of crops. This could cause severe
economic problems, especially for the farmers who rely on income from their
crops.
● Another problem is that the small gene pool leads to a greater chance of genetic
defects being present in offspring, as recessive characteristics are more likely to
present. This is particularly relevant in domesticated animals, which have a much
higher frequency of genetic conditions than normal.
4.9B **Biology Only** - Tissue Culture
Tissue culture is a method of culturing living tissue, i.e making it grow outside the organism,
within a growth medium. This is especially useful for plants - we can produce an entire field
of identical cloned crops using just a small cutting. Tissue culture can also be used to
culture animal and human tissues outside of the body.
In plants, this is performed as follows:
1. Take the plant that you would like to clone - for example, a plant with desirable
characteristics.
2. Using tweezers, remove a piece of tissue from a fast-growing region of the plant, e.g
the root or shoot tip.
3. Using aseptic technique (maintaining sterile conditions), place the tissue on a
special growth medium (containing hormones and nutrients).
4. Once the tissue has developed enough (e.g produced shoots and roots), it can be
transferred to compost for further growth.
Benefits of tissue culture Risks of tissue culture
Produces lots of offspring The gene pool is reduced through producing

with a specific desirable clones, meaning it is less likely that the
feature. population will survive if a disease arises
with low diversity in the population.
Increasing the number of Clones have a low survival rate, and tend to
crops resistant to bad have some genetic problems.
weather, for example, can
increase crop yields
Can help extremely It may lead to human cloning.

endangered species, or
even bring back species
that have become extinct.
4.10 - Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering: Modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from

another organism to give a desired characteristic.
● Plant cells have been engineered for disease resistance or to have larger fruits
● Bacterial cells have been engineered to produce substances useful to humans, such
as human insulin to treat diabetes.
4.11 **Higher Only** - Stages of Genetic Engineering
1. Genes from chromosomes are ‘cut out’ using restriction enzymes.

2. The same restriction enzymes are used to cut the vector (such as a virus or
bacterial plasmid) into which the genes will be placed.
3. Ligase enzyme is used to attach the sticky ends of the gene and the vector
together, to produce a recombinant gene product.The vector is placed in
another organism at an early stage in development so the desired gene moves
into its cells and cause the organism to grow with the desired characteristics.
In plants the vector is put into meristematic cells (unspecialised cells) which
can then produce identical copies of the modified plant.
4.12B **Biology Only** - Advantages and Disadvantages of GM

Organisms
Genetically modified crops

● They are engineered to be resistant to insects and to herbicides.
● This will result in increased yields as less crops will die.
Genetic modification in medicine

● It may be possible to use genetic engineering to cure inherited disorders.
● It is called gene therapy and involves transferring normal genes (not faulty) into
patients so the correct proteins are produced.
Perceived benefits of genetic Perceived risks of genetic engineering

engineering
It can be very useful in medicine to GM crops might have an effect on wild flowers
mass produce certain hormones in and therefore insects.
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi). ● GM crops are infertile and these genes
could spread into wild plants, leading to
infertility in other species, which affects
the entire environment.
● Growing with herbicides and pesticides
can kill insects and other plants, which
would reduce biodiversity.
In agriculture it can be used to improve People are worried that we do not completely
yields by: understand the effects of GM crops on human
● Improving growth rates health.
● Introducing modifications that
allow the crops to grow in
different conditions, e.g. hotter
or drier climates
allow plants to make their own
pesticide or herbicide
Crops with extra vitamins can be Genetic engineering in agriculture could lead
produced in areas where they are to genetic engineering in humans. This may
difficult to obtain. result in people using the technology to have
designer babies.
Greater yields can help solve world They pose a selection pressure, which could
hunger, which is becoming an lead to increased resistance in other species,
increasingly bigger issue due to creating super weeds and pests.
population growth.
Bt crops
Bacillus thuringiensis is the name of a bacteria that produces toxins that kill insect larvae.
This is a useful function for crops, so we use genes from the bacteria in crops to increase
their insect resistance.
Genes are cut out from the bacteria using restriction enzymes, and re-inserted into the
crop using ligase, as described above. The crop will then produce the toxin - any insects
that eat the crop will die.
As a result, less of the crop gets eaten by insects, increasing the crop yield and profits.
However, there are concerns over this method - we don’t know if the toxin has any effect
on human health, for example. Killing insects also results in a loss of biodiversity, which
can affect the entire ecosystem.
4.13B **Biology Only** - Agricultural Solutions
We can use various agricultural solutions to cope with the demands of a growing human
population. Two of the most useful methods are:
1) Fertilisers - fertilisers provide useful nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) to plants,
making them more resistant to environmental conditions and able to grow faster and
larger - resulting in increased crop yields. However, excess fertiliser can often run off
into rivers, killing fish and other wildlife and affecting biodiversity.
2) Biological control - biological control is the use of certain species to control
population of other species. For example, Aphelinus abdominalis, the aphid killer
wasp, has been used successfully to control aphid populations - which feed on fruit
crops. However, this reduces biodiversity, and again, has a knock-on effect across
the whole ecosystem.
4.14 - Implications of Genetic Engineering and Selective Breeding
Perceived benefits of genetic Perceived risks of genetic engineering

engineering
It can be very useful in medicine to GM crops might have an effect on wild flowers
mass produce certain hormones in and therefore insects.
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi). ● GM crops are infertile and these genes
could spread into wild plants, leading to
infertility in other species, which affects
the entire environment.
● Growing with herbicides and pesticides
can kill insects and other plants, which
would reduce biodiversity.
In agriculture it can be used to improve People are worried that we do not completely
yields by: understand the effects of GM crops on human
● Improving growth rates health.
allow the crops to grow in
different conditions, e.g. hotter
or drier climates
allow plants to make their own
pesticide or herbicide
Crops with extra vitamins can be Genetic engineering in agriculture could lead
produced in areas where they are to genetic engineering in humans. This may
difficult to obtain. result in people using the technology to have
designer babies.
Greater yields can help solve world They pose a selection pressure, which could
hunger, which is becoming an lead to increased resistance in other species,
increasingly bigger issue due to creating super weeds and pests.
population growth.
Benefits of selective breeding Disadvantages of selective breeding
It is possible to greatly increase the Selecting for advantageous characteristics can

yield of a particular crop by selectively sometimes cause severe health problems in
breeding only individuals that produce the offspring - e.g chickens that have been
higher quality or a larger mass of food. bred to have more meat (muscle) are
sometimes too large to be able to walk.
Individual plants or animals can be bred Lack of genetic variation - Despite the bred
to be resistant to a particular disease, population being able to have resistance to a
which could increase crop yield particular disease (or multiple diseases), if one
of them has susceptibility to a different disease
then they all do - and the entire population
could be wiped out as a result.
There are ethical issues associated with

selective breeding -many people consider it
unethical to selectively breed for
characteristics wanted by humans if it means
that the offspring will suffer, or have a reduced
quality of life as a result.
Topic 5: Health, Disease and the

Development of Medicines
Notes

CONTENTS
5.1. 5.2, 5.3 - Definitions of Health, Disease and Susceptibility

5.4 - Pathogens
5.5 - Common Infections and their Pathogens
5.6 - How Pathogens Spread
5.7B - **Biology Only** Lifecycle of a Virus
5.8 - Sexually Transmitted Infections
5.9B, 5.10B - **Biology Only** Plant Barriers against Disease
5.11B - **Higher and Biology Only** D etecting and Identifying Plant Disease
5.12 - Human Barriers against Disease
5.13 - The Specific Immune Response
5.14 and 5.15B - Immunisation (Advantages and disadvantages are **Biology
Only**)
5.16 - Antibiotics
5.17B - **Biology Only** Aseptic Technique
5.18B - **Biology Only** Core Practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics
and antibiotics
5.19B - **Biology Only** Calculations with Bacterial Cultures
5.20 - Developing New Medicines
5.21B - **Higher and Biology Only** Production of Monoclonal Antibodies
iology Only** Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies
5.22B - **Higher and B
5.23 - Factors affecting Non-Communicable Disease
5.24 - Lifestyle Factors and Disease
5.25 - Evaluating Treatments for Cardiovascular Disease
5.1. 5.2, 5.3 - Definitions of Health, Disease and Susceptibility
The definition of health given by the World Health Organisation (WHO) is:
“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.”
Therefore, there are multiple different aspects to health that need to be considered - we
need to take into account social and lifestyle factors too.
Communicable and non-communicable disease

Communicable diseases are those which can be transferred between individuals. This
might be through air particles from coughing (known as droplet infection), from parasites in
faeces (the faecal-oral route) or through bodily fluids including blood, semen and breast
milk. These include viral infections such as flu, bacterial infections such as the common cold,
and parasitic infections.
Non-communicable diseases are those which cannot be transferred between individuals.

These are usually conditions with a genetic component or conditions acquired due to lifestyle
factors. Some examples are cardiovascular disease, asthma, and diabetes.
Susceptibility to disease
Often, the presence of one disease can lead to increased susceptibility to other diseases.
For example:
- Having HIV means that your immune system is impaired, leaving you at risk to many
other ‘opportunistic’ infections, caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi.
- Having a particular virus called HPV can increase a woman’s risk of developing
cervical cancer.
5.4 - Pathogens
The definition of a pathogen is an organism which causes disease. They can infect plants
or animals, spreading through either direct contact, by water or by air. Most pathogens fall
into one of several types:
Viruses
● Very small
● They move into cells and use the biochemistry of it to make many copies of
itself
● This leads to the cell bursting and releasing all of the copies into the
bloodstream
● The damage and the destruction of the cells makes the individual feel ill
Bacteria
● Small
● They multiply very quickly through dividing by a process called binary fission
● They produce toxins that can damage cells
Fungi
● They can either be single celled or have a body made of hyphae (thread-like
structures)
They can produce spores which can be spread to other organisms
Protists
● Some are parasitic, meaning they use humans and animals as their hosts
(live on and inside, causing damage)
5.5 - Common Infections and their Pathogens
Name of Category of Name of Effects Method of

Disease Pathogen Pathogen Spread
Cholera Bacteria Vibrio cholerae Diarrhoea Water
Tuberculosis Bacteria Mycobacterium Lung damage, Airborne

tuberculosis coughing
Chalara ash Fungi Hymenoscyphu Leaf loss, bark Airborne

dieback s fraxineus lesions
Malaria Protists Plasmodium Damage to Animal vector

falciparum (and blood and liver (mosquito)
others)
HIV Virus Human Destroys white Body fluids

