Criminology Lectures

Learning theories

 This means theories which explains why individuals engage in criminal behaviour.
 There are different criminology authors that understand criminal behaviour as any
other type of behaviour something that we as individuals can learn.
 They will argue that those individuals who engage in criminal behaviour they do that
because they learn that behaviour as they have seen that behaviour and because
they have learnt an engaged in committing certain types of crimes.
 There are different types of learning theories that have been proposed such as:
- Classic conditioning
- Operant conditioning
- Imitation
- Social learning theory
 Classical Conditioning:
 This theory was introduced by Pavlov and he was an author on how dogs are
conditioned.
 The dog learnt that the sound of the bell means that the food was coming
and therefore would start salivating.
 Unconditional stimulus Unconditional response
Neutral stimulus

Neutral stimulus Unconditional stimulus Unconditional response

Conditional stimulus Conditional response

 This is the basis of the classical conditioning that we can associate a stimulus and
based on that stimulus we create our response.
 If we have associated these stimuli in our daily lives such as different colours have
different meanings to an individual. Without us realising we associate a colour with a
feeling such as red= danger.
 So in principle we individuals associate a stimulus and we then create certain
responses based on the association of that stimulus.
 Passive vs Active
 One of the main criticisms of classical conditioning is that as individuals we are not
passive but are active. We don’t wait for the stimuli we are active and go search for
it.
 From the Classical conditioning it was developed into….
 Operant conditioning:
 This was developed by Skinner and basically says that our behaviour is influenced by
the consequences that follow from that behaviour.
  We as human beings behave in a certain way and because of that behaviour we have
consequences, and those consequences can serve to reinforce our behaviour or
decrease our likelihood commit any similar behaviour(punishment).
 The basis of the operant conditioning is:
- When we behave, we can get reinforcement, or we can get punishment.
- There are two types of reinforcement:
- Positive reinforcement or Negative reinforcement and both will encourage our
behaviour.
- Positive reinforcement is that we are going to receive or adding something that
we like. Reward
- Negative reinforcement would be that they are removing something that we
didn’t like to encourage our behaviour. So, for an instance no cleaning for good
behaviour.
- Punishment is when you want to reduce a behaviour.
- There is positive punishment so adding something you dislike. Have to clean the
house.
- Or they remove something you really like which is a negative punishment. Take
away TV privileges.
 Imitation
 Human being has an innate tendency to imitate others.
 Much of our social learning takes place through this mechanism.
 Trade’s ‘law of imitation’:
-Close contact
-Influence of high status
-New fashion substitute old ones
 This is based on that we learn ideas because we imitate/copy others and we
see other people engaging in certain behaviours so that is where we learn
our conduct.
 Seen others steal money so that’s what they do to copy.
 Trade says:
 We tend to imitate those who are close to us such as members of the family,
friends or even students. Close is not just physical but even through social
media.
 Influence of a high status is that a person tends to imitate those who you
value or perceive who is a role model. A kid imitating an older student or
sports athlete.
 New fashions imitation means as you grow up and change, we don’t always
imitate the same people but it changes as you get older.

