RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIATION HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF

226
Ra,232Th & 40K IN THENPENNAI RIVER SAND AT
VILLUPURAM IN TAMIL NADU

PROJECT WORK

Submitted to “ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY” in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
PHYSICS

By

S. KARTHIKEYAN

(Reg. No: 20121403013)

P.G. & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ARIGNAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE
VILLUPURAM – 605 602

MAY – 2023
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project work entitled, “RADIOACTIVITY AND

RADIATION HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF 226Ra, 232Th & 40K IN THENPENNAI

RIVER SAND AT VILLUPURAM IN TAMIL NADU” is a bonafide record of the work

done by S. KARTHIKEYAN (Reg. No: 20121403013) in the Post Graduate and Research

Department of Physics, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram – 605 602

during the academic year 2022 – 2023.

Research Guide
Dr. A.VENKATESAN
M.Sc., M.Phil. , PGDCA, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor,
Head of the Department

Place : Villupuram
Date : /05/2023

Project work Viva Voce examination conducted on / 05 / 2023 F.N.

Examiners:
1.

2.
 DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “RADIOACTIVITY

AND RADIATION HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF 226Ra, 232Th & 40K IN THENPENNAI

RIVER SAND AT VILLUPURAM IN TAMIL NADU” submitted to Annamalai

University for the award of Master of Science in Physics is a record of original and

independent research work done by me during the period 2022-2023 under the guidance of

Dr. A. VENKATESAN, M.Sc., M.Phil., PGDCA, Ph.D., Associate Professor of

Physics, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram-605 602 and it has not

previously formed the basis for the award of any other Degree/ Diploma/ Associateship/

Fellowship or other similar title to any candidate in any University.

Place : Villupuram

Date : Signature of the Candidate

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express sincere thanks to my guide Dr. A.VENKATESAN, M.Sc., M.Phil., PGDCA,

Ph.D., Associate Professor of Physics, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram
for his valuable guidance, constructive criticisms and continued encouragement throughout
the course of this investigation.

I extend my sincere thanks to Dr. K.SETTU, M.Sc., Ph.D., B.Ed., C.O.P.A., Head of
the Department of Physics, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram for
providing the necessary facilities during the course of my study.

My heartful thanks to Dr. R.SIVAKUMAR, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., Principal,

Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram for giving this opportunity.

I express my heartfelt thanks to my parents. I wish to thank to all my classmates and

friends for their encouragement and valuable help during the completion of my Project work
and my studies.

I profusely, acknowledge my thanks to all the staff members of our department.

I extend my sincere thanks to the authorities of Arignar Anna Government Arts

College for permitting to carry out the investigation successfully.

S. KARTHIKEYAN
 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLES PAGE

NO. NO.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 History of radiation 2

1.2 Origin of radioactivity 4
I
1.3 Types of radiation 6
1.4 Ionizing radiation 7
1.5 Properties of radioactivity elements 9

EFFECTS OF RADIATION HAZARDS

2.1 Effects on water reservoir 13

2.2 Effects on soil fertility 14
II
2.3 Effects on human health 16
2.4 Effects on eco system 18

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

3.1 Origin of spectroscopy 21

3.2 Types of spectroscopy 23
III
3.3 Gamma ray spectroscopy 27
3.4 Advantages of Gamma ray spectroscopy 28
3.5 Study area 30
3.6 Sample collection 31
3.7 Sample preparation 32
RESULT AND DISSCUSION

4.1 Analysis of gamma ray spectroscopy 34

IV
4.2 Similar radioactive profiles of soil samples 39

V CONCLUSION 42

REFERENCES 43
 LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER FIGURES PAGE.NO.

NO.

III 1. THENPENNAI RIVER,VILLUPURAM 31

IV 2.VARIATION OF ACTIVITYNCONCENTRATION OF 38
RADIONUCLIDES

IV 3.COMPARISION OF RADIOACTIVITY OF PRESENT 40

STUDY WITH OTHER STUDIES
 LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER TABLES PAGE.

NO. NO.

IV 1. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION OF SAMPLE IN 36

THENPENNAI RIVER

IV 2. ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION OF RADIONUCLIDES 37

IN THENPENNAI RIVER SAND

IV 3. COMPARISION OF ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION 39

OF PRESENT WORK WITH OTHER STUDIES
 ABSTRACT

River sand is a one of the important and commonly used building material in

India and hence in the present study, activity concentration of natural

radionuclides such as 226Ra, 232Th and 40 K have been measured in sand samples

collected from Thenpennai river, Tamil Nadu using Gamma ray spectroscopy.

The measured activity concentrations vary from 12.48 to 44.78 Bq kg−1 with a

mean value of 28.56 Bq kg−1 for 226

Ra, from 26.54 to 145.42 Bq kg−1 with a

mean value of 94.93 Bq kg−1 for 232

Th, from 224.86 to 481.68 Bq kg−1 with a

mean value of 371.66 Bq kg−1 for 40

K. These mean values of activity

concentration of radionuclides have been compared with recommended limit

and other similar work carried in the world. And also, we also discuss about the

origin and history of radiation and radioactivity. After that we discuss about the

origin of spectroscopy and its types.

 CHAPTER - I

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1
 RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIATION HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF
226
Ra, 232Th AND 40K IN THENPENNAI RIVER SAND, VILLUPURAM,
TAMIL NADU

CHAPTER – I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1.1 History of radiation

Radiation has been present on Earth since its inception. It is a natural phenomenon

that occurs in various forms and has a long and complex history. Radiation is defined as the

emission of energy in the form of waves or particles. It can be produced naturally or

artificially and has played a significant role in shaping the world we live in today. The

discovery of radiation can be traced back to the late 19th century when scientists began

studying the properties of atoms. In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered X-rays, a

type of high-energy radiation that could pass through objects and create images of internal

structures.

This discovery revolutionized the field of medicine, allowing doctors to see inside the

human body without surgery. In the early 20th century, scientists continued to study the

properties of radiation and discovered new types of radiation. In 1896, Henri Becquerel

discovered radioactivity, the spontaneous emission of radiation from certain types of atoms.

Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie further studied radioactivity and discovered two

new elements, radium and polonium. During World War II, radiation played a crucial role in

2
the development of nuclear weapons. In 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing over 100,000 people and causing long-term health effects for

many survivors.

In the years following World War II, radiation was used in various fields such as

medicine, industry, and energy production. The use of radiation in medicine led to the

development of new diagnostic tools such as CT scans and PET scans, which allowed doctors

to see inside the body with more detail than ever before. Radiation therapy was also

developed as a treatment for cancer.