Immunodeficien blood cells,
cy Virus leads to onset
of AIDS
Helicobacter Bacteria Helicobacter Can lead to Oral

pylori stomach ulcers transmission
Ebola Virus B. ebolavirus Causes Body fluids

(and others) hemorrhagic
fever (fever
accompanied
by severe
bleeding)
The ways that pathogens are spread include:
● Direct contact- touching contaminated surfaces
Examples: kissing, contact with bodily fluids, direct skin to skin, microorganisms from
faeces, infected plant material left in field
● By water- drinking or coming into contact with dirty water
● By air- pathogens can be carried in the air and then breathed in (a common example
is the droplet infection, which is when sneezing, coughing or talking expels
pathogens in droplets which can be breathed in)
The damage that disease causes to populations can be reduced by limiting the spread of the
pathogens.
● Improving hygiene: Hand washing, using disinfectants, isolating raw meat, using
tissues and handkerchiefs when sneezing
● Reducing contact with infected individuals
● Removing vectors: Using pesticides or insecticides and removing their habitat
● Vaccination: By injecting a small amount of a harmless pathogen into an individual’s
body, they can become immune to it so it will not infect them. This means they
cannot pass it on to other individuals.
5.7B **Biology Only** - Lifecycle of a Virus
Viruses can ‘survive’ outside of a host - however, they require host cells to reproduce. This
can be done in two ways:
Lytic pathway
1. Using host cell machinery, the virus replicates its DNA.
2. Next, these are assembled to form new virus particles.
3. Once the host cell is full of virus particles, it bursts in a process called lysis
4. The process is then repeated with nearby cells.
Lysogenic pathway
1. The virus uses restriction enzymes to insert its DNA into the host cell DNA - or it
can insert small circular fragments of DNA called plasmids into the host cell
cytoplasm.
2. The host cell replicates, and the viral DNA is also copied in this process.
3. The lytic cycle (see above) begins at this point, starting with the assembly of new
viral particles
5.8 - Sexually Transmitted Infections
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are infections which can be spread through sexual
contact, including oral and vaginal sex. They are carried in bodily fluids such as semen and
vaginal fluid. Two examples are:
Name of STI Category of Pathogen Symptoms
Chlamydia Bacteria Often symptomless but if

there are symptoms these
can include painful urination
or pelvic pain. Left untreated
it can lead to infertility.
HIV Virus Increased susceptibility to

other infections, severe
illness and death if
untreated
The spread of STIs can be reduced by using barrier methods of contraception (e.g
condoms) or abstaining from sexual activity.
5.9B, 5.10B **Biology Only** - Plant Barriers against Disease
Plants have several methods of guarding their cells and tissues against pathogens that
cause disease. Some of these methods involve having physical barriers against disease,
whereas others use chemicals to defend against attack from pests and pathogens
Physical barriers
- A thick cellulose cell wall, which is impermeable to many pathogens
- A thick waxy cuticle on the surface of the leaf, which acts as a barrier to most
pathogens
- Some plants are also covered in a layer of bark (e.g trees) which prevents
pathogens from reaching the cells and tissues inside.
- Leaves can often close their stomata (pores) to stop pathogens entering the plant.
Chemical barriers
- Cells of some plants can produce antimicrobial chemicals, proteins and enzymes
- Some plants can release compounds that attract larger insects than the pests, which
feed on the pests and stop them eating the plant.
- Often, we can extract antimicrobial compounds from these plants for use in drugs
such as antibiotics.
5.11B **Higher Only** - Detecting and Identifying Plant
Disease
There is a wide variety of pathogens that cause plant diseases, with an equally large
variety of symptoms. Detecting and identifying these diseases in the lab and in the
field is important, as it helps prevent the spread of disease across an entire crop.
Identifying disease in the field

Plants affected by disease often have a number of visible clues allowing us to identify
it in the field:
- Chalara dieback of ash causes malformations and browning of leaves
- Tobacco mosaic virus causes discolouration of leaves
- Bacterial canker on fruit trees causes loss of leaves, stunted growth and
formation of pus-filled lesions on trunk.
- Aphids can cause serious structural damage to plants
Identifying disease in the lab

Sometimes, laboratory techniques are needed to accurately identify a disease. Plant
virologists use a specific method to do so:
1. Cuttings are taken from the diseased plant.
2. The virus/bacterium causing the disease is grown on a culture medium/agar
plate.
3. The pathogen is tested and identified using a monoclonal antibody testing kit
(known as an ELISA kit).
5.12 - Human Barriers against Disease
The human body, like plants, has a wide variety of physical barriers and chemical
defences to provide protection from pathogens.
Physical barriers
Barrier Associated with Function
Mucus Goblet cells in the airway Produced by goblet cells in

(produce mucus) the airway, mucus traps
bacteria and other
pathogens before they
reach the lungs and cause
infection.
Cilia Ciliated epithelial cells (have Wafts away mucus that has
cilia on their surface) trapped pathogens, to be
killed by stomach acid.
Skin Skin cells Provides a physical barrier
against pathogens,
protecting the tissues and
cells beneath it from
infection.
Chemical barriers
Barrier Found in Function
Lysozymes White blood cells Used by white blood cells to

kill and digest bacteria
Hydrochloric acid Stomach Used to kill bacteria in food

reaching the stomach - to
prevent infection
5.13 - The Specific Immune Response
Mode of action How it protects you
Phagocytosis (white blood This destroys them, meaning they can no longer make you
cells engulfing and feel ill.
consuming pathogens)
Producing antibodies Each pathogen has an antigen on their surface, which is a

structure which a specific complementary antibody can
bind to. Once antibodies begin to bind to the pathogen, the
pathogens start to clump together, resulting in it being
easier for white blood cells to find them and engulf them in
phagocytosis.
During this process, the antigens also trigger production of

memory lymphocytes (lymphocytes are a special type of
white blood cell). If you become infected again with the
same pathogen, the specific complementary antibodies will
be produced at a faster rate. The individual will not feel the
symptoms of the illness. They are said to be immune.
Producing antitoxins They neutralise the toxins released by the pathogen by

binding to them.
5.14 and 5.15B - Immunisation
Vaccinations involve making an individual immune to a certain disease- they are protected
against it before they have been infected. By immunising a large proportion of the
population, the spread of the pathogen is reduced as there are less people to catch the
disease from (called herd immunity).
Naturally, when you are infected with a pathogen, you feel ill until white blood cells
manufacture the correct specific antibody to combat it. Upon a secondary infection, the
antibodies can be produced much quicker, so the pathogen can be destroyed and the
symptoms are not felt. Vaccinations replicate the first infection so that when the person is
exposed to the real disease they do not feel any symptoms, just like in a secondary infection.
● The vaccine contains a dead or inactivated form of the pathogen

● This stimulates white blood cells to produce antibodies complementary to the
antigens on the pathogen
**Biology Only**
Advantages of vaccination Disadvantages of vaccination
They have eradicated many diseases so far They are not always effective in providing
(e.g smallpox) and reduced the occurrence immunity.
of many (e.g rubella).
Epidemics (lots of cases in an area) can be Bad reactions (such as fevers) can occur in
prevented through herd immunity. response to vaccines (although very rare).
5.16 - Antibiotics
Antibiotics can only be used to treat bacterial infections, and not those caused by viruses,
fungi or other pathogens.
Bacteria are susceptible to antibiotics because antibiotics inhibit cell processes in the
bacterium. However, viruses and other pathogens often use cell machinery in host cells
to reproduce, and these are unaffected by antibiotics.
5.17B **Biology Only** - Aseptic Technique
Microorganisms are very small, so in order for scientists to study them they need to grow
many of them in the lab using nutrients (culturing them).
The culture medium contains carbohydrates for energy, minerals, proteins and vitamins.
There are two ways to grow microorganisms in the lab:

1. In nutrient broth solution- involves making a suspension of bacteria to be grown
and mixing with sterile nutrient broth (the culture medium), stoppering the flask with
cotton wool to prevent air from contaminating it and shaking regularly to provide
oxygen for the growing bacteria.
2. On an agar gel plate- the agar acts as the culture medium, and bacteria grown on it
form colonies on the surface.
Making the plate:
● Hot sterilised agar jelly is poured into a sterilised Petri dish, which is left to
cool and set
● Sterilised wire loops called inoculating loops are dipped in a solution of the
microorganism and spread over the agar evenly
● A lid is taped on and the plate is incubated for a few days so the
microorganisms can grow (stored upside down)
The reasons why we follow certain steps in this procedure need to be understood.
Step Why?
Petri dishes and culture media must If this step does not take place, they are likely to
be sterilised before use, often done by be contaminated with other microorganisms.
an autoclave (an oven) or UV light. These could be harmless but will compete with
the desired bacteria for nutrients and space, or
they could be harmful (for example through a
mutation taking place), potentially producing a
new pathogen.
Inoculating loops must be sterilised by This kills unwanted microorganisms, which is

passing them through a flame. needed for reasons above.
The lid of the Petri dish should be Sealing stops airborne microorganisms from
sealed (but not completely) with tape. contaminating the culture, but it should not be
sealed all the way around as this would result in
harmful anaerobic bacteria growing (due to no
oxygen entering).
The Petri dish should be stored This is to prevent condensation from the lid
upside down. landing on the agar surface and disrupting
growth.
The culture should be incubated at 25 If it were incubated at a higher temperature,

degrees. nearer 37 degrees (human body temperature), it
would be more likely that bacteria that could be
harmful to humans would be able to grow as this
is their optimum temperature. At lower
temperatures, colonies of such bacteria would not
be able to grow.
5.18B **Biology Only** - Core Practical: Investigating the effects of

antiseptics and antibiotics and 5.19B **Biology Only** -
Calculations with Bacterial Cultures
It is possible to calculate the cross sectional area of a bacterial culture using the formula for
the area of a circle. If we apply an antibiotic to the agar plate, this is a useful calculation - as
it allows us to determine the effectiveness of the antibiotic. In Part 1 of this experiment,
we will grow the bacterial culture, and in Part 2 we will use πr2 to examine how effective the
antibiotic is:
Growing the bacterial culture

1. Take a Petri dish that has been pre-poured with agar gel, and sterilise it in an
autoclave before use. Use a inoculating loop (sterilised in a Bunsen Burner) to
apply the bacteria being tested to the agar. Seal the top of the plate using tape. (but
not completely - see section 5.17) Incubate the culture at 25 degrees C for 3 days.
2. Apply a filter paper disc soaked in antibiotic solution to the centre of the agar plate
and wait for 24 hours, or until there is no further change.
Calculating the effectiveness of the antibiotic

3. Use a ruler to measure the diameter of the circle taken up by the bacterial
culture and record this measurement. Repeat for the diameter of the clear agar
jelly in the centre, where the antibiotic has killed the bacteria.
4. Divide both diameters by 2 to get the radius of both these circles. Use the formula
for the area of a circle (πr2) to calculate the area of these circles.
5. Divide the area of the smaller circle by the larger, and multiply by 100. This is
the percentage of the bacterial culture that has been destroyed by the antibiotic. The
higher the percentage, the more effective the antibiotic.
We can repeat these calculations for multiple antibiotics and bacteria, in order to determine
the effectiveness of different bacteria/antibiotic combinations. This is useful as it allows
doctors and scientists to work out which antibiotics are most effective for particular
bacterial infections.
5.20 - Developing New Medicines
Many drugs were initially discovered in plants and microorganisms. New drugs today are
mainly synthesised by chemists. They need to be tested for toxicity, efficacy (how well they
carry out their role) and dose, using preclinical testing and clinical trials.
Plants
The chemicals that plants use to kill pests and pathogens can be used to treat symptoms or
human diseases.
Examples:
● Aspirin is used as a painkiller (originates from willow)
● Digitalis is used to treat heart problems (originates from foxgloves)
Microorganisms
● Penicillin
○ Alexander Fleming was growing bacteria on plates
○ He found mould (Penicillium mould) on his culture plates, with clear rings
around the mould indicating there was no longer any bacteria there
○ He found that the mould was producing a substance called penicillin, which
killed bacteria
Any new drugs being developed need to be tested to ensure they are safe and effective.
Preclinical testing: using cells, tissues and live animals
Clinical testing: using volunteers and patients

● It is first tested on healthy volunteers with a low dose to ensure there are no
harmful side effects
● The drugs are then tested on patients to find the most effective dose
● To test how well it works, patients are split into two groups with one group
receiving the drug and one receiving a placebo (appears to look like the drug
but has no active ingredient so no effect) so the effect of the new drug can be
observed
● These can be single-blind (only the doctor knows whether the patient is
receiving the drug) or double blind (neither the patient or doctor knows
whether they are receiving the drug, removing any biases the doctor may
have when they are recording the results).
The results then need to be peer reviewed by other scientists to check for repeatability.
5.21B **Higher and Biology Only** - Production of Monoclonal
Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies, that have been produced from the
same immune cell. As a result of their ability to bind to only one protein antigen, they
can be used to target chemicals and cells in the body and so have many different
medical uses, e.g. in pregnancy testing.
How are they produced:

