Q - What are different types of tumour antigens?

Ans – Tumour specific antigens

Tumour associated antigens
Cancer testis antigens
Viral antigens
Q - Compare isograft and allograft with examples.
Ans – Allograft and isograft are two types of tissue transplantation in which tissue or an organ is
transferred from one individual to another. The main difference between the two is the source of the
donor tissue:
Allograft: An allograft is a transplant that uses tissue or an organ from a genetically different
individual of the same species. The donor tissue is obtained from a living or deceased donor who is
not genetically identical to the recipient. Examples of allografts include kidney transplants from a
living or deceased donor and bone marrow transplants from a matched unrelated donor.
Isograft: An isograft is a transplant that uses tissue or an organ from an identical twin or clone. The
donor and recipient are genetically identical, which means that the recipient's immune system will not
recognize the transplanted tissue as foreign. Examples of isografts include skin grafts between
identical twins and transplant of genetically identical organs in animal models.
Q Illustrate the features of graft rejection reactions.
Ans - Graft rejection is the process by which the immune system recognizes and attacks a transplanted
tissue or organ as foreign and attempts to eliminate it from the body

 Recognition of the graft as foreign

 Activation of the immune response
 Inflammation and tissue damage
 Development of immunological memory
Q -Illustrate the features of oncofoetal tumor antigens.
Ans - Oncofoetal tutor antigens are a class of tumor antigens that are expressed on the surface of both
fatal and tumor cells. These antigens are typically silenced in normal adult tissues but can be re-
expressed in tumors due to genetic mutations or epigenetic changes.
Immunogenicity
Heterogeneity
Tumor progression and prognosis
Q - How are tumor antigens induced by viruses?
Ans - Viruses can induce the expression of tumor antigens in infected cells through several
mechanisms. Here are a few examples:

Direct oncogenic activity: Some viruses, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) and Epstein-Barr
virus (EBV), have direct oncogenic activity that can lead to the transformation of infected cells into
cancer cells. These viruses induce the expression of viral oncogenes, such as E6 and E7 in the case of
HPV, which can activate cellular oncogenic pathways and promote tumor growth. The viral
oncogenes can also induce the expression of tumor antigens, such as HPV E6 and E7 antigens, which
can be recognized by the immune system.

Indirect oncogenic activity: Other viruses, such as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus
(HCV), have indirect oncogenic activity that can contribute to the development of cancer. These
viruses can cause chronic inflammation and damage to the liver, which can lead to the accumulation
of genetic mutations and the development of liver cancer. The chronic inflammation and damage can
also induce the expression of tumor antigens, which can be recognized by the immune system.

Insertional mutagenesis: Some viruses, such as retroviruses, can integrate their DNA into the host
cell genome and cause insertional mutagenesis. This process can disrupt the expression of cellular
genes and lead to the expression of abnormal proteins, some of which may be recognized by the
immune system as tumor antigens.

Overall, viruses can induce the expression of tumor antigens through various mechanisms, including
direct and indirect oncogenic activity and insertional mutagenesis. Understanding these mechanisms
is important for developing strategies to prevent virus-induced cancers and for developing cancer
immunotherapies that target viral tumor antigens.

Q – Compare Xenograft and isograft with examples.

Xenograft:
A xenograft is a type of graft in which tissues or organs from a donor of one species are transplanted
into a recipient of a different species. Because of the differences in antigens between species,
xenografts are highly immunogenic, meaning that the recipient's immune system will recognize the
graft as foreign and mount an immune response against it. Examples of xenografts include pig-to-
human heart valve transplants and porcine islet cell transplants for the treatment of diabetes.
Isograft:
An isograft is a type of graft in which tissues or organs from a donor of the same species are
transplanted into a recipient. Because the donor and recipient share the same antigens, isografts are
less immunogenic than xenografts and are therefore more likely to be successful. Examples of
isografts include skin grafts between identical twins and bone marrow transplants from a sibling with
a matching human leukocyte antigen (HLA) type.
Q - Illustrate the process of immune rejection during grafting.
Ans - Immune rejection is a process that occurs when the immune system of a recipient recognizes a
transplanted tissue or organ as foreign and mounts an immune response against it. This process can
ultimately lead to the failure of the transplant. The process of immune rejection during grafting
involves several steps:

Recognition: Immune cells in the recipient's body, such as T cells and B cells, recognize the
transplanted tissue or organ as foreign. This recognition occurs through the recognition of foreign
antigens on the surface of the transplanted cells, which are different from the recipient's own antigens.
Activation: Once the immune cells recognize the foreign antigens, they become activated and begin to
multiply, leading to an increased immune response against the transplanted tissue or organ.