The use of radiation in industry and energy production has had both positive and

negative effects. On one hand, radiation has been used to sterilize medical equipment, food,

and other products. It has also been used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants, which

has helped reduce the reliance on fossil fuels. However, the use of radiation in industry has

also led to environmental pollution and health risks for workers. Today, radiation continues to

be a significant force in shaping our world. Scientists continue to study the properties of

radiation and develop new applications for it. The use of radiation in medicine, industry, and

energy production is carefully regulated to minimize risks and maximize benefits.

The history of radiation is a long and complex one. From the discovery of X-rays to

the development of nuclear weapons, radiation has played a significant role in shaping our

world. While the use of radiation has had both positive and negative effects, it continues to be

an important tool in fields such as medicine, industry, and energy production. As our

understanding of radiation continues to evolve, we must carefully consider its uses and ensure

that it is used safely and responsibly.

3
1.2 Origin of radioactivity

Radioactivity is a phenomenon that occurs when the nucleus of an atom spontaneously

decays, emitting ionizing particles and radiation. It was first discovered by the French

physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, and it revolutionized our understanding of the nature of

matter and energy. The origin of radioactivity lies in the structure of the atomic nucleus and

the interactions between its constituent particles.

The first clue to the nature of radioactivity came from the work of Ernest Rutherford, a

New Zealand physicist who conducted a series of experiments with alpha particles in the early

20th century. Rutherford observed that some of the alpha particles were deflected from their

original paths when they passed through thin metal foils, indicating that the atom was not a

solid, indivisible object as previously thought, but rather composed of smaller, positively

charged particles in a relatively large, negatively charged cloud. He proposed a model of the

atom that had a dense, positively charged nucleus at its centre, surrounded by a cloud of

negatively charged electrons.

This model of the atom was further refined by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, who

introduced the idea that electrons in the atom occupied discrete energy levels. Bohr's model

explained the observed spectra of hydrogen and other atoms, and it provided a framework for

understanding the interactions between atomic particles. In 1932, James Chadwick, a British

physicist, discovered the neutron, a particle with no electrical charge that was found to be

present in the nucleus of atoms along with protons. This discovery helped to explain the

stability of nuclei that contained an odd number of protons or neutrons, as the neutron could

help to balance out the electrical charge of the protons.

Radioactivity can be classified into three main types: alpha, beta, and gamma

radiation. Alpha particles are heavy, positively charged particles consisting of two protons

4
and two neutrons, and they are emitted by the nucleus of some radioactive atoms during

decay. Beta particles are electrons or positrons that are emitted during the decay of some

nuclei. Gamma radiation is a high-energy form of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted

during some types of radioactive decay. The origin of radioactivity lies in the instability of

certain atomic nuclei, which can be caused by a number of factors. One factor is the ratio of

neutrons to protons in the nucleus. Nuclei that have too few or too many neutrons relative to

their number of protons can be unstable, as the strong nuclear force that holds the nucleus

together is not strong enough to overcome the electrical repulsion between the protons.

Another factor that can contribute to nuclear instability is the presence of isotopes, or

atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are

inherently unstable and will decay over time, emitting radiation in the process. Finally,

nuclear instability can also be caused by the excitation of the nucleus due to high-energy

collisions with other particles. In this case, the nucleus can become temporarily unstable and

emit radiation as it returns to its ground state. Radioactivity has many practical applications in

fields such as medicine, energy production, and materials science. For example, radioactive

isotopes are used in medical imaging and cancer treatment, and nuclear reactors use the heat

generated by radioactive decay to produce electricity.

The origin of radioactivity lies in the structure of the atomic nucleus and the

interactions between its constituent particles. The discovery of radioactivity has

revolutionized our understanding of the nature of matter and energy, and it has had many

practical applications in fields such as medicine, energy production, and materials science.

While radioactive materials can be dangerous if not handled properly, they also have the

potential to provide immense benefits to society.

5
1.3 Types of radiation

Radiation refers to the energy that is emitted by matter in the form of waves or

particles. There are different types of radiation, each with its unique characteristics and

properties.

The types of radiation include,

I. Alpha radiation

II. Beta radiation

III. Gamma radiation

IV. X-ray radiation

V. Neutron radiation

The first type of radiation is alpha radiation, which is made up of alpha particles. An alpha

particle is a helium nucleus that consists of two protons and two neutrons. Alpha particles are

relatively heavy and have a short range of penetration in matter. They can be stopped by a

sheet of paper or a few centimetres of air. However, alpha radiation is hazardous when

inhaled or ingested because it can cause damage to the internal organs.

The second type of radiation is beta radiation, which is made up of beta particles. A beta

particle is an electron that is emitted from the nucleus of an atom. Beta particles are lighter

than alpha particles and can penetrate further into matter. They can be stopped by a sheet of

aluminium or several feet of air. Beta radiation can cause skin burns and damage to the eyes if

it comes into contact with the skin or eyes.

The third type of radiation is gamma radiation, which is made up of gamma rays. Gamma

rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation that has no mass or charge. They are highly

penetrating and can pass through several meters of concrete or a few centimetres of lead.

Gamma radiation is the most hazardous form of radiation because it can cause damage to the

6
cells and DNA of the body. However, gamma rays can be used for medical purposes such as

radiation therapy to treat cancer.

The fourth type of radiation is X-rays, which are also a type of electromagnetic radiation.

X-rays have a shorter wavelength than gamma rays and are less penetrating. They are

commonly used in medical imaging to visualize the internal structures of the body. X-rays can

also be used for industrial purposes such as inspecting materials for defects.

The fifth type of radiation is neutron radiation, which is made up of neutrons. Neutrons

are neutral particles that are found in the nucleus of atoms. Neutron radiation can penetrate

deep into matter and can cause damage to the nucleus of atoms, leading to the production of

other types of radiation. Neutron radiation is commonly used in nuclear reactors and nuclear

weapons.

There are different types of radiation, each with its unique characteristics and properties.

Alpha radiation is made up of alpha particles, beta radiation is made up of beta particles,

gamma radiation is made up of gamma rays, X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation,

and neutron radiation is made up of neutrons. Each type of radiation has its applications and

uses in various fields such as medicine, industry, and nuclear energy. It is essential to

understand the properties of each type of radiation to ensure their safe use and minimize the

risks associated with exposure to radiation.

1.4 Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation refers to high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves that are

capable of removing electrons from atoms, resulting in the formation of ions. These types of

radiation have enough energy to ionize atoms, which means they can break chemical bonds

and damage living tissues. Examples of ionizing radiation include X-rays, gamma rays, alpha

particles, and beta particles.