1. Scientists obtain mice lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell that make
antibodies but cannot divide), which have been stimulated to produce a
specific antibody.
2. They are combined with tumour cells (do not make antibodies but divide
rapidly), to form a cell called a hybridoma.
3. The hybridoma can divide to produce clones of itself, which all produce the
same antibody.
4. The antibodies are collected and purified.
5.22B **Higher and Biology Only** - Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies
Examples of the uses of monoclonal antibodies include in pregnancy tests, in

laboratories to measure the levels of hormones or chemicals, in research and in the
treatment of some diseases.
1. Pregnancy tests
A hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is present in the
urine of women who are pregnant.
● There are two sections of the stick.
● The first section has mobile antibodies complementary to the hCG
hormone- these antibodies are also attached to blue beads.
● The second section has stationary antibodies complementary to the
hCG hormone which are stuck down to the stick.
● The individual urinates on the first section, and if hCG is present it
binds to the mobile antibodies attached to blue beads to form
hCG/antibody complexes.
● They are carried in the flow of liquid to the second section.
● The stationary antibodies then bind to the HCG/antibody complexes.
● As they are each bound to a blue bead, results in a blue line.
● This indicates that you are pregnant.
2. In laboratories to analyse blood

● They can be used to measure and monitor levels of hormones or
chemicals in the blood.
● The monoclonal antibodies are modified so that they will bind to the
molecule you are looking for.
● The antibodies are also bound to a fluorescent dye.
● If the molecules are in the sample then the antibodies bind to it, and the
dye can be observed.
● An example is screening donated blood for HIV infections.
3. In research to find or identify certain molecules on a cell or tissue

● The same method as above is applied, and scientists look for a build up
of the fluorescence.
4. In the treatment of disease, e.g. cancer

Cancer cells have antigens on their cell membranes known as tumour markers
(not found on normal body cells), which can be targeted. There are three main
ways to treat cancers using monoclonal antibodies.
a) Producing monoclonal antibodies that bind to the tumour markers in
order to stimulate the immune system to attack the cell.
b) Using monoclonal antibodies to bind to receptor sites on the cell
surface membrane of the cancer cells. This means growth-stimulating
molecules cannot bind, stopping the cell from dividing.
c) Using monoclonal antibodies to transport toxic drugs, chemicals or
radioactive substances as they can only bind to cancer cells.
Advantages of using monoclonal Disadvantages of using monoclonal

antibodies antibodies
They only bind to specific cells, meaning It is difficult to attach monoclonal

healthy cells are not affected. antibodies to drugs.
They can be engineered to treat many They are expensive to develop.

different conditions.
We are now able to produce As they were produced from mice

mouse-human hybrid cells to reduce the lymphocytes, they often triggered an
chance of triggering an immune immune response when used in
response. humans.
5.23 - Factors affecting Non-Communicable Disease
Non-communicable human diseases - for example cardiovascular disease, asthma, and

diabete, are caused by the interaction of a number of different factors.
- Cardiovascular diseases such as coronary heart disease can be caused by high

dietary intake of saturated fat, combined with a sedentary (inactive) lifestyle.
- Several forms of cancer can be contributed to by various factors - for example,
smoking greatly increases the risk of lung cancer, whereas the risk of developing
breast cancer is largely due to a combination of age and genetics.
- Lung and liver diseases are made more likely by smoking and high alcohol intake
respectively. However, other factors can play a part - especially age and genetics.
As an individual gets older, they are more likely to suffer from these conditions.
- Vitamin and nutritional deficiencies are common in anorexic patients, as well as

those who can’t absorb or use nutrients properly (including patients with coeliac
disease and anaemia). Obesity, on the other hand, is caused by excess caloric
intake (food intake), and can again be heavily influenced by genetics - some people
are more likely to gain weight than others.
5.24 - Lifestyle Factors and Disease
Lifestyle factors (diet, exercise etc.) play a vital role in determining whether people will
develop non-communicable diseases.
Obesity
- Eating more calories than you burn from physical activity (and everyday
metabolism) causes us to put on weight.
- Eating a very large excess of calories, especially if a high proportion of these calories
come from saturated fat, can lead to obesity and related illnesses.
- Obesity is an important problem worldwide, but especially in developed countries
such as the UK.
- Obesity can lead to developing cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure,
as fat (lipid) deposits form inside blood vessels.
- Obesity can also contribute to developing Type 2 diabetes, as the body cannot use
insulin as effectively when there is a high proportion of body fat.
- Government programs such as the ‘sugar tax’ are aimed at reducing obesity across
the country. Eating fewer processed foods, less sugar, saturated fat and high
calorie foods can help reduce the risk of becoming obese.
Malnutrition
- Equally, eating significantly fewer calories than we use can lead to malnutrition,
as the body will not be receiving adequate amounts of nutrients and vitamins.
- The symptoms can be different depending on the vitamin or nutrient that is deficient.
- Malnutrition is less of a problem in developed countries like the UK, but more of an
issue in underdeveloped countries where many people do not have enough money
to eat.
We can work out BMI (Body Mass Index) to determine whether someone is underweight, of
a healthy weight, obese or morbidly (severely) obese.
If someone’s BMI is over 30, they are classified as obese.
We can also use the waist-hip ratio, calculated by dividing waist circumference (cm) by hip
circumference (cm). Obesity is classified as a waist-hip ratio of more than 0.85 for women,
or more than 1.0 in men.
Liver disease
- A high alcohol intake can lead to liver disease.
- A type of liver disease called fatty liver is common in alcoholics. It can lead to liver
cancer and impaired liver function.
- Alcoholics often also have vitamin deficiencies (particularly vitamin B6, thiamine)
- The recommended weekly allowance for men and women is 14 units a week.
Drinking less than this significantly reduces the risk of developing liver disease.
Lung disease
- Smoking dramatically increases the risk of developing several lung diseases
- These include COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), bronchitis, pneumonia
and lung cancer.
- Cigarette smoke contains over 40 different chemicals, all of which have different
effects on the body - for example, tar can cause lung cancer and nicotine can cause
high blood pressure and heart failure.
- The UK government provide services to help and encourage smokers to quit
smoking.
5.25 - Evaluating Treatments for Cardiovascular Disease
There are several treatment options available for cardiovascular disease, including life-long
medication, surgery and lifestyle changes:
Life-long medication
- There are several medications that will either reduce cholesterol or reduce blood
pressure.
- People with very high blood pressure may have to take multiple medications to
reduce it.
- They will most likely have to take these for the rest of their life.
Surgical procedures
- Sometimes medication does not work effectively, and surgery may be required.
- Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygen, and cover the heart
- If these are blocked, a coronary artery bypass can be performed, where the
blocked sections of the coronary artery are ‘bypassed’.
- Another method involves using a metal stent to widen arteries that have been
narrowed by fat deposits (atherosclerosis)
Lifestyle changes
- Lifestyle changes (changes to exercise, diet and other habits) are very important in
preventing and treating cardiovascular disease.
- Reducing the amount of saturated fat we eat can reduce the risk of developing
atherosclerosis (fat deposits in the arteries) and high cholesterol.
- Maintaining a healthy BMI can reduce strain on the heart.
- Taking regular exercise ensures that we remain at a healthy weight
- Reducing the amount of salt in the diet, and managing stress levels, can prevent
high blood pressure from developing.
Topic 6: Plant Structures and Their

Functions
Notes

CONTENTS
6.1, 6.2, 6,3 - Photosynthesis

6.4 - **Higher Only** Interaction of Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis
6.5 - Core Practical: Light Intensity and Rate of Photosynthesis
6.6 - **Higher Only** Inverse Square Law: Rate of Photosynthesis
6.7 and 6.8 - Structure Adaptations
6.9 - Transpiration and the Stomata
6.10 - Translocation
6.11B - **Biology Only** Adaptations of the Leaf
6.12 - Environmental Factors and Rate of Water Uptake
6.13 - Rate Calculations for Transpiration
6.14B - **Biology Only** Extreme Adaptations
6.15B - **Biology Only** Plant Hormones and Growth
6.16B - **Higher and Biology Only** Commercial Uses of Plant Hormones
6.1, 6.2, 6,3 - Photosynthesis
Plants and algae are the main producers of food, which they synthesise from sunlight in a
process called photosynthesis. They are also therefore the primary producers of biomass
in all food webs and food chains.
- Photosynthesis occurs in plants and algae.

- It is an endothermic reaction, meaning that it takes in more energy than it releases.
- Light energy from the environment is transferred to chloroplasts in leaves.
The equation for photosynthesis is:
light
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Each compound has its own chemical symbol:

Carbon dioxide: CO2
Water: H2 O
Oxygen: O2
Glucose: C6H12O6
The rate of the process is affected by a number of factors.
Factor Effect
Temperature With an increase in temperature, the rate of

photosynthesis increases. As the reaction is
controlled by enzymes, this trend continues
up to a certain temperature until the
enzymes begin to denature and the rate of
reaction decreases.
Light Intensity For most plants, the higher the light

intensity, the faster the rate of the
reaction.
Carbon dioxide concentration Carbon dioxide is also needed to make

glucose (see equation). As the
concentration of carbon dioxide increases,
the rate of reaction increases.
Any of the factors above may become a limiting factor. This is an environmental condition
(such as light intensity) which, in low levels, restricts any increase in the rate of
photosynthesis. Despite increases in other factors (such as temperature or carbon dioxide
concentration), the rate of photosynthesis will not increase any more. This can be seen on a
graph as the curve levelling off.
6.4 **Higher Only** - Interaction of Limiting Factors in

Photosynthesis
By carrying out an experiment measuring the oxygen production of a plant, you can
calculate the rate of photosynthesis.
● Pondweed is placed in a test tube full with water. The top is sealed with a bung.
A capillary tube also containing water leads into the test tube, and it is
attached to a syringe.
● A lamp is placed at a measured distance from the test tube.
● As it photosynthesises, oxygen is produced, forming a gas tube in the capillary
tube
● The distance the bubble has moved is measured using a ruler to calculate the
volume of oxygen produced.
● Many variables can be changed to observe their effect on photosynthesis: the
temperature (using a water bath), time the pondweed is left, the light intensity
(varied by the distance the lamp is from the plant).
● It is important to control all factors that may affect photosynthesis except your
independent variable (the one you want to observe), so it is a valid experiment.
Any of the factors above may become a limiting factor. This is an environmental
condition (such as light intensity) which, in low levels, restricts any increase in the
rate of photosynthesis. Despite increases in other factors (such as temperature or
carbon dioxide concentration), the rate of photosynthesis will not increase any more.
This can be seen on a graph as the curve levelling off.
● A graph involves one limiting factor if it has one line which levels off, with the
factor on the horizontal axis and rate of photosynthesis on the vertical axis.
● A graph with two lines represents two limiting factors in two experiments. The
investigation involves increasing the factor on the horizontal axis, and is
carried out at two different other environmental conditions, such as two
different temperatures.
Light intensity is measured in lux and in this graph we can see that the limiting factor
is light intensity. This is because the 50 lux levels limits the rate of photosynthesis
compared to the 100 lux experiment, showing that at 50 lux light intensity was the
limiting factor - it had the potential to increase the rate of photosynthesis further if it
were increased.
● A graph involves three limiting factors is similar to the one above, but another
factor is stated on each line, which is the same in each
The limiting factor is temperature as light intensity is the same in each and
carbon dioxide is increasing.
Farmers can use the knowledge of limiting factors to enhance the conditions in the
greenhouse for a greater rate of photosynthesis. This will increase growth leading to
increased profits.
6.5 - Core Practical: Light Intensity and Rate of Photosynthesis
We can set up a simple experiment to measure the rate of photosynthesis in a plant:
We will need a sealed 100ml flask filled with water at room temperature, a gas syringe, a
small amount of pondweed, a small lamp and a 1m ruler.
1. Use the ruler to place the flask and pondweed 15cm from the lamp.
2. Leave the apparatus for around 10 minutes to allow the pondweed to adjust.
3. Connect the gas syringe to the flask and record the change in volume on the syringe
after 5 minutes.
4. Move the lamp 10cm further away and measure the volume change again. Repeat.
Plot your results on a graph of distance from lamp on the x-axis, and change in gas
volume on the y-axis.
6.6 **Higher Only** - Inverse Square Law: Rate of Photosynthesis
As mentioned above, light intensity is directly proportional to the rate of