Social learning theory

 This is the most important theory we have to explain criminal behaviour as McGuire
explains:
 “Crimes are the result of individual acts linked to other activities such as thoughts,
feelings, attitudes and interpersonal exchanges”
 Most of the other learning theories are quite basic in the terms of either looking at
the stimulus or the consequences which occur after certain behaviours or even
imitating others behaviour.
 While authors of the social learning theory do not reject the other principles but the
reason, we learn certain behaviours is because of all the thoughts, feelings and
attitudes attached to those behaviours. We cannot see conducts as only being
isolated aspects but need to understand the conducts with the feelings of the
individual and the attitudes, values and behaviours of certain people.
 Many things humans do is learned. E.g. learning how to eat.
 This learning takes place within a social context, and we cannot separate from this
social context. So, you would not behave the same as someone who behaved 100
years ago as well as different countries. Attitudes and morals of that context.
 Cognition – process such as perception, understanding, imagining, and dreaming (we
cannot directly observe in others).
 They say there are cognitions which we are unable to observe as it is personal. Such
as motivations and dreams affect our aspects.
 Operant learning – importance of the environment (consequences).
 Imitation – It is possible to learn through observing the behaviours of others.
(models)
 Criminal behaviour is the result of the learning of the conduct and the values that we
give to this conduct. So here is one of the differences of the social learning theories
compared to the other theories as they emphasise the attitudes and values that
individuals have towards certain conducts.
2. Differential association
 Criminal behaviour is learned, and it is learned through association with others.
 Conduct:
- Contact with social norms
- Is influenced by the norms present in the particular groups.
- Learning and imitation helps to module individual behaviour.
 Balance:
- Attitudes favourable to socially acceptable conducts.
- Attitudes favouring deviance.
 The social context will give understanding of the values and the attitudes of the
certain conduct and the social norms that shall be followed.
 Some people may have stronger attitudes or not really any attitudes towards certain
conducts such as smoking.
 Those who have a strong attitude against a conduct are less likely to engage in it.
 On the other hand, those that don’t have strong attitudes may be more likely to
engage in that conduct.
 We learn that conduct from our peers/families.
 One of the main authors of the social learning theory is Bandura (1970’s)
 Combining the ideas: observational learning and operant conditioning.
 So how the kids get reinforced with certain conducts and copy certain people and
conducts.
 Individuals would observe others while doing significant conducts and obtain
negative and positive reinforcements.
 Phases of learning
  Acquisition - They said that any individual needs to acquire the learning by observing
and imitating other people.
Observant learning
Direct experience
 Reproduction - Once you have acquired the knowledge you are then going to
reproduce the conduct or not.
Decision making phase
 Maintenance – Are you going to maintain that behaviour.
External reinforcement/ external punishment
Vicarious reinforcement – someone else getting something else from the conduct
Self- reinforcement
Self-punishment
 Aker’s preposition
 Criminal behaviour occurs as a result of either operant conditioning or imitation
 Imitation and modelling occurs within the family, peer groups, media and other
culture sources of information.
 Social responses to criminal behaviour, depending on their nature will reinforce the
behaviour negatively or positively, as will the impact that the behaviour has upon
personal feelings of pride and self-esteem.
 This relates to those attitudes and self-reinforcement and self-punishment to be
criminal behaviour or not.
 Definitions – (Approval/Disapproval of behaviour – engagement)
- Definitions are developed through imitation and differential reinforcement
- + Duration, + priority and + intensity of the association – the greater the effect.
 Social response is much more impactful than material gain.
 The more we are opened to those attitudes and values would be more important
from families than a strangers and will have greater effect on our conduct.

Durkheim – Anomie

 Social explanation of crime

 Durkheim and anomie uses the sociological explanation to explain crime. He tries to
explain using different factors within society by using a social explanation. He views
crime as any other factor in a given society.
 He mentioned that in any society there are social facts such as:
- Norms
- Culture
- Laws
- Politics
- Economy
- Technology
- Population
 As individuals who live by these social factors our influence is affected by them.
 The social facts build and shape the society that we live in but this interaction and
the social networking with these facts also shape our understanding of these facts.
2. Concept of Crime
 Crime is normal
  Crime is Not antisocial, parasitic, strange
 Crime is not unchanging. Crime reflect social conventions
 Crime does not disappear, it changes.
 Too little crime could be as concerning as too much.
 Crime has a function:
-Adaptive function
-Acceptable vs Unacceptable (right vs wrong) – what is not acceptable will be
considered as a crime.
-Reinforce social values
 Breaks from the idea that crime is strange
 Crime is dynamic and will change
 Such as cyber crime
 Crime creates boundaries
 Has a social function
 Reinforce social boundaries/norms
 Any social change starts with a deviant behaviour. Black and white mix
 Introduces new ideas and practices into the society and ensure there is a change
and introduce new ideas that were not acceptable before.
 Anomie
 He introduces the sense of Anomie in the sense that when we move to the big
cities where there is not social value or shared social norms and values. And
where this change has happened rapidly. There is no model to show right or
wrong as there are so many models that can be followed this causes a state of
normless. This causes crime to appear. This causes a sense of disconnection,
lonliness, isolation. This occurs more in modern societies. People feel less
integrated and often feel they do not belong.


Strain theory

 The American dream is the view of having a nice house, your dream car and a
happy family.
 The success in the American dream is not just based on the material gain but also
the idea that if you work hard, you are going to get that success and happiness.
 Not everyone can achieve the goals.
 Due to social classes not, everyone can reach this.
 Not everyone is not starting in the same stages some individuals have barriers.
 Merton rejects the idea of the American dream and rejects the idea of the
materialistic society.
 Anomie – contradiction between socially desired aspirations and the means.
 Social structures and crime (i.e., social barriers and opportunities to achieve
these goals).
 The strain for anomie is stronger in certain groups than in others (eg. Lower
class)
  Alternative steps to achieve the goals
 Modes of adaptation

Labelling Theory