7
 Ionizing radiation can be both natural and man-made. Natural sources of ionizing

radiation include cosmic rays from outer space, radon gas from the earth's crust, and

radioactive materials present in rocks and soil. Man-made sources of ionizing radiation

include nuclear power plants, medical equipment such as X-ray machines, and industrial

processes such as uranium mining. While ionizing radiation has many useful applications in

medicine, industry, and scientific research, it can also pose significant health risks. The

ionizing radiation can damage DNA and other cellular structures, leading to mutations and

potentially causing cancer. In addition, exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation can cause

acute radiation sickness, which can be fatal.

One of the most significant sources of ionizing radiation exposure for the general public is

medical imaging procedures. X-rays and computed tomography (CT) scans use ionizing

radiation to create images of the body, and while these procedures are generally safe and

effective, they do expose patients to small amounts of radiation. However, in some cases,

repeated or unnecessary imaging procedures can increase the risk of radiation-related health

problems.

Nuclear power plants also pose potential risks from ionizing radiation. Although nuclear

power plants are designed with multiple safety systems to prevent accidents, events such as

the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 have

demonstrated the potential dangers of nuclear power. Exposure to high levels of ionizing

radiation can cause both immediate and long-term health effects for those in the vicinity of a

nuclear disaster.

In response to these risks, governments and international organizations have established

regulations and safety standards to minimize exposure to ionizing radiation. These regulations

include limiting radiation exposure for workers in industries that use radioactive materials,

monitoring radiation levels in the environment, and enforcing safety measures at nuclear

8
power plants. In addition, researchers are exploring new technologies to reduce the risks

associated with ionizing radiation. For example, some medical imaging procedures can now

be performed using non-ionizing radiation, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or

ultrasound, which do not pose the same risks as X-rays or CT scans.

Ionizing radiation is a powerful force that has many useful applications in modern society,

but it also poses significant health risks. As such, it is important for individuals, industries,

and governments to take measures to minimize exposure to ionizing radiation and ensure that

it is used safely and responsibly. By understanding the risks associated with ionizing radiation

and implementing appropriate safety measures, we can continue to benefit from its many

applications while protecting public health and safety.

1.5 Properties of radioactivity elements

Radioactive elements are those elements whose nuclei are unstable and undergo

radioactive decay, emitting particles or electromagnetic radiation in the process. This decay

can result in the transformation of the nucleus into a different element or isotope.

Radioactive elements are found naturally on earth and are also produced in nuclear reactors

or particle accelerators. These elements possess unique properties that make them useful in

a wide range of applications, including medicine, energy production, and scientific research.

In this essay, we will discuss some of the key properties of radioactive elements.

One of the most important properties of radioactive elements is their half-life. The

half-life of an element is the time it takes for half of its atoms to decay. This property is

crucial in determining the stability and potential risks associated with a radioactive material.

For example, elements with a short half-life are highly radioactive and decay quickly, while

elements with a long half-life are less radioactive and decay slowly. The half-life of an

element also determines the amount of time that it remains radioactive, which is important

when considering its potential environmental impact.

9
 Another property of radioactive elements is their ability to emit radiation. There are

three types of radiation emitted by radioactive elements: alpha particles, beta particles, and

gamma rays. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and have a positive

charge. Beta particles are electrons emitted from the nucleus of an atom and have a negative

charge. Gamma rays are high-energy photons and have no charge. These different types of

radiation have different properties and can be used for different purposes. For example, alpha

particles are the most ionizing and can be used in smoke detectors, while gamma rays are the

most penetrating and are used in medical imaging.

Radioactive elements also have unique nuclear properties. For example, some

elements have isotopes with a high neutron-to-proton ratio, which makes them unstable and

more likely to undergo radioactive decay. This property is important in nuclear reactions,

where elements can be transformed into different isotopes or even different elements. The

nuclear properties of radioactive elements are also important in nuclear energy production,

where energy is released through the process of nuclear fission.

The physical properties of radioactive elements can also be used in a range of

applications. For example, some elements, such as radium, have a luminescent glow in the

dark due to their radioactive decay. This property has been used in the past to make luminous

watch dials and aircraft instruments. The physical properties of radioactive elements can also

be used to determine the age of rocks and fossils through a process known as radiometric

dating. Finally, the biological properties of radioactive elements are important to consider,

especially in terms of their potential health effects. Exposure to radiation from radioactive

elements can damage cells and DNA, leading to mutations and an increased risk of cancer.

Different types of radiation have different biological effects, and the dose of radiation

received is also important in determining the potential health effects. However, radioactive

10
elements can also be used in medicine to treat cancer through a process known as radiation

therapy.

Radioactive elements possess unique properties that make them useful in a wide range

of applications, including medicine, energy production, and scientific research. Their half-life,

ability to emit radiation, nuclear properties, physical properties, and biological properties all

contribute to their usefulness and potential risks. Understanding these properties is essential

for using radioactive elements safely and effectively.

11
 CHAPTER - II

EFFECTS OF RADIATION HAZARDS

12
 CHAPTER – II

EFFECTS OF RADIATION HAZARDS

2.1 Effects on water reservoirs

Radiation hazards can have significant impacts on water reservoirs, which serve as

critical sources of drinking water, agricultural irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation.

These hazards can arise from a variety of sources, including nuclear power plants, mining

operations, and accidents involving radioactive materials.

Short-term impacts of radiation hazards on water reservoirs can be severe. When a

radiation hazard occurs, such as a nuclear power plant accident or a spill of radioactive

materials, the immediate effects on water reservoirs can be devastating. Contaminated water

can cause a range of health problems for those who consume it, including cancer, genetic

mutations, and other diseases. In addition, the contaminated water can have a detrimental

impact on aquatic life, destroying ecosystems and disrupting food chains.

In the long-term, radiation hazards can have lasting effects on water reservoirs, even after

the initial contamination has been removed. Radioactive particles can persist in the

environment for decades or even centuries, depending on the type of radiation and the

conditions of the reservoir. As a result, contaminated water can continue to pose a threat to

public health and the environment for years to come.

One of the most significant long-term impacts of radiation hazards on water reservoirs is

the risk of cancer. Exposure to radiation can damage DNA and other cellular structures,

leading to the development of cancerous cells. This risk is especially high for those who

consume contaminated water over an extended period. In addition, radiation hazards can have

a significant impact on aquatic life, causing mutations and other health problems that can

affect the entire ecosystem. Another long-term impact of radiation hazards on water reservoirs

is the disruption of food chains. When aquatic life is exposed to radiation, it can suffer from a

13
range of health problems that can ultimately lead to the collapse of entire ecosystems. This

disruption can have a cascading effect on other species, affecting not only aquatic life but also

terrestrial animals and humans who rely on the reservoir for food.

To mitigate the impacts of radiation hazards on water reservoirs, it is essential to take a

proactive approach. This includes measures such as monitoring water quality, enforcing

regulations on industries that produce radioactive waste, and educating the public on the risks

associated with radiation hazards. Additionally, in the case of a radiation hazard, prompt

response and containment measures can limit the spread of contamination and reduce the

impact on water reservoirs and their surrounding ecosystems.