photosynthesis. This is because the greater the intensity of light, the more photons
(light energy) hit the chloroplasts in the leaf, and the more photosynthesis can occur
at once.
It makes sense, then, that the opposite pattern can be seen between the rate of
photosynthesis and the distance from the light source: inverse proportion describes a
relationship between two factors which involves one increasing whilst one
decreasing. As the distance between the light source and the plant increases, the
light intensity decreases. The light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance- called the inverse square law.
Light intensity ∝1/distance 2
This means that if a lamp is 2 metres away from a plant, then then light intensity of the
lamp is a ¼ of its original value.
1/22 = ¼
6.7 and 6.8 - Structure Adaptations
Several cells in plants are adapted to perform specific functions:
Root hair cells: specialised to take up water by osmosis and mineral ions by active
transport from the soil as they are found in the tips of roots
● Have a large surface area due to root hairs, meaning more water can move in
● The large permanent vacuole affects the speed of movement of water from
the soil to the cell
● Mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for the active transport of
mineral ions into the root hair cell
Xylem cells: specialised to transport water and mineral ions up the plant from the roots
to the shoots
● Upon formation, a chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells
to die. We say that these dead cells have become lignified. They become
hollow and are joined end-to-end to form a continuous tube so water and
mineral ions can move through.
● Lignin is deposited in spirals which helps the cells withstand the pressure
from the movement of water
Phloem cells: specialised to carry the products of photosynthesis (food) to all parts of
the plants
● Cell walls of each cell form structures called sieve plates when they break
down, allowing the movement of substances from cell to cell
● Unlike xylem, these cells within phloem are alive
● Despite losing many sub-cellular structures, the energy these cells need to be
alive is supplied by the mitochondria of the companion cells.
● These cells use this energy to transport sucrose (the sugar that plants use)
around the plant
6.9 - Transpiration and the Stomata
Transpiration is the loss of water of water vapour from the leaves and stems of the plant. It
is a consequence of gaseous exchange, as the stomata are open so that this can occur.
● Water also evaporates at the open stomata (pores) on the leaf surfaces
● As water molecules are attracted to each other, when some molecules leave the
plant the rest are pulled up through the xylem
● This results in more water being taken up from the soil resulting in a continuous
transpiration stream through the plant
Guard cells close and open stomata.

● They are kidney shaped
● They have thin outer walls and thick inner walls
● When lots of water is available to the plant, the cells fill and change shape, opening
stomata (they are also light sensitive)
● This allows gases to be exchanged and more water to leave the plant via evaporation
● More stomata are found on the bottom of the leaf, allowing gases to be exchanged
whilst minimising water loss by evaporation as the lower surface is shaded and
cooler.
6.10 - Translocation
Translocation is the movement of food substances (such as sucrose) made in the leaves
up or down the phloem, for use immediately or storage.
● Translocation only occurs in the phloem, not the xylem or any other tissues in the
plant.
● Translocation of sucrose occurs from the sources (the places where it is made) to
the sinks (the places where it used or stored)
● The location of the sources and sinks can depend on the season. For example, in
spring the source could be located in the root, and the sink in the leaf - and in
summer this could be the other way around.
6.11B **Biology Only** - Adaptations of the Leaf
Leaves have several adaptations to allow them to perform specific functions:
Stomata: See above. They are able to close to minimise water loss and open to increase
evaporation and transpiration. Stomata also allow gas exchange to occur when they are
open.
Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll is green, which is the most efficient colour for absorbing light. This
means that the most light possible is absorbed.
Thinness: Leaves are very thin, meaning that carbon dioxide only has a short distance to
travel to enter the leaf (and work in photosynthesis) and oxygen only has a short distance to
diffuse out.
Large surface area: Having a large surface area means that the leaf can absorb more light
at once, maximising the rate of photosynthesis
6.12 - Environmental Factors and Rate of Water Uptake
The factors that affect the rate of water uptake and transpiration are very similar to those that
affect the rate of evaporation:
Factor Effect
Increase in temperature The molecules move faster, resulting in evaporation

happening at a faster rate and therefore the rate of
transpiration increases.
The rate of photosynthesis increases, meaning more stomata
are open for gaseous exchange, so more water evaporates
and the rate of transpiration increases.
Increase in relative If the relative humidity is high, then there will be a reduced
humidity (the measure of concentration gradient between the concentrations of water
the concentration of water vapour inside and outside the leaf, resulting in a slower rate
vapour in the air in of diffusion. This will decrease the rate of transpiration.
comparison to the total
concentration of water
that air can hold)
Increased air movement If more air is moving away from the leaf due to it being blown
(wind) away, then the concentration of water vapour surrounding the
leaf will be lower. This will mean there will be a steeper
concentration gradient resulting in diffusion happening faster.
This will increase the rate of transpiration.
Increase in light intensity This leads to an increased rate of photosynthesis, so more

stomata open to allow gaseous exchange to occur. This
means more water can evaporate, leading to an increased
rate of transpiration.
6.13 - Rate Calculations for Transpiration
Measuring the uptake of water by the plant gives an indication to the rate of transpiration,
because water is only taken up if water leaves the plant. This is observed by using a
potometer, which involves placing a plant in a capillary tube in water, and measuring the
distance travelled by a bubble.
We can place a leaf shoot in one end of the potometer, and use a ruler to measure how far
the bubble travels up the capillary tube in a set time (e.g 1 minute). The further the bubble
moves in this time, the greater the rate of transpiration and thus the greater the rate of water
uptake.
6.14B **Biology Only** - Extreme Adaptations
Many plants are adapted to survive in extreme environments. To do so, they need to have
specific adaptations which maximise their ability to take in sunlight and carbon dioxide:
Leaf shape and size - many desert plants do not have leaves, or have very small leaves.
This reduces the amount of water lost as a result of transpiration.
Presence of a waxy cuticle - many leaves have a waxy cuticle on top, preventing
evaporation of water in environments where water is scarce.
Stomata - stomata are small pores on the surface of a leaf. They can be closed to
prevent evaporation of water in extreme environments, and opened when carbon dioxide is
needed for photosynthesis. This is useful, as it means that the plant can adapt when water
is scarce.
6.15B **Biology Only** - Plant Hormones and Growth
Plants need hormones to coordinate and control growth. They are needed for tropisms.
Examples of these include phototropism, the response to light, and gravitropism or
geotropism, the response to gravity. Hormones move from the place they are made to
where they are needed in order to produce the appropriate response.
Auxins
Most plants show positive phototropism because they grow towards the light source.
● The plant is exposed to light on one side.
● Auxin, a growth hormone, moves to the shaded side of the shoot.
● Auxin stimulates cells to grow more here.
● This means the shoot bends towards the light.
● The plant receives more light, meaning photosynthesis can occur at a faster rate.
Most shoots show negative gravitropism as they grow away from gravity. If a shoot is
horizontal:
● Auxin moves to the lower side.
● The cells of the shoot grow more on the side with most auxin, so it stimulates cells to
grow more here.
● This makes the shoot bend and grow away from the ground.
● This is beneficial as light levels are likely to be higher further away from the ground.
Most roots show positive gravitropism as they grow towards gravity. If a root is horizontal:
● Auxin moves to the lower side.
● The cells of the root grow more on the side with less auxin, so it stimulates cells to
grow on the upper side.
● This makes the root bend and grow downwards.
● This is beneficial as there are more likely to be increased levels of water and
nutrients lower down, and it provides stability for the plant.
When the auxin distribution becomes equal on both sides it grows straight in that directions.
You can investigate the effect of light or gravity on newly germinated seedlings by varying
conditions.
● Placing in cardboard box and shining light from one side
● Attaching a petri dish containing the seedlings to a wall (effects of gravity)
6.16B **Higher and Biology Only** - Commercial Uses of Plant

Hormones
Humans can use plant hormones to alter plant growth. They are used in areas such as
agriculture and horticulture for many reasons: to increase yield, obtain desirable
features and to lower costs.
Auxin
1. As weed killers
● Many weeds are broad-leaved
● Weedkillers, containing auxin, have been synthesised so they only
affect broad-leaved plants
● The increased amount of auxin causes the cells to grow too rapidly
● This results in the weed dying
2. As rooting powders
● Plants with desirable features are cloned to make more plants with the
same feature
● One way to clone a plant is to take a cutting from the original plant
● Rooting powder containing auxin is applied to it and it is placed in the
ground
● Roots grow and the new plant begins to grow very quickly
3. To promote growth in tissue culture

● Another way to clone a plant is to use tissue culture
● Cells from the plant are taken are placed in a growth medium containing
lots of nutrients
● Hormones such as auxins are added
● The cells begin to form roots and shoots
Gibberellins are used in germination, for fruit and flower:

● Gibberellins allow seed germination to occur by breaking seed
dormancy (the period before germination)
● They allow fruits to grow heavier and larger, increasing yields.
● They encourage flowering plants to flower at a faster rate.
As ethene controls ripening, it is used in the food industry.