Effector phase: The activated immune cells migrate to the transplanted tissue or organ and attack it. T
cells can directly attack and kill the transplanted cells, while B cells can produce antibodies that target
the transplanted tissue or organ.

Inflammation: The immune response against the transplanted tissue or organ can also lead to
inflammation, which can damage the tissue and impair its function.

Q – Compare types of oncogenes .

Oncogenes are genes that, when mutated or overexpressed, can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and
cancer development.

Q - Explain the mechanism of transplantation immune responses.

Transplantation involves the transfer of cells, tissues, or organs from one individual to another.
However, the immune system of the recipient can recognize the transplanted tissue as foreign and
mount an immune response, leading to graft rejection. The mechanism of transplantation immune
responses can be divided into three stages: the recognition phase, the activation phase, and the effector
phase.

Recognition Phase: During the recognition phase, the immune system of the recipient recognizes the
transplanted tissue as foreign. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules play a critical
role in this process. MHC molecules present peptides derived from foreign proteins to T cells, which
recognize and respond to these foreign peptides. MHC molecules are highly polymorphic, and
individuals differ in their MHC alleles. Therefore, the MHC compatibility between the donor and
recipient is critical for successful transplantation.
Activation Phase: If the transplanted tissue is recognized as foreign, the recipient's immune system
becomes activated. T cells are key players in this process. CD4+ T cells recognize foreign peptides
presented by MHC class II molecules, while CD8+ T cells recognize foreign peptides presented by
MHC class I molecules. Once activated, T cells undergo clonal expansion and differentiate into
effector T cells, which can migrate to the transplanted tissue and cause damage.

Effector Phase: During the effector phase, the activated T cells migrate to the transplanted tissue and
cause damage. CD4+ T cells can help activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages,
which also contribute to graft rejection. CD8+ T cells can directly kill the transplanted cells, leading
to tissue damage and graft rejection.

Q What are the various factors that influence transplantation?

Ans - Transplantation is a complex process that involves many factors that can influence the success
or failure of the transplant. Some of the key factors that influence transplantation are:
Tissue Matching: Tissue matching is critical for successful transplantation. The immune system of
the recipient can recognize the transplanted tissue as foreign and mount an immune response, leading
to graft rejection. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules play a critical role in this
process. MHC molecules present peptides derived from foreign proteins to T cells, which recognize
and respond to these foreign peptides. MHC molecules are highly polymorphic, and individuals differ
in their MHC alleles. Therefore, the MHC compatibility between the donor and recipient is critical for
successful transplantation.
Immunosuppression: The immune system of the recipient can recognize the transplanted tissue as
foreign and mount an immune response, leading to graft rejection. To prevent graft rejection,
immunosuppressive drugs can be used to suppress the activation and proliferation of T cells. These
drugs include calcineurin inhibitors, such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus, which inhibit T cell
activation, and corticosteroids, which suppress inflammation.
Graft Quality: The quality of the graft can also influence transplantation. For example, a liver graft
from a donor with fatty liver disease may not function as well as a liver graft from a healthy donor.
Similarly, a kidney graft from a donor with hypertension or diabetes may be more likely to fail.
Donor Age: Donor age can also influence transplantation. Organs from older donors may be more
prone to damage and may not function as well as organs from younger donors.
Donor-Recipient Compatibility: The compatibility between the donor and recipient can also
influence transplantation. For example, a kidney graft from a living donor who is genetically related
to the recipient may have a better chance of success than a kidney graft from a deceased donor who is
not genetically related to the recipient.

Infectious Disease: Infectious disease can also influence transplantation. Donors and recipients can
be screened for infectious diseases, such as hepatitis B and C, HIV, and cytomegalovirus, to reduce
the risk of transmission.
Q 12 -Difference between HVGR and GVHR.
The host versus graft reaction (HVGR) and graft-versus-host reaction (GVHR) are two types of immune responses that can occur
following transplantation.