Radiation hazards can have severe and lasting effects on water reservoirs, including both

short-term and long-term impacts. The risks posed by radiation hazards are especially high for

those who rely on water reservoirs for drinking water, agricultural irrigation, and

hydroelectric power generation. To mitigate these risks, it is essential to take a proactive

approach that includes monitoring water quality, enforcing regulations, and educating the

public on the risks associated with radiation hazards. Ultimately, by working together, we can

protect our water reservoirs and ensure a safe and healthy future for all.

2.2 Effects on soil fertility

Radiation hazards are a major concern when it comes to environmental contamination.

They are caused by the emission of ionizing radiation from natural and artificial sources such

as nuclear reactors, X-ray machines, and radioactive isotopes used in medical and industrial

applications. Radiation hazards can have serious effects on soil fertility, which is critical for

agricultural production and sustenance of the ecosystem.

The first effect of radiation hazards on soil fertility is the destruction of soil structure.

Radiation exposure can lead to the breakdown of soil aggregates, which are the building

blocks of soil structure. Soil aggregates are made up of organic matter, clay, and other

14
minerals that are held together by microbial activity and organic glues. When exposed to

radiation, the microbes and organic matter that hold soil aggregates together can be destroyed,

leading to soil compaction and reduced water infiltration. This can lead to reduced plant

growth and yield, as well as increased erosion and loss of soil nutrients.

The second effect of radiation hazards on soil fertility is the alteration of soil

chemistry. Radiation can cause changes in the pH, nutrient availability, and other chemical

properties of soil. For example, exposure to ionizing radiation can increase the concentration

of toxic heavy metals such as lead and cadmium in the soil, which can reduce soil fertility and

increase the risk of human and animal health problems. Radiation can also reduce the

availability of essential soil nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are

critical for plant growth and development. This can lead to nutrient deficiencies in plants and

reduced crop yields.

The third effect of radiation hazards on soil fertility is the reduction in soil microbial

activity. Soil microbes play a critical role in maintaining soil fertility by decomposing organic

matter, cycling nutrients, and maintaining soil structure. However, exposure to ionizing

radiation can reduce the abundance and activity of soil microbes, leading to a decline in soil

fertility. This can lead to reduced plant growth and yield, as well as increased soil erosion and

loss of soil organic matter.

The fourth effect of radiation hazards on soil fertility is the increase in soil salinity.

Radiation can increase the concentration of salts in the soil, which can reduce soil fertility and

limit plant growth. Salinity can also lead to soil degradation, erosion, and loss of soil

nutrients. In addition, increased soil salinity can lead to the displacement of native plant

species by salt-tolerant invasive species, leading to a decline in biodiversity.

Radiation hazards can have serious effects on soil fertility, which is critical for

agricultural production and the sustenance of the ecosystem. Radiation can lead to the

15
destruction of soil structure, alteration of soil chemistry, reduction in soil microbial activity,

and increase in soil salinity. These effects can lead to reduced plant growth and yield,

increased soil erosion, and loss of soil nutrients. It is therefore important to take measures to

prevent and mitigate radiation hazards to ensure the long-term health and productivity of

soils.

2.3 Effects on human health

Radiation hazards refer to the potential negative impact of exposure to ionizing

radiation on living organisms. This type of radiation is a form of energy that has the ability to

ionize atoms and molecules, leading to the formation of free radicals that can damage cells

and tissues. There are several sources of ionizing radiation, including natural sources such as

cosmic rays and radon gas, as well as man-made sources such as medical imaging and nuclear

power plants. Exposure to ionizing radiation can have a wide range of effects on human

health, ranging from mild skin irritation to cancer and death.

One of the most immediate effects of radiation exposure is radiation sickness. This

condition is characterized by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and a weakened

immune system. Radiation sickness is caused by damage to the cells in the body, which can

lead to a breakdown of normal physiological processes. The severity of radiation sickness

depends on the amount and duration of exposure, as well as the type of radiation.

In addition to radiation sickness, exposure to ionizing radiation can increase the risk of

developing cancer. Radiation damages DNA in cells, which can lead to mutations that cause

cells to grow and divide uncontrollably, leading to the development of tumours. The risk of

cancer is dependent on the dose and duration of exposure, as well as the type of radiation. For

example, exposure to alpha particles is more harmful than exposure to beta particles, as alpha

particles are more likely to cause damage to DNA. Another long-term effect of radiation

exposure is genetic damage. Radiation can cause mutations in the DNA of reproductive cells,

16
which can be passed on to future generations. This can lead to genetic disorders and birth

defects, such as Down syndrome and spina bifida.

The effects of radiation exposure are not limited to physical health. Exposure to radiation can

also have psychological effects, such as anxiety and stress. These effects can be particularly

pronounced in individuals who have experienced high levels of radiation exposure, such as

nuclear plant workers or survivors of nuclear accidents.

There are several ways to mitigate the risks of radiation exposure. One of the most

important is to limit exposure to ionizing radiation. This can be achieved through measures

such as shielding, which involves the use of materials that absorb or block radiation, and time

management, which involves limiting the duration of exposure. Additionally, regular

monitoring of radiation levels can help to identify potential hazards and prevent excessive

exposure.

Exposure to ionizing radiation can have a wide range of effects on human health,

ranging from radiation sickness to cancer and genetic damage. These effects are dependent on

the dose and duration of exposure, as well as the type of radiation. While the risks of radiation

exposure cannot be completely eliminated, they can be mitigated through measures such as

shielding, time management, and regular monitoring. It is important for individuals who may

be at risk of radiation exposure to take appropriate precautions to protect their health and

well-being.

17
2.4 Effects on eco system

Radiation hazards are a major concern for ecosystems across the world. These hazards

can arise from various sources such as nuclear power plants, medical facilities, and even

natural sources such as radon gas. The impact of radiation hazards on ecosystems can be

severe, as radiation can cause mutations in DNA, cellular damage, and even death. This essay

will examine the effects of radiation hazards on ecosystems, the impact on different

organisms, and the measures that can be taken to mitigate these risks.

One of the most significant effects of radiation hazards on ecosystems is the disruption

of the food chain. Radiation can cause mutations in plants, animals, and microorganisms that

can result in changes in their behaviour, growth, and reproduction. As a result, organisms at

the bottom of the food chain that rely on these plants and microorganisms can be impacted,

which can have a ripple effect up the food chain. This can lead to a reduction in biodiversity,

as certain species may become extinct or decline in numbers.

Another effect of radiation hazards on ecosystems is the impact on soil and water

quality. Radiation can contaminate soil and water sources, making them unsafe for

consumption by animals and humans. In addition, radiation can also affect the microbial

community in soil, which can impact nutrient cycling and plant growth. This can lead to a

decline in agricultural productivity, as well as a reduction in the availability of food sources

for wildlife.