● Fruit is picked when it is not ripe
● It is firm which means that during transport it gets less bruised and damaged
● When it is needed to be sold, it is exposed to ethene and warmer temperatures
● Ethene is involved in controlling cell division and stimulates enzymes that
result in fruit ripening.
● This reduces wastage as more fruit is suitable to be sold and it does not ripen
too early
Topic 7: Animal Coordination, Control

and Homeostasis
Notes

CONTENTS
7.1 - Hormones
7.2 - **Higher Only** Adrenaline and the Fight-or-Flight response
7.3 - **Higher Only** Thyroxine and Metabolic Rate
7.4 - The Menstrual Cycle
7.5 - **Higher Only** Interactions between Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle
7.6 and 7.7 - Hormonal Contraception and Evaluating Methods of Contraception
7.8 - **Higher Only** IVF and Assisted Reproductive Therapy (ART)
7.9 and 7.10B - Homeostasis and its Importance **Biology Only** -
(thermoregulation & osmoregulation)
7.11B - **Biology Only** Thermoregulation
7.12B - **Higher and Biology Only** Thermoregulation and Blood Vessels
7.13 - Insulin
7.14 - **Higher Only** Glucagon
7.15 and 7.16 - Causes and Control of Diabetes
7.17 - Body Mass and Diabetes Risk
7.18B - **Biology Only** Structure of the Urinary System
7.19B - **Biology Only** Structure and Function of the Nephron
7.20B - **Higher and Biology Only** ADH and the Collecting Duct
7.21B - **Biology Only** Treatments for Kidney Failure
7.22B - **Biology Only** Urea
7.1 - Hormones
The human body has two communication system- the nervous system and the endocrine
system. The endocrine system sends hormones (chemical messengers) around the body.
When they reach a target tissue they produce a response.
It is made up of glands which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
● Pituitary gland
○ The master gland
○ Secretes hormones into the blood to either have an effect on the body or act
on other glands to stimulate them to produce different hormones
● Pancreas
○ Secretes insulin
○ Controls blood glucose levels
● Thyroid
○ Secretes thyroxine
○ Controls metabolic rate, heart rate and temperature
● Adrenal gland
○ Secretes adrenaline
○ Involved in the ‘fight or flight’ response (the body’s response to stressful
situations)
● Ovary
○ Secretes oestrogen
○ Is involved in the menstrual cycle and the development of female secondary
sexual characteristics (different features that develop during puberty that
distinguish a female from a male)
● Testes
○ Secretes testosterone
○ Is involved in the production of sperm and the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics
The blood transports the hormone to a target organ or tissue where it has an effect.
Compared to the nervous system, the hormonal system is much slower but it acts for longer.
7.2 - **Higher Only** Adrenaline and the Fight-or-Flight response
Adrenaline is a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands to prepare the body
for a flight or flight response. A flight-or-flight response is the body’s response to a
dangerous situation: historically this would have been being confronted by a
dangerous animal, for example.
Aspects of the fight or flight response include:
- Increased heart rate: this allows oxygen to reach the muscles more quickly, so
we can move out of the path of danger
- Increased blood pressure: as above.
- Increased blood flow to muscles: blood vessels leading to vessels dilate
(widen) to allow more blood to reach them. This allows them to contract with
greater strength, and more quickly.
- Increased blood sugar levels: the liver is stimulated to break down glycogen (a
storage molecule) into glucose, which muscles can use to contract.
7.3 - **Higher Only** Thyroxine and Metabolic Rate
Thyroxine regulates metabolic rate (how quickly reactions occur). It is also important
in growth and development.
● Low levels of thyroxine stimulate production of a hormone called TRH in the
hypothalamus
● TRH causes the release of TSH from the pituitary gland
● TSH acts on the thyroid to produce thyroxine
● When thyroxine levels have reached the normal level, thyroxine inhibits the
release of TRH, which stops the production of TSH.
The levels of thyroxine are controlled by negative feedback.

● When the levels increase, it is detected by receptors in the brain
● This inhibits the release of TSH
● This inhibits the release of thyroxine, so levels of thyroxine fall
7.4 and 7.5 - The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is the process the body undergoes each month to prepare for a
potential pregnancy.
It begins with the lining of the uterus breaking down, and the woman has her period.
The layer then builds up again, until ovulation (day 14) occurs- an egg is released from the
ovary and moves to the uterus via the fallopian tube.
If a fertilised egg has not been embedded in the lining after 28 days, it begins to break down
and the cycle continues.
The events of the cycle are controlled by four hormones.
**Higher Only**
1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the maturation of an egg in the
ovary, within a structure called a follicle
● Produced in the pituitary gland
● Stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen
2. Oestrogen causes the lining of the uterus to grow again
● Produced in the ovaries
● Secreted as a result of FSH
● Stimulates the production of LH and inhibits the secretion of more FSH
3. Luteinising hormone (LH)
● Produced in the pituitary gland
● Produced as a result of the
hormone oestrogen
● Its release results in ovulation
4. Progesterone
● Produced in the ovaries and
secreted from the egg follicle.
● Maintains the lining of the uterus,
and supports a pregnancy if the
egg is fertilised
● Inhibits the release of both
FSH and LH
7.6 and 7.7 - Hormonal Contraception and Evaluating Methods of

Contraception
Hormonal methods of contraception

The contraceptive pill must be taken regularly or the bodies own hormones will be
released, leading to an egg maturing.
● The mixed pill contains oestrogen and progesterone

○ This means the oestrogen levels are constantly high, inhibiting FSH so no
eggs mature.
○ The lining also stops developing and the mucus in the cervix becomes thick
so sperm cannot move through
○ Some possible side effects include c hanges in mood, mood swings,
depression, breast pain or tenderness, breast enlargement, increased blood
pressure.
● The progesterone only pill
○ This has less side effects in comparison to the mixed pill.
The contraceptive patch contains oestrogen and progesterone.
● It is small and is stuck on the skin
● Lasts for 1 week
The contraceptive implant releases a continuous amount of progesterone.

● This prevents the ovaries from releasing the egg, thickens the mucus in cervix so
sperm cannot swim and stops fertilised eggs from embedding in the uterus
● Lasts for 3 years
The contraceptive injection is made up of progesterone.

● Same effect as the implant
● Lasts for 2 to 3 months
The plastic intrauterine device (IUD) releases progesterone.

● Same effect as the implant
● T shaped, inserted into the uterus
● Lasts for 5 - 10 years
Non-hormonal methods of contraception

These stop sperm fertilising the egg.
● Chemical methods involve spermicides. These kill or disable sperm, but are only
70% to 80% effective.
● Barrier methods include condoms and diaphragms:
● Condoms are either worn over the penis or are placed inside the vagina. They
also help prevent the individual from contracting sexually transmitted
diseases. A problem is that they can tear and therefore let sperm through.
● A diaphragm is a plastic cup which is positioned over the cervix. It is used
with spermicide.
The copper intrauterine device works by killing sperm in the uterus and stopping any
fertilised embryos from implanting in the uterus lining.
Surgical methods of male and female sterilisation involve cutting and tying the fallopian
tubes or sperm duct. These are often permanent procedures but in some cases can be
reversed.
Abstaining from intercourse ensures that an egg is not fertilised. Others may only abstain
during ovulation.
7.8 - **Higher Only** IVF and Assisted Reproductive Therapy (ART)
Fertility drugs are used to increase the chance of pregnancy.

● The main hormones used are FSH and LH because they stimulate the
maturation and release of the egg.
● The woman can then become pregnant normally.
● Another drug used is called clomiphene. This increases the amount of FSH and
LH released from the hypothalamus, increasing the chance that a woman will
ovulate.
In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) is another treatment.

● The mother is given FSH and LH to encourage the release and maturation of
eggs
● These are extracted from the mother and fertilised in the lab using sperm
● The fertilised eggs develop into embryos and then one or two are inserted in
the uterus
●
Benefits Cons
Provides a way for an infertile couple to It is physically stressful as women may

have a child. have reactions to the hormones, such as
feeling sick.
It is emotionally stressful because it may

not work- success rate for IVF is 26%.
It can lead to multiple births- unexpected

and may be a risk to the babies and the
mother.
Can be expensive if the process needs

to be repeated.
7.9 and 7.10B - Homeostasis and its Importance
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Mechanisms are in

place to keep conditions optimal and constant despite internal and external changes.
Homeostasis is important to maintain enzyme action and all cell functions - including
growth, replication and controlled cell death.
In the human body, homeostasis controls:

● Blood glucose concentration
● Body temperature
● Water levels
Nervous and hormonal communication is involved in the automatic control systems,

which detect changes and respond to them.
All control systems have:
● Receptors - cells that detect stimuli (changes in the environment)
● Coordination centres - process the information received from the receptors, e.g.
brain, spinal cord and pancreas
● Effectors - bring about responses to bring the conditions in the body back to
optimum levels, e.g. muscles or glands
**Biology Only**
Thermoregulation is the act of keeping internal body temperature constant. This is
important because if the temperature exceeds the optimum level of 37 degrees Celsius,
enzymes will gradually become less effective and eventually denature (irreversibly change
shape)
Osmoregulation is the act of keeping the concentration of the blood (i.e the level of
solutes in the blood) at a constant level. If the blood becomes too dilute, water will move
into cells by osmosis and they will swell, eventually bursting under the pressure. If the
blood becomes too concentrated, water will move out of cells and they will shrink.
In either case, they cannot perform their function so it is vital that the blood remains the
same concentration via osmoregulation.
7.11B - **Biology Only** Thermoregulation and 7.12B - **Higher and

Biology Only** Thermoregulation and Blood Vessels
The thermoregulatory centre which monitors and controls body temperature is found in the
hypothalamus of the brain.
● Has receptors that monitor the temperature of the blood
● Has receptors in the skin that send impulses to the thermoregulatory centre
Human body temperature is 37.5 degrees celsius.
If it becomes too high:

● Sweat (evaporates from skin surface resulting in increased energy transfer away
from body) is produced from sweat glands. Note that sweat glands are located in the
dermis layer of the skin. The sweat is released onto the surface of the e
pidermis.
● Vasodilation means more blood flows closer to the surface of the skin,
resulting in increased energy transfer from the body
If it decreases too much:
● Sweating stops
● Skeletal muscles contract rapidly (shivering) to generate heat from respiration
● Hairs stand on end to create an insulating layer, trapping warm air
● Vasoconstriction means blood does not flow so close to the surface, resulting
in less heat lost
You need to be able to explain how these mechanisms work in a given

context/situation.
7.13 - Insulin and 7.14 - **Higher Only** Glucagon
Eating foods that contain carbohydrates increases the glucose levels in the blood.
● If the glucose levels are too high, the pancreas produces the hormone i nsulin
● Insulin binds to cell in target organs (muscles and liver) causing:
○ 1) Glucose to move from the blood into muscle cells for respiration
○ 2) Excess glucose to be converted into glycogen which is stored in the liver
● The blood glucose concentration is reduced.
Glucagon
Rigorous activity, e.g. exercise, uses glucose for respiration and therefore there is
less in the blood.
● If glucose levels decrease, the pancreas produces the hormone glucagon
● Glucagon binds to to the liver cells causing glycogen to be broken down into
glucose
● Glucose is released into the blood, increasing the blood glucose concentration
Your blood glucose concentration is kept constant through using these two
hormones. They work in a negative feedback loop.
● When blood glucose levels increase/decrease, a hormone is secreted to
oppose the change.
● The action of this hormone cannot occur continually because when the blood
arrives at a certain glucose concentration the other hormone is produced,
resulting in the opposite effect.
7.15 and 7.16 - Causes and Control of Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease where the body cannot control blood sugar levels properly.
Type 1 diabetes: the pancreas cannot produce enough insulin. This condition is congenital
(usually from birth/a young age).
● Blood glucose level can rise to a fatal amount
● Glucose is excreted with urine and lots of urine is produced leaving the individual
very thirsty
● It is treated with insulin injections at meal times, which results in glucose being taken
up from the bloodstream
● It is also advised to limit the intake of simple carbohydrates which contain lots of
glucose
● Doctors are attempting to cure diabetes with pancreas and pancreatic cell
transplants, and genetically engineering pancreatic cells from mice to make insulin
Type 2 diabetes: the body cells no longer respond to insulin. This condition is acquired
(usually occurs later in life).
● Blood glucose levels can rise to a fatal amount
● Obesity is a risk factor for this disease
● Treatments include reducing the number of simple carbohydrates in diet, losing
weight and increasing exercise
● There are also drugs to make insulin more effective on body cells, help the pancreas
make more insulin or reduce the amount of glucose absorbed from the gut
7.17 - Body Mass and Diabetes Risk
A Body Mass Index over 30 is generally considered as a definition for obesity. Obesity, and
indeed being overweight, are considered risk factors for developing Type 2 Diabetes. In
fact, as body mass increases the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes increases significantly.
As a reminder, body mass is calculated using the following formula:
Waist-hip measurements can also be used to evaluate body mass, and therefore a person’s
risk for developing type 2 diabetes. A doctor might advise somebody who is at risk of Type
2 diabetes to take a glucose tolerance test to examine how well their body can produce
insulin when it is needed.
7.18B - **Biology Only** Structure of the Urinary System
The urinary system is the bodily system that removes impurities and waste products from
our blood. These impurities are excreted in urine. Its main organ is the kidney. We have
two kidneys, one on the left and one on the right - they are located in the lower back
(lumbar) region.
The route that blood takes to be purified is as follows:
1. Blood containing impurities travels in the renal artery to the kidneys.
2. The kidneys regulate the levels of salt, ions and urea in the blood. Any excess is sent
to the ureter for excretion, and eventually the bladder.
3. The purified blood returns to the circulation by way of the renal vein.
Structure of the kidney