The HVGR occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and mounts an immune
response against it. This can lead to graft rejection, as the recipient's immune cells attack and destroy the transplanted tissue.
HVGR can occur in any type of transplantation, but it is most commonly observed in solid organ transplantation.

In contrast, GVHR occurs when the transplanted tissue contains immune cells, such as bone marrow or stem cells, that recognize
the recipient's tissues as foreign and mount an immune response against them. This can lead to a systemic immune response,
as the transplanted immune cells attack the recipient's tissues throughout the body. GVHR is most commonly observed in bone
marrow transplantation, where the transplanted bone marrow contains immune cells that can recognize the recipient's tissues
as foreign.

Here are some key differences between HVGR and GVHR:

1. Mechanism of immune response: In HVGR, the recipient's immune system attacks the transplanted tissue. In GVHR,
the transplanted immune cells attack the recipient's tissues.
2. Types of transplantation: HVGR can occur in any type of transplantation, but it is most commonly observed in solid
organ transplantation. GVHR is most commonly observed in bone marrow transplantation.
3. Timing of immune response: HVGR typically occurs within the first few weeks following transplantation. GVHR can
occur within the first few weeks, but it can also occur several months or even years after transplantation.
4. Severity of immune response: HVGR can range from mild rejection to severe rejection, depending on the extent of the
immune response. GVHR can be life-threatening, as the systemic immune response can cause damage to multiple
organs.

Q 13 - Explain the role of cytokine therapy for the augmentation of Immune responses to
tumors.?
Ans - Cytokine therapy is a type of cancer immunotherapy that involves the use of cytokines to stimulate the immune
system to attack cancer cells. Cytokines are small proteins that act as signaling molecules in the immune system, and they
play a crucial role in regulating immune responses to tumors. The two main types of cytokines used in cancer
immunotherapy are interleukins and interferons.

Interleukins are cytokines that promote the growth and activation of immune cells, such as T cells and natural killer cells.
Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is the most commonly used cytokine in cancer immunotherapy, and it has been shown to stimulate the
proliferation and activation of T cells and natural killer cells. IL-2 therapy has been used to treat metastatic melanoma and
renal cell carcinoma, and it has been shown to induce complete or partial responses in a subset of patients.

Interferons are cytokines that have both antiviral and antitumor properties. Interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) has been used to
treat several types of cancer, including melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and leukemia. IFN-alpha can enhance the activity of
T cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, and it can also induce cancer cell death direct.

Q 26. Compare malignant tumors and benign tumors with examples.

Malignant and benign tumors are two types of growths that can develop in various tissues of the
body. The main differences between them lie in their potential for spreading and invading surrounding
tissues

Malignant tumors:
 Malignant tumors are cancerous growths that can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body
through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
 They are made up of abnormal cells that do not function properly and can divide uncontrollably.
 They can be life-threatening if not detected and treated early.
 Examples of malignant tumors include lung cancer, breast cancer, leukemia, and melanoma.
Benign tumors:
 Benign tumors are non-cancerous growths that typically grow slowly and do not spread to other parts
of the body.
 They are made up of normal cells that have grown abnormally and may not function as they should.
 They are usually not life-threatening but can cause complications if they grow too large or press
against vital structures.
 Examples of benign tumors include moles, lipomas, and uterine fibroids.

25. Discuss the types of immunosuppressive agents used in transplantation.

Ans - Immunosuppressive agents are drugs that are used to prevent or reduce the rejection of transplanted
organs or tissues by the recipient's immune system. There are several types of immunosuppressive agents that
are used in transplantation, including

1. Calcineurin inhibitors: These drugs, such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus, inhibit the activity of the enzyme
calcineurin, which is involved in T cell activation. By inhibiting calcineurin, these drugs reduce the activity
of T cells and other immune cells that could attack the transplanted organ. They are commonly used in the
early stages after transplantation.
2. Antimetabolites: These drugs, such as azathioprine and mycophenolate mofetil, block the production of
DNA and RNA, which inhibits the division of rapidly dividing cells such as T and B cells. This results in
reduced immune activity and helps prevent the rejection of the transplanted organ.
3. Corticosteroids: These drugs, such as prednisone and methylprednisolone, have broad anti-inflammatory
and immunosuppressive effects. They are used to prevent and treat rejection and are typically used in
combination with other immunosuppressive agents.
4. mTOR inhibitors: These drugs, such as sirolimus and everolimus, target a protein called the mammalian
target of rapamycin (mTOR), which plays a role in T cell activation and proliferation. By inhibiting mTOR,
these drugs reduce the activity of T cells and other immune cells that could attack the transplanted organ.
5. Antibodies: These drugs, such as anti-thymocyte globulin and alemtuzumab, target specific immune cells
and deplete them from the body, reducing the overall immune response. This can help prevent rejection of
the transplanted organ.
Q 24- Analyze the various possible factors contributing to autoimmunity in detail.
Autoimmunity is a condition in which the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, mistaking them for foreign
invaders. There are several factors that contribute to the development of autoimmunity, including:

1.Genetic factors: Certain genes can increase the risk of developing autoimmune diseases. For example, certain human
leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes are associated with increased risk of developing autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid
arthritis and type 1 diabetes.

2. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental triggers such as infections, drugs, and chemicals can trigger
autoimmunity in genetically susceptible individuals. For example, viral infections such as Epstein-Barr virus and
cytomegalovirus have been linked to the development of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and lupus.

3.Hormonal factors: Hormones such as estrogen and testosterone have been implicated in the development of
autoimmune diseases. For example, women are more likely to develop autoimmune diseases than men, and the risk of
developing autoimmune diseases increases after menopause when estrogen levels decline.

4.Immunological factors: Dysregulation of the immune system can contribute to the development of autoimmunity. For
example, defects in regulatory T cells, which normally prevent the immune system from attacking the body's own tissues,
can lead to autoimmune diseases.

5. Epigenetic factors: Epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation and histone modifications can influence gene
expression and contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases.
 Q – 23 Identify how the oncogenic viruses cause tumor formation.
Oncogenic viruses are viruses that have the ability to transform normal cells into cancer cells. These viruses can cause tumor
formation by integrating their genetic material into the host cell's DNA and altering the cell's normal growth and
differentiation processes. Here are some examples of how different oncogenic viruses cause tumor formation:

Human papillomavirus (HPV): HPV is a DNA virus that can cause cervical cancer and other types of cancer, such as anal,
vaginal, and oropharyngeal cancer. HPV integrates its DNA into the host cell's genome, leading to the overexpression of the
E6 and E7 oncogenes. These oncogenes can inactivate tumor suppressor proteins, such as p53 and Rb, and promote cell
proliferation and survival.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): EBV is a DNA virus that can cause Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and
nasopharyngeal carcinoma. EBV infects B cells and can transform them into immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines. EBV-
encoded proteins, such as LMP1 and LMP2, can activate cellular signaling pathways and promote cell survival and
proliferation.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C virus (HCV): HBV and HCV are RNA viruses that can cause liver cancer. These
viruses can cause chronic inflammation in the liver, which can lead to the accumulation of DNA damage and the
development of cancer. Additionally, HBV can integrate its DNA into the host cell's genome and promote cell proliferation
and survival.

Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1): HTLV-1 is an RNA virus that can cause adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma
(ATL). HTLV-1 infects T cells and integrates its DNA into the host cell's genome. The viral Tax protein can activate cellular
signaling pathways and promote cell proliferation and survival.

Q-15 Identify the

reason for the acceptance of some allografts without the use of
immunosuppressive measures.

Ans - Sometimes, when a person receives an organ transplant from someone else (an allograft), their
immune system may not attack and reject the transplanted organ without the use of drugs that
suppress the immune system. This is because their immune system may recognize the transplanted
tissue as belonging to their own body, rather than a foreign invader.

This recognition and acceptance of the transplanted tissue is called immunological tolerance. It can
occur due to various mechanisms such as the elimination of self-reactive T cells during development
or the suppression of immune responses by regulatory T cells in the periphery.

In some cases, exposure to the transplanted tissue through controlled use of immunosuppressive
drugs can also lead to tolerance by inducing the development of regulatory T cells. However, the exact
mechanisms of immunological tolerance are not fully understood and can vary from person to person.