Radiation hazards can also impact different organisms in different ways. For example,

fish and other aquatic organisms are particularly vulnerable to radiation exposure. This is

because they absorb radiation through their gills, skin, and digestive system. This can lead to

mutations in their DNA, which can impact their growth and reproduction. In addition,

radiation exposure can also impact the development of their embryos, which can lead to birth

defects and other developmental abnormalities.

18
 Birds and other flying organisms are also at risk of radiation exposure. This is because

they can be exposed to radiation in the upper atmosphere, as well as through contaminated

food sources. Radiation exposure can impact their migration patterns, as well as their

reproductive success. For example, birds that are exposed to radiation may have difficulty

finding suitable mates, which can impact their ability to breed successfully.

Measures can be taken to mitigate the risks of radiation hazards on ecosystems. One

approach is to limit exposure to radiation by implementing safety measures in nuclear power

plants and medical facilities. This can include improving safety protocols, increasing the use

of protective gear, and reducing the amount of radiation released into the environment. In

addition, efforts can be made to monitor radiation levels in soil, water, and air to identify

areas of contamination and implement appropriate remediation measures.

Another approach is to focus on ecological restoration efforts in areas that have been

impacted by radiation hazards. This can include re-establishing vegetation, reintroducing

wildlife, and implementing sustainable land-use practices. These efforts can help to restore

biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, as well as provide habitat for wildlife.

Radiation hazards are a significant threat to ecosystems across the world. These

hazards can impact food chains, soil and water quality, and different organisms in different

ways. However, measures can be taken to mitigate these risks, including improving safety

protocols and implementing ecological restoration efforts. By working together, we can

ensure that ecosystems are protected from the harmful effects of radiation hazards, and that

biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are maintained for generations to come.

19
 CHAPTER - III

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

20
 CHAPTER – III

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

3.1 Origin of spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is the scientific study of how matter interacts with light. It is a

fascinating field that has revolutionized our understanding of the universe, from the

composition of stars to the structure of molecules. The origin of spectroscopy can be traced

back to the early 19th century, when scientists began to investigate the properties of light.

One of the earliest pioneers of spectroscopy was the German physicist, Joseph Fraunhofer. In

the early 1800s, Fraunhofer was studying the spectrum of sunlight and noticed that there were

dark lines in the spectrum. These lines, now known as Fraunhofer lines, are caused by the

absorption of certain wavelengths of light by gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Fraunhofer's

discovery was ground-breaking because it provided the first evidence that the properties of

light could be used to study the properties of matter.

Another important figure in the development of spectroscopy was Gustav Kirchhoff, a

German physicist who worked with Robert Bunsen in the mid-1800s. Together, they

developed a technique called spectroscopy analysis, which involved burning different

chemical elements in a flame and analysing the light that was emitted. Kirchhoff and Bunsen

discovered that each chemical element produced a unique spectrum of light, which could be

used to identify the element.

The development of spectroscopy was also closely linked to the development of

astronomy. In the mid-1800s, astronomers began to use spectroscopy to study the light

emitted by stars. William Huggins, a British astronomer, was one of the first to use

spectroscopy to study the spectra of stars. Huggins discovered that the spectra of stars were

similar to the spectra of chemical elements, which led him to conclude that stars must be

made up of the same elements as those found on Earth.

21
 The discovery of the electron in the late 1800s led to a new era of spectroscopy.

Scientists began to use spectroscopy to study the properties of atoms and molecules, and to

develop new technologies such as lasers and semiconductors. One of the most important

developments in this period was the discovery of the quantum nature of light, which led to the

development of quantum mechanics and quantum theory.

In the early 1900s, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz and the Danish physicist Niels

Bohr developed a model of the atom that explained how atoms absorb and emit light.

According to their model, atoms absorb and emit light only at certain wavelengths, which are

determined by the energy levels of the electrons in the atom. This discovery revolutionized

our understanding of the behaviour of atoms and paved the way for the development of

modern spectroscopy.

In the mid-1900s, the development of new technologies such as infrared and

ultraviolet spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, allowed scientists to

study the properties of molecules in more detail. These techniques enabled scientists to

determine the structure of complex molecules, such as proteins and DNA, which are critical to

understanding the workings of life.

The origin of spectroscopy can be traced back to the early 19th century, when scientists

first began to investigate the properties of light. The development of spectroscopy was closely

linked to the development of astronomy, and it has revolutionized our understanding of the

universe. Spectroscopy has also played a critical role in the development of new technologies,

and it continues to be an important tool in scientific research today.

22
3.2 Types of spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is a powerful tool used in various fields, including chemistry, physics,

biology, and medicine. There are various types of spectroscopy, each with its unique strengths

Some of the most common types of spectroscopy.

1. Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-Vis)

Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-Vis) is a technique used to study the absorption

of ultraviolet and visible light by molecules. This technique is used to determine the electronic

structure of molecules and to identify the presence of chromophores in compounds. In UV-

Vis spectroscopy, a beam of light with a specific wavelength is directed at a sample, and the

amount of light absorbed by the sample is measured. The absorbance of the sample is then

compared to a standard solution to determine the concentration of the sample.

2. Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)

Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) is a technique used to study the vibrational modes of

molecules. Infrared radiation is absorbed by molecules, causing the bonds between atoms in

the molecule to stretch or bend. The frequencies of the vibrations are characteristic of the

chemical structure of the molecule. Infrared spectroscopy is used to identify functional groups

in molecules and to determine the purity of a compound. It is also used in the analysis of

biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.

3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) is a technique used to study the

magnetic properties of atomic nuclei. NMR spectroscopy is used to determine the chemical

structure of molecules and to identify the presence of functional groups in molecules. In NMR

spectroscopy, a magnetic field is applied to a sample containing atomic nuclei. The nuclei

absorb energy from the magnetic field and emit it as radio waves. The frequencies of the radio

waves are characteristic of the chemical environment of the nuclei. NMR spectroscopy is used

23
in the analysis of organic compounds, as well as in the study of biological molecules, such as

proteins and nucleic acids.

4. Mass Spectrometry (MS)

Mass Spectrometry (MS) is a technique used to study the mass-to-charge ratio of ions.

In mass spectrometry, a sample is ionized, and the resulting ions are separated based on their

mass-to-charge ratio. The ions are then detected and analysed. Mass spectrometry is used to

identify unknown compounds, to determine the molecular weight of compounds, and to

analyse biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.

5. Raman Spectroscopy

Raman Spectroscopy is a technique used to study the vibrational modes of molecules.