● The inner part of the kidney is called the medulla and the outer part is called the
cortex.
● The ureter carries from kidneys to the bladder to be excreted out the body.
● The kidney is supplied by the renal artery and a renal vein takes blood away.
● Each kidney contains millions of kidney tubules or nephrons and these are made up
of a glomerulus (ball of capillaries), a region for selective reabsorption of substances
to occur and a kidney tubule where water and salt is regulated.
7.19B - **Biology Only** Structure and Function of the Nephron
The kidney contains over a million small units called nephrons. The structure of the
nephrons of the kidney are closely related to their function:
1. Filtration - filtration, or ultrafiltration, occurs in the glomerulus, a collection of

capillaries (small blood vessels) at the start of the nephron. Urea, water, ions and
glucose are small enough to pass out of the capillaries into the B owman’s capsule -
however proteins and cells are too large, and remain in the blood).
2. Selective reabsorption of glucose and ions - The substances in the Bowman’s

capsule move into the tubule. At a point called the proximal convoluted tubule (the
first ‘bend’ in the tubule), as much glucose as was lost during ultrafiltration is
selectively reabsorbed into the blood.
- This is important, as glucose is valuable to the body for energy (from
respiration) and we do not want it to be excreted.
3. Reabsorption of water and ions - water and ions are reabsorbed at the L oop of
Henle and collecting duct areas of the tubule. This process is tightly controlled
according to the osmotic pressure of the blood (see next section.)
7.20B - **Higher and Biology Only** ADH and the Collecting Duct
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is a hormone that is produced by, and released from, the
pituitary gland in the brain. It is released into the bloodstream and travels from the
brain to the kidney. It has special effects on the collecting duct of the nephron that
relate to the water potential of the blood:
- If water potential of the blood is too high, less ADH is released from the
pituitary gland and the collecting duct becomes less permeable to water. This
leads to more water being released in urination (as more remains in the tubule,
ending up in the ureter).
- If water potential of the blood is too low, more ADH is released from the
pituitary gland and the collecting duct becomes more permeable to water. This
leads to less water remaining in the tubule, and more entering blood vessels
surrounding the tubule. Less water is released in urination.
A helpful way to think about the above is by remembering that ADH stands for
antidiuretic hormone:
Anti- means the opposite of

Diuretic is a substance that causes increased urination
Hence ADH is a hormone which ‘prevents you urinating’!
7.21B - **Biology Only** Treatments for Kidney Failure and 7.22B -

**Biology Only** Urea
Kidney failure, also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a serious condition where the
kidneys are unable to perform the processes listed in section 7.20B. Kidney failure is
normally treated using either transplantation or dialysis:
Dialysis
- Dialysis is a type of therapy where a machine outside the body performs the action
of the kidneys (filtering out urea and other waste substances and reabsorbing sugar,
water etc).
- Blood is taken from a vessel in the arm and is mixed with an anticoagulant to
prevent the blood clotting and ‘clogging up’ the machine.
- The machine contains dialysis fluid, which is separated from blood via a
partially-permeable membrane (allows some things to travel across it, but not
others).
- Dialysis fluid contains a similar level of glucose and ions as is found in the
blood, which means these substances remain in the blood and return to the body.
- Dialysis fluid contains no urea, therefore urea diffuses out of the blood into the
dialysis fluid down a concentration gradient.
Transplantation
- Transplantation is an alternative to dialysis, where the kidney is replaced altogether.
This is a lot less restrictive than a dialysis machine, as regular, time-consuming visits
are not required
- There is a significant risk of rejection of the donor kidney, which occurs if specific
antigens on the kidney cells do not match those of the host. Rejection means that an
immune reaction will occur, which can lead to severe illness or death. There is a risk
of this occurring in almost every case of organ transplantation.
- Immunosuppressive drugs can also be useful - these suppress the immune system
and must be taken for the rest of the patient’s life. They prevent an immune rejection
from occurring, but they also cause the immune system to be weak against
pathogens.
- Tissue typing allows us to check if an organ is compatible with the recipient before
transplantation - this often leads to long waits for an organ, but can prevent organ
rejection.
Urea is produced from the breakdown of excess amino acids in the liver.
Topic 8: Exchange and Transport in

Animals
Notes

CONTENTS
8.1 - Transporting Substances

8.2 - Exchange Surfaces and SA: Vol Ratio
8.3 - Adaptations of Alveoli
8.4B - **Biology Only** Factors affecting Rate of Diffusion
8.5B - **Biology Only** Calculating Rate of Diffusion
8.6 - Blood Structure and Function
8.7 - Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
8.8 - Heart and Circulatory System Structure and Function
8.9 - Cellular Respiration
8.10 - Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
8.11 - Core Practical: Investigate the Rate of Respiration in Living Organisms
8.12 - Measures of Cardiac Output
8.1 - Transporting Substances
It is necessary to transport substances into organisms which are vital for life, and to transport
waste products out of the organism to prevent them accumulating.
For example, plants need to be highly specialised at taking in oxygen and transporting
carbon dioxide (a waste product of photosynthesis out), while at the same time being able to
take in dissolved nutrient and mineral. molecules and water from the soil and air.
Animals have especially advanced systems to remove waste - such as the kidney, which
was discussed in Section 7. The kidney efficiently removes waste such as urea and excess
ions. This is vital, as if excess urea is not removed it builds up in the body and becomes
toxic. Excess carbon dioxide can also build up and dissolve in the blood, causing it to
become acidic - leading to a condition called acidosis.
8.2 - Exchange Surfaces and SA: Volume Ratio
Specialised exchange surfaces allow efficient transport of substances from one area to
another (from outside to inside the organism, for example). Exchange surfaces often have a
short distance for diffusion and a large surface area. Some exchange surfaces include:
- The root hair cells of plants: these are specialised to take up water and nutrients
from the soil, as they have a large surface area and thin walls (meaning diffusion
across the wall into the plant can occur quickly)
- The walls of the nephrons in the kidney: these also have thin walls and a very
large surface area, as they are required to efficiently reabsorb substances like water
and glucose.
-
- In the lungs, oxygen is transferred to the blood and carbon dioxide is transferred to
the lungs. This takes place across the surface of millions of air sacs called alveoli,
which are covered in tiny capillaries, which supply the blood.
-
- In the small intestine, cells have projections called villi. Digested food is absorbed
over the membrane of these cells, into the bloodstream.
-
- The gills are where gas exchange takes place in fish. Water which has oxygen
passes through the mouth and over the gills. Each gill has plates called gill
filaments, and upon these are gill lamellae, which is where diffusion of oxygen into
the blood and diffusion of carbon dioxide into the water takes place. Blood flows in
one direction while water flows in the other.
-
- In the leaves of the plant there are many different tissues to aid with gas exchange.
Carbon dioxide diffuses through stomata for photosynthesis, whilst oxygen and
water vapour move out through them. The stomata are controlled by guard cells,
which change the size of the stomata based on how much water the plant received
(the guard cells swell with lots of water and make the stomata larger)
Adaptation Why? Example
Having a large The greater the surface Lungs: the small, spherical alveoli (sites of
surface area area, the more particles gaseous exchange) in the lungs create a
can move through, very large surface area (approximately

resulting in a faster rate 75m2 in humans).
of diffusion
Small intestine: the cells of the small
intestine have millions of villi, which are
projections which increase the surface
area. This means digested food can be
absorbed into the blood faster
Fish gills: these contain lamellae to

increase the surface area.
Leaves: the flattened shape increases the

surface area. The air spaces inside the leaf
increase the surface area, so more carbon
dioxide can enter cells.
Having a thin Provides a short Lungs: alveoli and capillary walls are
membrane diffusion pathway, extremely thin.
allowing the process to
occur faster Small intestine: villi have a single layer of
surface cell.
Having an Creates a steep Lungs: the lungs constantly supply oxygen

efficient blood concentration gradient, to make the blood from alveoli capillaries
supply/being so diffusion occurs oxygenated, by exchanging it for carbon
ventilated (in faster dioxide that can be breathed out. This is a
animals) constant process meaning the
concentration gradient is always steep.
Fish: water flows in one direction and blood

flows in the other - this means that a steep
concentration gradient is maintained as the
concentration of oxygen is always much
higher in the water - so it will diffuse
across.
An important measure of how well an organism or cell can transport substances is the
Surface Area to Volume Ratio. This is the size of the surface area of the organism
compared to its volume
● Calculated by finding the volume (length x width x height) and the surface area
(length x width), and writing the ratio in the smallest whole numbers
● If this is large, the organism is less likely to require specialised exchange surfaces
and a transport system because the rate of diffusion is sufficient in supplying and
removing the necessary gases
● E.g 15 (surface area): 5 (volume) is written as 3:1
Single-celled organisms can use diffusion to transport molecules into their body from the
air- this is because they have a relatively large surface area to volume ratio. Due to their
low metabolic demands, diffusion across the surface of the organism is sufficient enough to
meet its needs.
In multicellular organisms the surface area to volume ratio is small so they cannot rely on
diffusion alone. Instead, surfaces and organ systems have a number of adaptations that
allows molecules to be transported in and out of cells.
- Larger organisms often have a small surface area to volume ratio, as they have a
large volume but relatively small surface area.
- Smaller organisms have a larger surface area to volume ratio, as they have a large
volume relative to their surface area.
The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the better adapted the organism is for diffusion.
If an organism increases its surface area, it can take in more nutrients and expel more waste
products more efficiently.
8.3 - Adaptations of Alveoli
Alveoli are the small ‘air sacs’ in the lungs. They are surrounded by blood vessels with thin
walls, allowing gas exchange between the lungs and blood. Alveoli are adapted for this to
take place in a number of ways:
● They are very small and arranged in clusters, creating a large surface area for
diffusion to take place over
● The capillaries provide a large blood supply, maintaining the concentration gradient
● The walls of the alveoli are very thin, meaning there is a short diffusion pathway
8.4B - **Biology Only** Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion
Many factors affect the rate of diffusion:
Factor Effect
Concentration gradient (difference in The greater the difference in

concentrations) concentration, the faster the rate of
diffusion. This is because more particles
are randomly moving down the gradient
than are moving against it.
Temperature The greater the temperature, the greater

the movement of particles, resulting in
more collisions and therefore a faster
rate of diffusion.
Surface area of the membrane The greater the surface area, the more
space for particles to move through,
resulting in a faster rate of diffusion.
8.5B - **Biology Only** Calculating Rate of Diffusion
You should be able to calculate the rate of diffusion given surface area, difference in
concentration between the two substances either side of a membrane, and the thickness of
a membrane:
means ‘is proportional to’
8.6 - Blood Structure and Function
Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
1. Plasma
● This is liquid that carries the components in the blood: red blood cells, white
blood cells, platelets, glucose, amino acids, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones,
proteins, antibodies and antitoxins
2. Red blood cells
● They carry oxygen molecules from the lungs to all the cells in the body
● Their biconcave disc shape provides a large surface area
● They have no nucleus allowing more room to carry oxygen
● They contain the red pigment haemoglobin, which binds to oxygen and forms
oxyhaemoglobin
3. White blood cells
● They are a part of the immune system, which is the body’s defence against
pathogens (microorganisms that can produce disease)
● They have a nucleus
● There are a number of types:
○ 1- Those that produce antibodies (small proteins that clump them
together) against microorganisms
○ 2- Those that engulf and digest pathogens
○ 3- Those that produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins (poisons)
produced by microorganisms
4. Platelets
● They help the blood clot form at the site of a wound
● The clot dries and hardens to form a scab, which allows new skin to grow
underneath while preventing microorganisms from entering
● Small fragments of cells
● No nucleus
● Without them, cuts would result in excessive bleeding and bruising
8.7 - Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
The body contains three different types of blood vessel:

1. Arteries carry blood AWAY from the heart
● Layers of muscle in the walls make them strong
● Elastic fibres allow them to stretch
● This helps the vessels withstand the high pressure created by the pumping of
the heart
2. Veins carry blood TOWARDS the heart
● The lumen (the actual tube in which blood flows through) is wide to allow the
low pressure blood to flow through
● They have valves to ensure the blood flows in the right direction
3. Capillaries allow the blood to flow very close to cells to enable substances to move
between them
● One cell thick walls create a short diffusion pathway
● Permeable walls so substances can move across them
8.8 - Heart and Circulatory System Structure and Function
The heart is an organ in the circulatory system. The circulatory system carries oxygen and
nutrients to every cell in the body and removes the waste products.
The heart pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system. This means there
are two circuits.
● 1: Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium and then into the right ventricle
which pumps it to the lungs to undergo gaseous exchange
● 2: Oxygenated blood flows into the left atrium and then into the left ventricle which
pumps oxygenated blood around the body
Structure of the heart:

● Muscular walls to provide a strong heartbeat
● The muscular wall of the left ventricle is thicker because blood needs to be pumped
all around the body rather than just to the lung like the right ventricle.
● 4 chambers that separate the oxygenated blood from the deoxygenated blood
● Valves to make sure blood does not flow backwards
● Coronary arteries cover the heart to provide its own oxygenated blood supply
Process:
1. Blood flows into the right atrium through the vena cava, and left atrium through the
pulmonary vein.
2. The atria contract forcing the blood into the ventricles.
3. The ventricles then contract, pushing the blood in the right ventricle into the
pulmonary artery to be taken to the lungs, and blood in the left ventricle to the aorta
to be taken around the body.
4. As this happens, valves close to make sure the blood does not flow backwards.
The natural resting heart rate (around 70 beats per minute) is controlled by a group of cells
found in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker- they provide stimulation through small
electrical impulses which pass as a wave across the heart muscle, causing it to contract.
Without this, the heart would not pump fast enough to deliver the required amount of oxygen
to the whole body.
An artificial pacemaker can be used if the individual has an irregular heartbeat. It is an

electrical device that produces a signal causing the heart to beat at a normal speed.
8.9 - Cellular Respiration and 8.10 - Anaerobic and Aerobic
Respiration
Respiration occurs in every cell in the body, and it is the process of transferring energy from
glucose so living processes can occur. All living things undergo respiration.
● It is exothermic as energy is transferred to the environment

● It can take place aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen)
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
This uses oxygen. Occurs when there is not enough

It yields the most energy. oxygen.
Most of the reactions that make up It does not yield as much energy as
aerobic respiration occur in the aerobic respiration.
mitochondria. It is only used as a last resort, for
example during a sprint where it is
C6 H
12O6 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O difficult to breathe in enough oxygen.
The oxidation of glucose is complete.
C6 H
12O6 = glucose In animals:
O2 = oxygen Glucose (C6 H
12O6) ---> Lactic acid
CO2 = carbon dioxide
H2O = water In plant and yeast cells it is called
fermentation):
Glucose (C6 H
12O6) ---> Ethanol +
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
This reaction is used to make bread and
alcoholic drinks.
8.11 - Core Practical: Investigate the Rate of Respiration in Living

Organisms
In this practical, we will build a simple respirometer - a machine to measure the effect of
temperature on the oxygen consumption of small organisms.
1. Pick a small organism that you would like to measure the rate of respiration of (e.g
maggots, or leaves)
2. Place 5cm3 of soda lime into a test tube.
3. Place gauze on top and a small amount of the organism being tested on top of this.
4. Attach a three-way tap, capillary tube and syringe to the test-tube. Plug the test-tube
with a stopper.
5. Insert a small amount of coloured liquid into the capillary tube.
6. Turn the 3-way tap to allow air to enter the test tube for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes,
close the 3-way tap.
7. Record how far the coloured liquid has moved against a scale.
8.12 - Measuring Cardiac Output
We can measure how well the heart is working by using the following equation:
cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate
Stroke volume is the volume of blood expelled from the heart in one contraction, whereas
heart rate is the number of contractions (beats) per minute.
Topic 9: Ecosystems and Material

Cycles
Notes

CONTENTS
9.1 - Levels of Organisation

9.2 - Abiotic and Biotic Factors Affecting Communities
9.3 - Interdependence
9.4 - Parasitism and Mutualism
9.5 - Core Practical: Organisms and Their Environment
9.6 - Fieldwork and Counting Organisms
9.7B - **Biology Only** Trophic Levels and Pyramids of Biomass
9.8B - **Biology Only** Efficiency of Energy Transfers
9.9 - Human Interactions with Ecosystems
9.10 - Maintaining Biodiversity
9.11B - **Biology Only** Factors Affecting Levels of Food Security
9.12 - Cycling of Materials
9.13 - The Carbon Cycle
9.14 - The Water Cycle
9.15 - Nitrates
9.16B - **Biology and Higher Only** Indicator Species and Assessing Pollution
9.17B and 9.18B - **Biology Only** Factors Affecting Rate of Decomposition of Food
and Compost
9.19B - **Biology Only** Rate Changes in the Decay of Biological Material
9.1 - Levels of Organisation
An individual is part of a species, but lives in its habitat within a population.

Many different populations interact in the same habitat, creating a community. The
populations are often dependent on each other.
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community with non-living (abiotic) parts of the
environment. Organisms are adapted to live in the conditions of their environment.
Organisms which need the same resources compete for it.

● There can be competition within a species or between different species.
● Plants may compete for light, space, water and mineral ions.
● Animals may compete for space, food, water and mating partners.
9.2 - Abiotic and Biotic Factors Affecting Communities
An abiotic factor is a non-living factor. You need to be able to explain the effect of a change
in an abiotic factor.
Abiotic factors which can affect a community:

1. Light intensity
● Light is required for photosynthesis.
● The rate of photosynthesis affects the rate at which the plant grows.
● Plants can be food sources or shelter for many organisms.
2. Temperature
● Temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Moisture levels
● Both plants and animals need water to survive.
4. Soil pH and mineral content
● Soil pH affects the rate of decay and therefore how fast mineral ions return to
soil (which are then taken up by other plants).
● Different species of plants thrive in different nutrient concentration levels.
5. Wind intensity and direction

● Wind affects the rate of transpiration (movement of water from root to leaves)
in plants.
● Transpiration affects the temperature of the plant, and the rate of
photosynthesis because it transports water and mineral ions to the leaves.
6. Carbon dioxide levels
● CO2 affects the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
●
It also affects the distribution of organisms as some thrive in high CO2
environments.
7. Oxygen levels for aquatic animals
● Levels in water vary greatly, unlike oxygen levels in air.
● Most fish need a high concentration of oxygen to survive.
Biotic Factors
A biotic factor is a living factor. You need to be able to explain the effect of a change in a
biotic factor.
Biotic factors that can affect a community:
1. Food availability: more food means organisms can breed more successfully and
therefore the population can increase in numbers
2. New predators
3. New pathogens: when a new pathogen arises the population has no resistance to it
so they can be wiped out quickly
4. Competition: if one species is better adapted to the environment than another, then
it will outcompete it until the numbers of the lesser adapted species are insufficient to
breed.
9.3 - Interdependence
Interdependence describes how organisms in a community depend on other organisms for

vital services.
● These include for food, shelter and reproduction (pollination, seed dispersal), e.g.
birds take shelter in trees, flowers are pollinated with the help of bees.
● The removal or addition of a species to the community can affect the populations of
others greatly, as it changes prey or predator numbers
● A stable community is one where all the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors
are in balance.
○ As a result the population sizes remain roughly constant.
○ When they are lost it is very difficult to replace them.
○ Examples include tropical rainforests, oak woodlands and coral reefs.
9.4 - Parasitism and Mutualism
Some species live together in a symbiotic relationship. There are two types of symbiotic
relationship:
If a smaller species lives directly within or on a larger species, and benefits at the expense
of the other species, it is known as a parasite.
If it provides some benefit or resource to the other species, for instance providing nutrients, it
is known as a mutualistic relationship.
Parasitism involves taking nutrients from another species, to the detriment of the other
species. For example, in humans, the tapeworm is a parasite that lives inside the gut. It
‘steals’ nutrients from the host and can lead to malnutrition.
Commensalism is when there is no damage caused to either species, and there is often a
mutual benefit. For example, algae and fungi live together to form lichens. Algae can
photosynthesise to provide sugars for the fungi, whereas the fungi allows the algae to live in
more extreme conditions than those under which it would normally thrive.
9.6 - Fieldwork and Counting Organisms
We can determine the number of organisms in a given area using fieldwork techniques, and
tools such as quadrats and transects.
Imagine we wanted to estimate the number of 3-leaf clover in a 10m x 10m field. This might
be a useful experiment in determining the biodiversity of an area. We could either:
a) Measure every single 3-leaf clover in the field, or:

b) Take a sample of 3-leaf clover from a small area, and use this to estimate the entire
population of clover
Method a) would be time consuming and there would be a high likelihood of error - however
b) would take significantly less time and with less risk of error. To carry out this estimate, we
can:
- Divide the field into 100 equal 1m x 1m squares.

- Use a random number generator to randomly select a single square.
- Take a 1m x 1m quadrat and place it in the selected square.
- Count the number of clover in the square.
- Repeat with a different square 4 times, and average the 5 results.
- Multiply the average by 100 to estimate the number of clover in the field.
9.7B - **Biology Only** Trophic Levels and Pyramids of Biomass

and 9.8B - **Biology Only** Efficiency of Energy Transfers
Pyramids of biomass show the relative biomass at each trophic level.

