Inheritance is the process of genetic transmission of characteristics from parent to their offspring(s).

At fertilization, the nucleus of the sperm joins with the nucleus of the egg. So, the zygote has half the
genes from the father and half the genes from the mother. Chromosomes carry genes that control our
characteristics. Full number of chromosomes is called diploid number (46 chromosomes) and it is for all
cells except gametes. Gametes have haploid number (23) of chromosomes. 2 gametes join to make a
diploid zygote. A GENE is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity . A gene is a short length of DNA
found on a chromosome that codes for a particular characteristic (expressed by the formation of different
proteins). Genes are made up of DNA (A single gene is made of a short length of DNA). A DNA molecule is
made up of thousands of units, each called a nucleotide. 1 nucleotide = phosphate backbone, deoxyribose
sugar, and a nitrogen base.

A DNA is made up two strands of nucleotides. The whole molecule is twisted forming a double helix.
DNA molecule is kept together by base pairing of nucleotides. Each pair of bases are held together by
hydrogen bonds. The four different bases in DNA are: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine (ATCG).
Adenine pairs with thymine & cytosine pairs with guanine.

Mitosis is a type of cell division, the process by which new cells are made. It takes place in somatic cells
(cells except gametes). The chromosomes need to be copied exactly so that new cells can be produced for:
1) Growth.
2) repair to damaged tissue.
3) replacement of worn-out cells.

Mitosis stages:
1) One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus just before the cell is about to divide.
2) Each chromosome makes an identical copy of itself. For a moment there are 92 chromosomes in the
nucleus.
3) The cell divides into 2. One complete set of chromosomes goes into each of the two new daughter cells.
4) Two new daughter cells, each identical to the cell they came from.

Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. A human body cell contains 46 chromosomes
arranged in 23 pairs. Human gametes are haploid – so their nucleus only contains a single set of 23
unpaired chromosomes.

Mitosis
Takes place in body cells.
Divided cells are genetically identical to parents.
One cell divides to form 2 cells.
Total chromosome set is diploid (46 chromosomes)
Meiosis
Takes place in gametes
Genetic variation in divided cells.
One cell divides to form 4 cells.
Total chromosome set is haploid (23 chromosomes)

The DNA molecules that are in the nucleus are usually thin strands. When the cells divide, the DNA
molecules are then copied and recombined to form a new set of chromosomes. Each section of DNA
contains a code that allows a protein to be made.

Two copies of each chromosome are needed to make a gene. Since there are two alleles for each gene,
they do not have to say the same thing. For instance, an individual with two copies of the gene for eye
color might have one allele that codes for blue eyes and another that codes for brown eyes. The physical
characteristics that can be seen or identified by a person are referred to as the phenotype. The
combination of these characteristics can be called the genotype.
Human body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus. Twenty-two pairs are known as
autosomes, and control characteristics, but one pair carries genes that determine sex - whether offspring
are male or female: males = XY, females = XX.

A genetic diagram, like a Punnett square, shows how alleles may combine in zygotes. Alleles can be
dominant or recessive. A dominant allele only needs to be inherited from one parent in order for the
characteristic to show up in the phenotype. A recessive allele needs to be inherited from both parents in
order for the characteristic to show up in the phenotype. If there is only one recessive allele, it will remain
hidden and the dominant characteristic will show. If the two alleles of a gene are the same, we describe
the individual as being homozygous (homo = same).

An individual could be homozygous dominant (having two copies of the dominant allele), or homozygous
recessive (having two copies of the recessive allele). If the two alleles of a gene are different, we describe
the individual as being heterozygous (hetero = different). When completing genetic diagrams, alleles are
abbreviated to single letters. The dominant allele is given a capital letter and the recessive allele is given
the same letter, but lower case.

B = Brown eyes, b = Blue eyes, and brown is dominant to blue eyes. So:
1) BB = Homozygous dominant (brown)
2) Bb = Heterozygous (brown)
3) Bb = homozygous recessive (blue)

Mutation is a random mistake that occurs in the genetic code. Since it’s in the DNA, it can be inherited
through generations. Mutations can be caused by a mutagen, like radiation or chemicals.

Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disorder affects the lungs and digestive system. Patients with cystic fibrosis
produce thick, sticky mucus which can block the air passages and the tubes that carry digestive juices to
the gut. This results in difficulty breathing and absorbing food. Unfortunately, average life expectancy is
reduced for people who have it. It is caused by a faulty recessive allele on chromosome 7. To be born with
cystic fibrosis, a child has to inherit two copies of this faulty gene - one from each of their parents. Their
parents will not usually have the condition themselves, because they will only carry one faulty gene and
one that works normally. Patents are treated by chest physiotherapy and gene therapy using inhalers.

In the coming diagram, cystic fibrosis involves:

the recessive allele (lower case), which can be shown as f

the dominant allele (capital letter), which can be shown as F

An individual who is homozygous (ff) with the recessive allele will develop cystic fibrosis.
Someone who is heterozygous (Ff) will be a carrier of the recessive allele, but will not
develop cystic fibrosis and have no symptoms. Someone who is homozygous with
the dominant allele (FF) will not develop cystic fibrosis, as you need two faulty alleles (ff)
for the condition. In this combination, no faulty alleles are present.

Sickle cell anemia is an inherited disease of the blood. The S-shaped cells are sickle cells and have
abnormal hemoglobin. This makes it difficult for the red cells to carry oxygen. This inherited disease is
common in West Africa. It is caused by a recessive allele. The child inherits the allele from each parent
and is homozygous recessive. Being heterozygous with this is make people immune to malaria since
malaria doesn’t attack sickle shaped RBC like normal RBC.

Genetic Engineering is the modification of genes and cells to change an organism’s genetic code or to
create vaccines, or to mass-produce insulin, etc. It works by combining cells of atleast 2 living organisms.
Steps of genetic engineering: -

1) The human insulin gene is cut using restriction enzyme.

2) Next, the plasmid is cut open using the same type of restriction enzyme.
3) Bacteria are then mixed with plasmids in solution.
4) The insulin gene is then joined into the plasmid using DNA Ligase.
5) Some bacteria will hopefully take a plasmid into their cells.
6) These bacteria are then cultured allowing them to reproduce asexually.
7) The bacteria produces insulin which will be extracted & purified.
(This method is fast, cheap, disease free, and bacteria grows in a controlled environment).