In Raman spectroscopy, a beam of light is directed at a sample, and the scattered light is

analysed. The frequencies of the scattered light are characteristic of the vibrational modes of

the molecule. Raman spectroscopy is used to identify unknown compounds, to determine the

purity of a compound, and to analyse biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.

6. X-ray Spectroscopy

X-ray Spectroscopy is a technique used to study the interaction between X-rays and

matter. X-ray spectroscopy is used to determine the electronic structure of molecules and to

identify the presence of metals in compounds. In X-ray spectroscopy, a beam of X-rays is

directed at a sample, and the scattered X-rays are analysed. The frequencies of the scattered

X-rays are characteristic of the electronic structure of the molecule.

7. NIR Spectroscopy

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical technique that

involves measuring the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation in the near-

infrared region of the spectrum. NIR spectroscopy has a wide range of applications in various

fields, including pharmaceuticals, food and agriculture, and materials science.

24
 One of the key advantages of NIR spectroscopy is its ability to analyse a wide range of

samples without the need for extensive sample preparation. This makes NIR spectroscopy a

fast and efficient analytical tool for the rapid screening and analysis of large sample sets.

Additionally, NIR spectroscopy can provide quantitative and qualitative information about the

chemical composition of a sample, such as the identification and quantification of organic and

inorganic compounds, as well as physical properties such as moisture content and particle

size.

In pharmaceuticals, NIR spectroscopy is commonly used in drug development and

manufacturing to monitor the quality of raw materials and finished products, as well as to

detect impurities and deviations from desired specifications. In food and agriculture, NIR

spectroscopy can be used to analyse the quality and nutritional value of crops and livestock

feed, as well as to detect contaminants such as mycotoxins and pesticides. In materials

science, NIR spectroscopy is used to study the chemical composition and properties of

materials, such as polymers, ceramics, and composites.

NIR spectroscopy works by measuring the absorption or reflection of near-infrared

light by a sample. Near-infrared light has wavelengths between 700 and 2500 nanometres,

which corresponds to the vibrational frequencies of chemical bonds in molecules. When near-

infrared light interacts with a sample, some of the light is absorbed by the sample and some of

it is reflected. The absorption and reflection of the light depend on the chemical composition

and physical properties of the sample. By analysing the intensity of the absorbed or reflected

light at different wavelengths, NIR spectroscopy can provide information about the chemical

composition and physical properties of the sample.

25
8. FTIR Spectroscopy

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a non-destructive analytical

technique used to obtain information about the molecular structure of a sample. It is based on

the principle that molecules absorb infrared radiation at specific frequencies, which

correspond to the vibrational modes of the molecular bonds. FTIR spectroscopy is widely

used in various fields, such as chemistry, materials science, pharmaceuticals, and forensic

analysis.

FTIR spectroscopy works by passing an infrared beam through a sample, and then

detecting the resulting absorption spectrum. The sample can be in the form of a solid, liquid,

or gas, and the technique is capable of analysing both organic and inorganic compounds. The

infrared spectrum obtained can provide information about the functional groups present in the

sample, the types of bonds between the atoms, and the overall molecular structure.

The main advantages of FTIR spectroscopy are its versatility and speed. It is a rapid

and non-destructive technique that can be used to analyse a wide range of samples, from small

molecules to large biomolecules. FTIR is also highly sensitive and can detect trace amounts of

compounds. Another advantage is that it requires minimal sample preparation, making it a

convenient technique for routine analysis.

There are several different types of FTIR spectroscopy techniques, including

transmission, attenuated total reflectance (ATR), and reflection-absorption. Transmission

FTIR involves passing the infrared beam through a thin sample, while ATR FTIR involves

using a crystal to focus the beam onto the sample surface. Reflection-absorption FTIR is used

to analyse samples that have a reflective surface, such as metals or semiconductors.

26
3.3 Gamma ray spectroscopy

Gamma ray spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to study the

properties of atomic nuclei, such as their energy levels and decay modes. It is based on the

interaction between gamma rays, which are high-energy photons, and matter, specifically the

atomic nuclei of materials being studied. Gamma ray spectroscopy has a wide range of

applications in fields such as nuclear physics, chemistry, geology, and medicine.

Gamma rays are produced by a variety of sources, including radioactive decay,

nuclear reactions, and high-energy cosmic rays. They have very high energy and short

wavelengths, which makes them difficult to detect and measure. However, when gamma rays

interact with matter, they can produce other particles such as electrons and positrons, which

can be detected and measured. This process is known as gamma-ray spectroscopy.

The basic principle of gamma ray spectroscopy is to measure the energy of the gamma

rays emitted by a sample of material. This is done by using a gamma-ray spectrometer, which

consists of a detector and electronics for measuring and analysing the signals produced by the

detector. The most commonly used detector in gamma ray spectroscopy is the high-purity

germanium (HPGe) detector. This type of detector is made from a single crystal of

germanium that has been grown with high purity to minimize impurities that can interfere

with gamma ray detection. The HPGe detector has high energy resolution and can detect

gamma rays with energies ranging from a few keV to several MeV.

The gamma rays emitted by a sample are detected by the HPGe detector, which

converts the gamma-ray energy into an electrical signal. The electronics then analyse the

signals to determine the energy of the gamma rays and their intensity. The resulting gamma-

ray spectrum is a plot of the number of gamma rays detected versus their energy. Each peak in

the spectrum corresponds to a particular energy level of the atomic nuclei in the sample. The

27
position and shape of the peaks provide information about the energy levels and decay modes

of the atomic nuclei.

Gamma ray spectroscopy is used in a variety of applications. In nuclear physics, it is

used to study the structure and properties of atomic nuclei, such as their excitation levels and

decay modes. In nuclear medicine, it is used to diagnose and treat cancer and other diseases.

In geology, it is used to study the composition and structure of rocks and minerals. In

environmental science, it is used to study the transport and fate of radioactive contaminants in

the environment. In forensic science, it is used to identify and analyse trace evidence, such as

gunshot residue.

3.4 Advantages of Gamma ray spectroscopy

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used in a variety of

scientific fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, and environmental science. The

technique involves the measurement of gamma rays emitted by a radioactive source to

determine the identity and quantity of the elements present in a sample. Gamma-ray

spectroscopy has several advantages over other spectroscopic methods, such as X-ray

fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. In this essay, we will

discuss the advantages of gamma-ray spectroscopy compared to other spectroscopic methods.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is non-destructive, meaning that it does not alter the sample being

analysed. This is in contrast to other spectroscopic methods, such as ICP spectroscopy, which

requires the sample to be dissolved in acid prior to analysis. This dissolution process can

potentially alter the chemical composition of the sample, which can lead to inaccurate results.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy avoids this issue by simply measuring the gamma rays emitted by

the sample, without altering its chemical composition.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is highly sensitive, allowing for the detection of trace

amounts of elements in a sample. Gamma rays have a very high energy and can penetrate

28
deep into materials, making them ideal for detecting trace elements in a variety of matrices.