Q-16 Identify the mechanism of induction of autoimmunity

Autoimmunity can be induced by various mechanisms, including:

1. Molecular mimicry: This occurs when a foreign antigen shares a similar structure with a self-antigen.
The immune system generates a response against the foreign antigen, but the antibodies or T cells can
cross-react with the self-antigen, leading to autoimmune reactions.
2.
Epitope spreading: This occurs when an immune response is generated against a specific antigen, but
as the immune response progresses, other self-antigens that were previously not recognized by the
immune system are exposed. This can lead to an autoimmune response against these self-antigens.
 3. Loss of immune tolerance: Immune tolerance refers to the ability of the immune system to distinguish
self-antigens from foreign antigens and not generate an immune response against self-antigens. The
loss of immune tolerance can result from defects in immune regulatory cells, such as T regulatory cells,
or due to genetic factors. This can lead to autoimmune reactions against self-antigens.
4. Environmental factors: Environmental triggers, such as infections, toxins, drugs, or stress, can
activate the immune system and break immune tolerance, leading to autoimmune reactions.
5. Genetic factors: Autoimmune diseases often have a strong genetic component, and certain genes have
been associated with increased susceptibility to autoimmune diseases.

Q 21 - Classify the stages of tumor formation with suitable examples?

Tumor formation is a complex process that involves several stages. The stages of tumor
formation are as follows:
1.Initiation: This is the first stage of tumor formation, which involves a mutation in a cell's
DNA that results in the activation of oncogenes or the inactivation of tumor suppressor
genes. This mutation can be caused by various factors, including exposure to radiation,
chemicals, or viruses. Examples include exposure to tobacco smoke leading to the mutation
of the KRAS gene in lung cancer or exposure to UV radiation leading to the mutation of the
BRAF gene in skin cancer.
2. Promotion: In this stage, the mutated cells are stimulated to divide and grow by various
factors such as hormones, growth factors, and inflammation. This stage can last for many
years and can involve repeated exposure to promoting agents. Examples include the
promotion of liver cancer by chronic hepatitis B or C infection, or the promotion of colorectal
cancer by a diet high in red meat.
3.. Progression: In this stage, the tumor cells become increasingly aggressive and acquire
additional mutations that allow them to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to other
parts of the body. This stage is characterized by a loss of cell differentiation and an increase
in genetic instability. Examples include the progression of breast cancer from a small,
localized tumor to a larger, invasive tumor that spreads to the lymph nodes and other
organs.
3. Metastasis: This is the final stage of tumor formation, in which tumor cells break away
from the primary tumor and travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to
establish secondary tumors in other parts of the body. Metastasis is responsible for most
cancer-related deaths and is difficult to treat once it has occurred. Examples include the
metastasis of lung cancer to the brain or the spread of melanoma to the liver.

What are the stages of tumor formation?

Stage I: The cancer is localized to a small area and hasn't spread to lymph nodes or
other tissues

. Stage II: The cancer has grown, but it hasn't spread.

Stage III: The cancer has grown larger and has possibly spread to lymph nodes or
other tissues.
Stage IV: The cancer has spread to other organs or areas of your body

20. List the process of graft rejection.

The process of graft rejection involves several steps that are initiated by the immune system of the
transplant recipient, which recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and launches an immune
response. The process of graft rejection can be broadly divided into three phases: the sensitization
phase, the activation phase, and the effector phase.

1.Sensitization phase: This phase occurs when the recipient's immune system is first exposed to the
donor tissue. The immune system identifies the donor tissue as foreign and initiates an immune
response. During this phase, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells or macrophages,
present donor antigens to T cells in the lymph nodes. This leads to the activation and proliferation of T
cells that recognize the donor antigens.

2.Activation phase: Once the T cells have been activated, they migrate to the site of the transplant
and infiltrate the tissue. Here, they encounter donor cells and attack them through various
mechanisms, such as cytotoxicity, cytokine release, and recruitment of other immune cells. In addition
to T cells, B cells may also be activated and produce antibodies against donor antigens. The
activation phase can be divided into two sub-phases: the induction phase and the amplification phase.

a. Induction phase: This is the initial stage of the activation phase, during which T cells are activated
and primed to attack the donor tissue.

b. Amplification phase: This is the stage during which the immune response is amplified and leads to
tissue damage and inflammation. The amplification phase is characterized by the recruitment of other
immune cells, such as macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells, which contribute to tissue damage.