● It shows the relative weights of material at each level.
● There is less biomass as you move up the trophic levels.
● Not all the food consumed by an animal is converted into biomass – this means the
biomass of the organism in the level above another will always be higher, as not all
the organism can be consumed and converted into biomass.
Producers (.e.g plants and algae) transfer about 1% of the incident energy from light for
photosynthesis, as not all the light lands on the green (photosynthesising) parts of the plant.
Only approximately 10% of the biomass of each trophic level is transferred to the next.
● Not all biomass can be eaten.
○ Carnivores cannot generally eat bone, hooves, claws and teeth.
● Not all of the biomass eaten is converted into biomass of the animal eating it.
○ Lots of glucose is used in respiration, which produces the waste product
carbon dioxide
○ Urea is a waste substance which is released in urine
○ Biomass consumed can be lost as faeces
■ Herbivores do not have all the enzymes to digest all the material they
eat, so it is egested instead
You should be able to calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between levels:
Efficiency of biomass transfers: (Biomass transferred to the next level / Biomass

available at the previous level) x 100
Because less biomass is transferred each time, it is common to find less animals in the
higher trophic levels.
9.9 - Human Interactions with Ecosystems
Positive human interactions with Negative human interactions with

ecosystems ecosystems
Maintaining rainforests, ensuring habitats Production of greenhouse gases leading to

here are not destroyed. global warming.
Raising awareness among the public about Introducing non-indigenous species into the
how to protect ecosystems - e.g through environment, which prey on native species.
large scale community projects.
Reducing water pollution and monitoring the Producing sulfur dioxide in factories which
changes over time. leads to acid rain – affects habitats.
Preserving areas of scientific interest by Chemicals used in farming leak into the
stopping humans from going there. environment - if they leak into a lake, this
can cause eutrophication - excessive
growth of plant life which can deplete the
body of water of oxygen (making it less
able to sustain other species such as fish)
Replanting hedgerows and woodlands to Clearing land in order to build on, reducing
provide habitats which were previously the number of habitats.
destroyed.
Overfishing which reduces biodiversity
and can lead to endangerment of some
species
9.10 - Maintaining Biodiversity
To reduce our negative impact on ecosystems, programs have been put in place to maintain
biodiversity.
1. Breeding programs: to stop endangered species from becoming extinct.
2. Protection of rare habitats: to stop the species here from becoming extinct, if
damaged they may even be regenerated to encourage populations to live here
3. Reintroduction of hedgerows and field margins around land where only one type of
crop is grown: maintains biodiversity as the hedgerows provide a habitat for lots of
organisms (because a field of one crop would not be able to support many
organisms) and field margins provide areas where wild flowers and grasses can
grow.
4. Reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide production: reduces the rate of global
warming, slowing down the rate that habitats are destroyed
5. Recycling rather than dumping waste in landfill: reduce the amount of land taken up
for landfills, and slows the rate we are using up natural resources.
9.11B - **Biology Only** Factors affecting Levels of Food Security
Food security: having sufficient food to feed the population
Factors which affect food security include:
1. Increasing birth rate and human population, meaning more food is required.
2. Changing diets in developed countries (e.g an increase in m eat and fish
consumption) means food resources which are already in low amounts become
even more scarce as the demand for them increases.
3. New pests and pathogens can destroy crops.
4. Climate change affects food production (such as no rain resulting in crops failing).
5. Conflicts in some countries can affect the availability of water and food.
To feed everyone on Earth, sustainable methods are needed.
9.12, 9.13, 9.14 - Cycling of Materials, The Carbon Cycle, The Water
Cycle
Lots of different materials are cycled through ecosystems. The carbon and water cycles are
vital for life on Earth.
The Carbon Cycle

● CO2 is
REMOVED from the air in photosynthesis by green plants and algae – they
use the carbon to make carbohydrates, proteins and fats. They are eaten and the
carbon moves up the food chain.
● CO2 is RETURNED to the air when plants, algae and animals respire. Decomposers
(a group of microorganisms that break down dead organisms and waste) respire
while they return mineral ions to the soil.
● CO2 is RETURNED to the air when wood and fossil fuels are burnt (called
combustion) as they contain carbon from photosynthesis.
Decomposition and Composting

Compost
● When biological material decays it produces this.
● It is used by gardeners and farmers as a natural fertiliser.
● To do this they have to provide optimum conditions for decay.
○ If more oxygen is available they respire aerobically, producing heat.
○ The increased temperature increases the rate of decay so the compost is
made quicker.
Methane gas
● Microorganisms decompose waste anaerobically to produce methane gas.
● This can be burnt as a fuel.
● Biogas generators are used to produce methane.
○ Require a constant temperature (30 degrees) so the microorganisms keep
respiring.
○ It cannot be stored as a liquid so needs to be used immediately.
The Water Cycle

● The sun’s energy causes water to evaporate from the sea and lakes, forming water
vapour.
● Water vapour is also formed as a result of transpiration in plants.
● Water vapour rises and then condenses to form clouds.
● Water is returned to the land by precipitation (rain, snow or hail), and this runs into
lakes to provide water for plants and animals.
● This then runs into seas and the cycle begins again.
● In areas of drought, we can harness the water cycle to produce potable (drinkable)
water. For example, desalination is the process by which we remove salt and other
minerals/impurities from seawater to make it drinkable. It is performed by a process
called reverse osmosis and generally occurs on a large scale.
9.15 - Nitrates
● Nitrogen gas in the

atmosphere is too unreactive
so cannot be used directly by
plants.
● Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
present in the root nodules of
legume plants convert
nitrogen gas into nitrates that
can be used for growth.
● Lightning can convert
nitrogen gas into nitrates
● The Haber process converts
the hydrogen gas into ammonia.
● Plants absorb nitrates through the roots by active transport.
Nitrogen is often included in fertilisers in the form of ammonium nitrate. This provides an
artificial way to ensure that plants get nitrates required for growth, without relying on external
processes such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria or lightning.
9.16B - **Biology and Higher Only* Indicator Species and

Assessing Pollution
Sometimes it is too expensive to assess how polluted an area is in great detail - in

these cases we can use an indicator species to assess the pollution levels. For
example:
Polluted water is often identified by the presence of bloodworms or sludgeworms

(often called ‘sewage worms’ for this reason).
Clean water often harbours freshwater shrimps and stonefly. The presence of these
species is indicative of clean, unpolluted water.
Air quality can be indicated by a number of species of lichen. In areas where the air is
heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide, lichen is less likely to be found. Clean air often
provides an ideal environment for lichens, with a rich variety of species being found
in clean air. The rose blackspot fungus is more likely to be found in less polluted
areas, as sulfur dioxide protects plants from certain fungi.
9.17B and 9.18B - **Biology Only** Factors affecting Rate of
Decomposition of Food and Compost
A number of factors affect the rate of decomposition.

1. Temperature: Chemical reactions generally work faster in warmer conditions, but if it
is too hot the enzymes can denature and stop decomposition.
2. Water: Microorganisms grow faster in conditions with water as it is needed for
respiration. Water also makes food easier to digest.
3. Availability of oxygen: Most decomposers respire aerobically.
Particularly in compost:
○ If more oxygen is available they respire aerobically, producing heat.
○ Increased temperature increases the rate of decay so the compost is made
quicker.
9.19B - **Biology Only** Rate Changes in the Decay Of Biological

Material
You can investigate the effects of temperature on decay by measuring the pH change of
fresh milk in the presence of the enzyme lipase.
● Make a solution of milk and phenolphthalein indicator.
● Add sodium carbonate which will cause the solution to become alkaline and
therefore appear pink.
● Place the tube in a water bath at a specific temperature.
● Add the lipase enzyme and begin stopwatch.
● Time how long it takes for the pink colour to disappear (i.e. when the pH has
decreased).
● Repeat this at different temperatures to see at which temperature the pink colour
disappears the quickest, indicating the quickest decomposition.

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Edexcel Biology GCSE

Topic 1: Key Concepts in Biology

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Animal and plant cells​ are ​eukaryotic​. They have a:

In animal and plant cells...

Nucleus ● Contains DNA coding for a particular

Cytoplasm ● Liquid substance in which chemical

Cell membrane ● Controls what enters and leaves the

Mitochondria ● Where aerobic respiration reactions

Ribosomes ● Where protein synthesis occurs.

Chloroplasts ● Where photosynthesis takes place,

Permanent vacuole ● Contains cell sap

Cell wall ​(also present in algal cells) ● Made from cellulose

Cytoplasm See above

Cell membrane See above

Cell wall Made of a different compound

Chromosomal DNA (circular) As bacterial cells have no nucleus, this

Plasmids Small rings of DNA - code for extra

Flagella Long, thin ‘whip-like’ tails attached to

1.2 - Specialised Cells and Their Functions

3. Ciliated epithelial cells: ​specialised to waft bacteria (trapped by mucus) to the

Examples of ​specialised cells in plants:

The discovery of the electron microscope

Common calculations in microscopy:

Prefix Multiply unit by...

Micro 0.000, 001

Nano 0.000, 000, 001

One 1m x 1m square contains ​15 dandelions

1.6 - ​Core Practical: Investigating Biological Specimens

Using microscopes is an important part of investigating biological specimens. We should be

To use a light microscope, you should:

You should know how to perform magnification calculations. Remember:

Magnification = measured size / actual size

1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 - Enzymes: Mechanisms, Denaturation and Factors

● As the substrate concentration (concentration of the substance ​binding to the

○ This is because, as substrate concentration increases, the rate at which

1.10 - ​Core Practical - Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

1. Place single drops of iodine solution on each well of a tray.

Why do we use a Bunsen Burner and water beaker?

What results do we expect to see?

1.11 - Rate Calculations for Enzyme Activity

Rate = Change / Time

Proteases ​are a type of enzyme used to break down proteins. So as an example, if we

Rate = change / time

1.12 - Enzymes as Biological Catalysts

1. Carbohydrases​ convert carbohydrates into ​simple sugars

2. Proteases ​convert proteins into ​amino acids

3. Lipases​ convert lipids (fats) into​ fatty acids​ and ​glycerol

1.13B ​**Higher and Biology Only** - Core Practical: Investigating

Nutrient being tested for Reagent/Test Method

Starch Iodine solution Add iodine solution to the

Reducing sugars Benedict’s Solution Add 2cm​3​ of the sample

Protein Biuret Test (Potassium Add 1cm​3 ​of 40%

How could we improve these experiments?

1.14B **Higher and Biology Only** - Calorimetry

1. Take a tube of 50ml cold water.

Energy transferred is measured in​ Joules (J)

1.15 - Transport in and Out of Cells

Diffusion - ​a form of passive transport (does not require energy). It is important to

1.16 - Core Practical - Osmosis in Potatoes​ ​and​ ​1.17 - Percentage

The percentage change equation is (change in mass / start mass) x 100.

What is happening in this experiment?

Topic 2: Cells and Control

Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic. They have a:

Cell wall (also present in algal cells) ● Made from cellulose

3. Ciliated epithelial cells: specialised to waft bacteria (trapped by mucus) to the

Examples of specialised cells in plants:

One 1m x 1m square contains 15 dandelions

1.6 - Core Practical: Investigating Biological Specimens

● As the substrate concentration (concentration of the substance binding to the

1.10 - Core Practical - Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

Proteases are a type of enzyme used to break down proteins. So as an example, if we

1. Carbohydrases convert carbohydrates into simple sugars

2. Proteases convert proteins into amino acids

3. Lipases convert lipids (fats) into fatty acids and glycerol

1.13B Higher and Biology Only - Core Practical: Investigating

Reducing sugars Benedict’s Solution Add 2cm3 of the sample

Protein Biuret Test (Potassium Add 1cm3 of 40%

1.14B Higher and Biology Only - Calorimetry

Energy transferred is measured in Joules (J)

Diffusion - a form of passive transport (does not require energy). It is important to

1.16 - Core Practical - Osmosis in Potatoes and 1.17 - Percentage

Cell division by mitosis in multicellular organisms is important in their growth and

2.10B Biology Only - Structure and Function of the Brain

Synapses are the gaps between two neurons.

The process of accommodation:

2. Asexual reproduction involves one parent with no gametes joining.

Produces variation in offspring. Only one parent is needed.

It allows us to use selective breeding. Uses less energy and is faster as

If a gene is coded to make a protein, it has been expressed.

1. A base is inserted into the code

A monohybrid (single gene)

Uppercase letters are used to represent dominant characteristics. Lowercase letters

3.17B Biology Only - ABO Blood Group Inheritance

3.18B Biology and Higher Only - Sex-linked Inheritance

X-linked conditions can be recessive or dominant.

a) Genetic variation - different characteristics can arise as a result of both random

b) Environmental variation - characteristics can also be caused by an organism’s

- improved our understanding of the genes linked to different types of disease

4.1B - Biology Only** Darwin and Wallace’s Theory

4.5 - Dating Stone Tools and 4.6B Biology Only - Anatomical

1. Radiometric carbon dating - by looking at the natural radioactive decay of an

The problem is that it can lead to inbreeding.