This sensitivity makes gamma-ray spectroscopy an attractive option for environmental

monitoring, where trace amounts of contaminants need to be detected in soil, water, and air

samples.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is a highly accurate technique, with the ability to measure

elemental concentrations with high precision. The energy of gamma rays emitted by a

radioactive source is directly related to the atomic number of the element emitting the

radiation. By measuring the energy of the gamma rays, the identity of the element emitting the

radiation can be determined. This allows for the accurate quantification of elemental

concentrations in a sample.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy has a wide range of applications, including nuclear physics,

geochemistry, and medical imaging. In nuclear physics, gamma-ray spectroscopy is used to

study the structure and properties of atomic nuclei. In geochemistry, gamma-ray spectroscopy

is used to study the composition of rocks and minerals. In medical imaging, gamma-ray

spectroscopy is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to detect and image

tumours and other diseases.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is a relatively simple and inexpensive technique. The

equipment required for gamma-ray spectroscopy is relatively simple and inexpensive, making

it accessible to a wide range of users. This simplicity also makes gamma-ray spectroscopy a

fast and efficient technique for analysing large numbers of samples.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy can be used to analyse samples in situ, meaning that the

sample does not need to be removed from its natural environment for analysis. This is

particularly useful for environmental monitoring, where the in-situ analysis of soil, water, and

air samples can provide real-time data on environmental contaminants.

29
 In contrast, other spectroscopic methods have some disadvantages. For example, XRF

spectroscopy is limited in its sensitivity and accuracy compared to gamma-ray spectroscopy.

XRF spectroscopy is also limited in its ability to detect lighter elements, such as carbon and

nitrogen, which can be detected by gamma-ray spectroscopy. ICP spectroscopy, on the other

hand, requires sample dissolution, which can potentially alter the chemical composition of the

sample. ICP spectroscopy is also more expensive and requires more specialized equipment

compared to gamma-ray spectroscopy.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique with several advantages

over other spectroscopic methods, including non-destructiveness, sensitivity, accuracy, wide

range of applications, simplicity, and in situ analysis capabilities. These advantages make

gamma-ray spectroscopy an attractive option for a wide range of scientific applications, from

environmental monitoring to medical imaging.

3.5 Study area

The Thenpennai river starts from the Nandi Hills in Karnataka (in the Chikkaballapura

Hills). This flows through the state of Tamil Nadu and enters the Bay of Bengal finally. This

river is known as the Thenpennaiyaru in Tamil Nadu and Dakshina Pinakini in Karnataka.

But the older river Dakshina Pinakini, which is part of Thepennai is not found in these days.

Thenpennai river flows for a distance of 85Km within Bengaluru in Karnataka state. Then this

river enters into the Bagalur in Krishnagiri District in Tamil Nadu. From its point of origin,

this river flows over 400 Km till it joins the Bay of Bengal at the Cuddalore District in Tamil

Nadu.

The river flows about 110Km in Karnataka. Then on reaching Tamil Nadu this river

flows at a distance of 140Km in Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri, 35 Km in Tiruvannamalai,

105Km in Villupuram and 40Km in Cuddalore District. The main tributaries of this

Thenpennai river are the Chinnar (Markanda nadhi), Pambaru and the Vaniyar in Tamil Nadu.

30
 Thenpennai river has a vast amount of sand. Due to the large course of sand particles,

the water of this river undergoes natural purification. This river holds the catchment area of

1424 m2. But this water has large number of bacteria. The river is always dry in most of the

days in a year. The southwest monsoon causes the water flows in the catchment area and the

northeast monsoon causes the water flow in Tamil Nadu. Even though this river dries up, the

water flows throughout the basin and distributes the water to the reservoirs.

The granites and gneisses weathered in the top layers, form morum, gravel, sand and

clay. Alluvial soils occur along the stream courses. Some small-scale Industries like fruit

canning, granite polishing, brick, textile, sugar, distillery and dairy are located along the river

Figure 1:( ) Thenpennai river, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu

area and discharging the effluents. Further, the granites are used as road metal and sand from

the river course is also used for construction purposes. Geologically, the basin is underlain by

rocks of Archaean age consisting of granites, granite gneisses, recent alluvium and soils.

Numerous dolerite dykes occur as intrusions in the granites and gneisses.

3.6 Sample collection

Sampling locations were identified using Google map GPS, where the geographical

information of each location (latitude and longitude) is measured After that, samples were

collected at 10 different locations along the Thenpennai River (Figure 1) Tamil Nadu using a

stainless-steel auger, which was cleaned in between samples and the first sub-sample at each

31
point was discarded to avoid cross contamination. In each location, five representative sub-

samples, one from the centre point and four from the four quadrants of the 1 m2 area of each

point, were taken and combined to make one composite sample representing each point on the

grid.

3.7 Sample preparation

In order to determine the concentration of radionuclides, 500–600 g sand samples

were dried in an oven at 105°C for 1 hour to obtain the constant dry weight and then were

transferred into airtight Marinelli beakers of uniform size (height: 12 cm, diameter: 6 cm).

These beakers were hermetically sealed and kept in the laboratory for a period of 1 month in
226
order to attain nearly secular equilibrium between Ra before taking measurements using a

gamma-spectrometry system. The gamma ray measurements are carried out.

32
 CHAPTER - IV

RESULT AND DISSCUSION

33
 CHAPTER – IV

RESULT AND DISSCUSION

4.1 Gamma ray spectrometric analysis

226 232 40
In the present work, activity concentration of Ra, Th and K have been

determined in river sand using a high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometer consisting of a

HPGe detector (Model GC 3020 Canberra) coupled to PC-based MCA card (Accused-A,

Canberra). The relative efficiency of the detector was 40% and the resolution 2.23 keV at
60
1332 gamma-ray line of Co. This detector was equipped with 8192-channels and it was

shielded in an 8 cm lead chamber with an inner lining of 0.5 cm thick copper plate to reduce

the background. An efficiency calibration of the detector system was carried out using

standard soil-327 obtained from IAEA. The results were analysed by using Canberra Genie-
40
2000 software (Canberra). The sediment samples were counted for 50000 seconds. K was
232
analysed by its single peak of 1460 keV. The activity concentration of Th was determined
228 226 214
using the Ac decay gamma ray line at 911 keV and Ra was determined using the Bi
226 232
decay gamma line at 609 keV. However, the analysis of Ra and Th was based upon the

peaks of progeny in equilibrium with their parent radionuclides. Sample analysis was

performed with a computer-based gamma spectrometry system for qualitative and quantitative

determination of gamma-emitting radionuclides. The most advantage of HPGe high purity

germanium detectors (HPGe) is the best energy resolution among all detector types.

