Power System Analysis

1. Overview of Distribution Systems

2. Load Characteristics

Jayson Bryan E. Mutuc

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 Overview of Distribution Systems
Electric energy is the most popular form of energy
because it can be transported easily at high
efficiency and reasonable cost

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 Electric Industry Structure
The bulk generation of electricity in the Philippines is
produced by power generating companies or IPP’s
(Independent Power Producers)

The transmission system of the Philippines is handled by

the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines

Distribution of electrical energy to customers is

handled by distribution utilities such as MERALCO and
Electric Cooperatives

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 Modern Power System
• Generation
• Transmission or Sub-transmission
• Distribution
• Loads or End user

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Modern Power System

Figure 1.1 Electric Power System Structure

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Modern Power System

Figure 1.2 Modern Power

System Structure

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 Generation
One of the essential components of power systems is
the three-phase ac generator called synchronous
generator or alternator.

Definitions from RA9136

• Generation of Electricity
The production of electricity by Generation Company
• Generation Company
Any person or entity authorized by the Energy Regulation
Commission (ERC) to operate a facilities used in the generation of
electricity.

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 Transmission
The purpose of an overhead transmission network is to
transfer electric energy from generating units at
various locations to the distribution system.

Voltage Level: 500kV, 230kV, 115kV(Mostly MERALCO franchise

areas), Visayas and Mindanao grid: 138kV, 230kV

Definitions from RA9136

• Transmission of Electricity
Refers to the conveyance of electricity through the high voltage
backbone of the system

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 Distribution
Distribution system is the part that connects the
distribution substation to the consumers service-
entrance equipment.

Voltage level: 115/66 or 69kV(subtransmission), 34.5/19.92kV,

13.2/7.62kV, 460/265, 230

Definitions from RA9136

• Distribution System
Refers to the system of wires and associated facilities belonging
to a franchised distribution utility extending between the delivery points
on the transmission or subtransmission system or generator connection
and the point of connection to the premises of the end-user.

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 Distribution
• Distribution of Electricity
Refers to the conveyance of electric power by
distribution utility through its distribution system.

• Distribution Utility
Refers to any electric cooperative, private corporation,
government owned utility or existing local government unit which
ha an exclusive franchise to operate a distribution system.

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 Loads or End-User
Loads of power systems are divided into industrial,
commercial, and residential

Voltage Level: 69kV, 34.5kV, 13.8kV, 460V, 230V

Definitions from RA9136

• End-User
Refers to any person or entity requiring the supply and deliviery
of electricity for its own use

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 Voltage Class
Voltage class is the term often used by equipment
manufacturers and power companies to identify the
voltage that the equipment will be connected to
Voltage Class Voltage Category
Under 600 V Low Voltage
601-7200 V Medium Voltage
15 kV – 138 kV High Voltage
230 kV- 750kV Extra High Voltage
Above 1,000,000 Ultra High Voltage

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Distribution System Consideration
In determining the design of distribution systems, three broad
classifications of choices need to be considered:

1. The type of electric system: dc or ac, and if ac, single-phase

or polyphase.
2. The type of delivery system: radial, loop, or network. Radial
systems include duplicate and throwover systems.
3. The type of construction: overhead or underground.

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Distribution System Consideration
DESIRED FEATURES

Electrical energy may be distributed over two or more wires. The

principal features desired are:

• Safety
• Smooth and even flow of power
• As far as is practical; and economy.

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 Types of Electric System
• Direct Current Systems
• Alternating Current Single-Phase Systems
– Two-wire Systems
– Three-wire Systems
• Alternating Current Three-Phase Systems
– Three-wire Systems
– Four-wire Systems

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 Types of Delivery System
• Primary Distribution System
– which carries the load at higher than utilization voltages
from the substation (or other source) to the point where the
voltage is stepped down to the value at which the energy
is utilized by the consumer.
§ Radial Distribution
§ Ring Distribution

• Secondary distribution
– which includes that part of the system operating at
utilization voltages, up to the meter at the consumer ’s
premises.

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 Types of Delivery System
Radial Systems
The radial-type system is the simplest and the one most
commonly used. It comprises separate feeders or circuits
“radiating” out of the substation or source, each feeder usually
serving a given area.

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 Types of Delivery System
Ring Distribution Systems
Another means of restricting the duration of interruption employs feeders
designed as loops, which essentially provide a two-way primary feed for
critical consumers. Here, should the supply from one direction fail, the
entire load of the feeder may be carried from the other end, but
sufficient spare capacity must be provided in the feeder.