3.Effector phase: During this phase, the activated T cells and other effector cells attack the donor
tissue and cause tissue damage. The effector phase is responsible for the clinical signs of graft
rejection, such as organ dysfunction and inflammation. The effector phase can be divided into two
sub-phases: the acute phase and the chronic phase.

a. Acute phase: This is the initial stage of graft rejection and occurs within the first few weeks after
transplantation. It is characterized by tissue damage and inflammation, which may lead to graft
dysfunction.

b. Chronic phase: This is a slower, more progressive form of rejection that can occur months or even
years after transplantation. It is characterized by fibrosis and scarring of the transplanted tissue, which
can ultimately lead to graft failure.

In summary, the process of graft rejection involves the sensitization, activation, and effector phases,
each of which involves different immune cells and mechanisms of tissue damage. Understanding the
process of graft rejection is critical for developing strategies to prevent and manage transplant
rejection

19.Identify role of immunosuppression for acceptance of graft?

19. Immunosuppression is a critical component in preventing graft rejection and
achieving long-term graft survival in transplant recipients. The immune system is
designed to recognize and attack foreign tissue, such as transplanted organs, and
this can lead to graft rejection and failure. Immunosuppressive medications work by
suppressing or modulating the immune response, thereby reducing the risk of graft
rejection.
The primary goals of immunosuppression in transplantation are to prevent acute
rejection and promote long-term graft survival. Immunosuppressive medications are
typically administered in combination to achieve synergistic effects and to minimize
the risk of side effects associated with individual agents. Some of the most
commonly used immunosuppressive medications include:
1. Calcineurin inhibitors (CNI): These medications, such as cyclosporine and
tacrolimus, inhibit the activation of T cells by blocking the action of calcineurin,
a protein involved in the T cell activation pathway.
2. Antiproliferative agents: These medications, such as mycophenolate mofetil
and azathioprine, inhibit the proliferation of immune cells, particularly T cells,
by interfering with their DNA synthesis.
3. Steroids: Corticosteroids, such as prednisone, suppress the immune
response by inhibiting the activation and function of multiple immune cell
types.
4. Biologic agents: These medications, such as monoclonal antibodies, target
specific immune cell types or pathways to modulate the immune response.
For example, the monoclonal antibody basiliximab targets the IL-2 receptor on
T cells to prevent their activation.
Immunosuppression is typically administered for the lifetime of the transplant
recipient, although the dosages and combinations of medications may be adjusted
over time based on the individual's response to therapy and risk of complications.
Immunosuppression is associated with a range of side effects, including increased
risk of infections, malignancies, and cardiovascular disease, among others. The goal
of immunosuppression is to achieve a balance between preventing graft rejection
and minimizing the risks of side effects associated with long-term therapy.
18.List the process of induction of cancer ?
IN SHORT
the general process of cancer induction involves the accumulation of genetic
mutations in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division. These mutations can
be caused by a variety of factors, including environmental factors, lifestyle factors,
and inherited genetic mutations. Once a cancerous cell develops, it can evade the
immune system's surveillance and grow into a tumor. As the tumor grows, it can
invade nearby tissues and potentially spread to other parts of the body, a process
known as metastasis. The immune system plays a critical role in recognizing and
eliminating cancerous cells, and dysregulation of the immune system can contribute
to the development and progression of cancer.
LONG ANS -
The process of induction of cancer involves multiple steps, which can be broadly
categorized into three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. The following is
a general outline of the process:
1.Initiation: This is the first step in cancer induction, where a genetic mutation occurs
in a normal cell's DNA. These mutations can be caused by various factors, including
exposure to carcinogens such as chemicals, radiation, and viruses. Once the
mutation occurs, the cell becomes "initiated" and has the potential to become
cancerous.
2.Promotion: In this stage, the initiated cell undergoes further changes that lead to
uncontrolled growth and division. This can occur through the action of various
factors, including hormones, growth factors, and inflammation. The initiated cells can
also accumulate additional mutations that provide growth advantages, further
promoting the development of cancer.
3.Progression: As the tumor grows, it can acquire additional genetic changes that
increase its ability to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body.
This can lead to the development of metastases, which are cancerous growths in
distant organs or tissues.
It's important to note that not all initiated cells progress to become cancerous, and
the development of cancer is a complex and multifactorial process. Additionally, the
immune system plays a critical role in recognizing and eliminating cancerous cells,
and dysregulation of the immune system can contribute to the development and
progression of cancer.