4.1.1. Distribution of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in river sands

226 232 40
The activity concentration of natural radionuclides Ra, Th and K were

measured in sand samples collected from Thenpennai river, Tamil Nadu and given in Table 2.

These activity concentration values are reported in Bq kg−1 on dry weight basis. Using the

34
measured gamma ray count rate (CPS), the activity concentration of the natural radionuclides
226
Ra, 232Th, 40K were calculated by the following formula

(𝐂𝐏𝐒)𝐧𝐞𝐭
Activity concentration (Bqkg-1) = …………………. (1)
∈ ×𝑰 × 𝑴

where, (CPS)net is the net count per second, ∈ is the efficiency of the detector for the

corresponding peak, I is the gamma-ray emission probability and M is the mass of the sample

in kg. It is observed from the results, activity concentrations vary from 12.48 to 44.78 Bq kg−1

with a mean value of 28.56 Bq kg−1 for 226Ra, from 26.54 to 145.42 Bq kg−1 with a mean value

of 94.93 Bq kg−1 for 232

Th, from 224.86 to 481.68 Bq kg−1 with a mean value of 371.66 Bq

kg−1 for 40 K. Table 2 shows that activity of 232Th to be greater than the activity of 226Ra chain

in most of the studied samples, supportive for the fact that presence of thorium is 1.5 times

greater than the radium (uranium)in the earth crust. This wide variation of activity

concentrations of 226Ra and 232Th in the samples reveals that they are not uniform. This is due

to variations in the geological characteristics of the study area. The results show that the mean

activity of 226Ra is lower whereas 40 K is slightly greater than the worldwide average value (35

Bq kg−1 for 226Ra and 400 Bq kg−1 for 40 K, 30 Bq kg−1 for 232Th) of these radionuclides in the
232
river sands. Finally, the mean activity of Th in the river sand shows that more than that of

twice the world average value. This is may be due to presence of monazite rich sandstones

and quartzites in the river area. The overall results of the present work showed that activity

concentration of 40 K is higher followed by232Th and 226Ra.

226 232 40
The mean activity concentration of natural radionuclides Ra, Th and K of the

present work has been compared with other similar studies in Table 3. As seen from Table 3,

the concentration of thorium was remarkably greater than that for other reported rivers in the

world and there are random changes in activity concentration of radium and potassium.

35
S.NO: Sample ID Geographical coordinates Location Name

Longitude Latitude

1. PNR1 79°38ˈ90.45” E 11°91ˈ11.68” N Enathimangalam

2. PNR2 79°39ˈ48.71” E 11°90ˈ83.23” N Enathimangalam dam

3. PNR3 79°41ˈ12.43” E 11°89ˈ98.77” N Eralur

4. PNR4 79°42ˈ58.32” E 11°88ˈ59.81” N Karadipakkam

5. PNR5 79°43ˈ52.45” E 11°87ˈ70.78” N Annagur

6. PNR6 79°44ˈ36.26” E 11°87ˈ25.41” N Pidagam

7. PNR7 79°45ˈ61.14” E 11°87ˈ21.52” N Athiyur

8. PNR8 79°45ˈ88.59” E 11° 87ˈ16.34” N Periyar Nagar

9. PNR9 79°46ˈ56.12” E 11°87ˈ21.96” N Veliyambakkam

10. PNR10 79°47ˈ08.11” E 11°87ˈ06.55” N Kavanur

Table 1. Geographical information of sample locations in Thenpennai

River, Tamil Nādu.
The above table represents the sample collecting locations. The geographical coordinates are
measured using the google map GPS locater. We collect samples from different location of
the thenpennai river.

36
Table 2: Activity concentration of radionuclides and associated radiological
parameters in thenpennai river sands, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India.

S.No. Sample ID Location Name Activity concentration (Bq kg-1)

226Ra 232Th 40K

1. PNR1 Enathimangalam 13.21 56.73 429.36

2. PNR2 Enathimangalam dam 52.78 62.21 208.57

3. PNR3 Eralur 24.89 59.34 457.23

4. PNR4 Karadipakkam 38.56 54.07 288.82

5. PNR5 Annagur 17.58 38.50 520.64

6. PNR6 Pidagam 19.72 78.52 594.28

7. PNR7 Athiyur 23.08 160.73 342.76

8. PNR8 Periyar Nagar 16.27 52.38 241.56

9. PNR9 Veliyambakkam 36.67 133.65 392.38

10. PNR10 Kavanur 42.87 253.23 241.07

Average 28.56 94.93 371.66

37
 700

600

500
Activity concentration

400

300

200

100

0
PNR1 PNR2 PNR3 PNR4 PNR5 PNR6 PNR7 PNR8 PNR9 PNR10
Sample ID

Ra Th K

Figure 2. Variation of activity concentration of radionuclides in Thenpennai river sands,

Tamil Nādu.

38
4.2 Similar radioactive profiles of soil sample

Table 3: Comparison of activity concentration of radionuclides of present

study with other studies.

S. no. Country River Activity concentration (Bq kg-1)

226Ra 232Th 40K

1 Egypt Nile River 12.94 16.30 200.21

2 Nigeria Ogun River 11.78 12.65 499.4`8

3 Turkey Coruh River 11.4 18.3 510.2

4 Iraq Al-Husseiniya 15.8 11.2 311.0

river,

5 China Wei River 33.1 21.8 833.3

6 Pakistan Hunza River 11.65 21.37 173.96

7 Bangladesh Shango River 57.5 25.4 255

8 Karnapulli River 65.5 37.9 272

9 India Kali River 6.9 40.1 394.7

10 Sharavathi River 11.6 72.0 493.4

11 Netravathi River 57.5 69.7 559.7

12 Palar River 36 10 472

13 Thamirabarani 40.85 51.87 838.19

river

14 Thenpennai River 28.56 94.93 371.66

39
 900

800

700

600
Activity concentration

500

400

300

200

100

Ra Th K

Figure:3 Comparison of activity concentration of radionuclides of present study with

other studies.

40
CHAPTER - V

CONCLUSION

41
 CHAPTER – V

CONCLUSION

5. Conclusion

In the present work, the activity concentrations of radionuclides were determined in

Thenpennai river sand samples using Gamma ray spectroscopy and their related radiological

parameters were calculated. From the results, it is concluded that average value of thorium in

the present study is more than that of twice the world average value due to may be presence of
40
monazite rich sandstones and quartzites in the river area whereas highest K values are due

presence of light minerals. These light minerals may be originated from the source rocks as

the river travels long-way path containing igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. It

shows that the river sands are can be used as safe material for building construction in the

study area. The data generated in this study will provide baseline data of natural radioactivity

in the study area.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

42
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