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 Load Characteristics
In the planning of an electrical distribution system, as in any other
enterprise, it is necessary to know three basic things:

1. The quantity of the product or service desired (per unit of time)

2. The quality of the product or service desired
3. The location of the market and the individual consumers

Logically, then, it would be well to begin with the basic building blocks,
the individual consumers, and then determine efficient means of
supplying their wants, individually and collectively.

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 Load Characteristics
In general types of load can be divided into the following
categories: Residential, Commercial, and Industrial.

• Residential Load: mainly consists of lights, fans, refrigerators,

airconditioners, mixer, ovens, small pumping motor, etc.

• Commercial Load; mainly consists of lighting for shops, offices,

advertisements etc., fans, heating, air conditioning and many other
electrical appliances used in commercial establishments such as
market places, restaurants etc.

• Industrial Load: consists of small scale industries , medium scale

industries, large scale industries, and heavy industries

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 Daily Load Curve
Daily load curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by
various classes of users

Figure 2.1 Load Curve

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 Consumer Factors

It is obvious that an individual consumer is not apt to be using all

of the electrical devices that constitute his or her “connected
load” at the same time, or to their full capacity.

It would evidently be unnecessary to provide facilities to serve

such a total possible load, and much more economical to
provide only for a probable load, the load creating the demand
on the distribution facilities.

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 Consumer Factors
• Demand – the load at the receiving terminals averaged over
a specified amount of time
• Demand Interval – the time period over which average load is
computed
• Maximum Demand – the greatest value of all demands which
occurred in a specified period of time.
• Demand Factor – the ratio of maximum demand of the system
to the total connected load of the system

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝐹 = fEQ. 2.1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

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 Load Curve
• Load Factor – the ratio of average load over a designated
period of time to the peak load occurring in that period.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 EQ. 2.2
𝐿𝐹 =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
• Utilization Factor – the ratio of the maximum demand of a
system to the rated capacity of the system
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑈𝐹 = EQ. 2.3
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Plant Factor – the ratio of the annual energy generation to the
plant capacity x Specified time period
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 EQ. 2.4
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑇

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 Consumer Factors
• Example Demand Factor:
– a consumer may have ten 10-hp motors installed; at any one time, some will
not be in use and others will not be fully loaded, so that the actual demand
may be only 50 hp; the demand factor is 50 divided by 100, or 50 percent.

• Example Load Factor:

– a consumer household may have a maximum demand of 2 kW during the
evening when many of its lights, the TV, the dishwasher, and other appliances
are in use. During the 24-h period, the energy consumed may be 12 kWh; thus
the average demand or load is 12 kWh divided by 24 h, or 0.5 kW, and the
load factor in this case is 0.5 kW divided by 2 kW, or 25 percent.

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 Power Demand Problems
A power station supplies the load as tabulated below:
a) Plot the load curve and find out
the load factor.
b) Determine the proper number
and size of generating units to
supply this load
c) Find the reserve capacity of the
plant and plant factor
d) Find out the operating schedule of generating units selected.

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 Power Demand Problems
Solution:
a)Units generated during 24 hours
=[(2x1.2)+2+(3x3)+(2x1.5)+(4x2.5)+(2x1.8)+2+(2x1)+6+0.5+0.8]
= 37.8 MWhr
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 37.8
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 1.575 𝑀𝑊
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 24
𝐴𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1.575
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.525
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 3

b) Maximum Demand = 3 MW. Therefore 4 generating units rating of 1.0

MW each may be selected. During the period of maximum demand 3
units will operate and 1 unit will remain as stand by

c) Plant Capacity = 4 x 1.0 MW = 4.0 MW

Reserved Capacity = 4 – 3 = 1.0 MW

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 Power Demand Problems
Solution:
!"#$%& '(')*+ ,)-.$"'. 45.7
c) 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.39375
/%012$2 ,&%(# )%#1(* 0 3 8098

d) Operating Schedule will be as follows:

One generating unit – 24 hours
Second generating unit – 6AM – 9PM (15 hours)
Third generating unit – 9AM – 12 Noon and 2PM – 6PM (7 hours)

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 Supplementary Problems
1) The annual load of a substation is given in the following table. During
each month, the power is assumed constant at an average value.
Plot the annual load curve. Find the average load and the annual
load factor. Find also the proper number, size of generating units
to supply this load and the reserve capacity.

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