1

Motivation for hydraulic

transient analysis

In times past when methods of analysis and materials were perhaps less
clearly understood than now or quality control was less exacting, a
relatively large factor of safety would be applied to any design. With
increasingly sophisticated computer modelling capabilities available
and with new materials available and a better understanding of these,
there has been a movement towards more detailed analysis and better
use of materials. Strengths of pipes and pipeline fittings are of para-
mount importance in determining whether a design is safe and so this
chapter examines some aspects of pipe materials and allowable internal
pressures before proceeding to consider analysis of pressure transients in
pipeline systems. Also included is some mention of pipe linings as these
can have a bearing upon allowable pressures. Other aspects such as
trench conditions and flexibility which can influence allowable pres-
sures will be considered at a later stage.

1.1 Primary purpose of analysis

Pipelines have been described as one of the arteries of modern civiliza-
tion and so protection of these is of great importance. The primary
concern underlying the majority of studies into unsteady flow behaviour
in pipelines is to establish a safe operating environment. This usually
involves analyses designed to predict extremes of pressure, both
maximum and minimum, which may potentially develop within the
system during its operating lifetime and the probability of occurrence
of each extreme event. These extremes may be the consequence of
planned or accidental changes in flow. A transient event can produce
pressures which exceed those maxima developed during steady flow
and also pressures below the anticipated minimum steady flow

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Pressure transients in water engineering

pressures. Steady flow is also taken to include static or no-flow

conditions.

1.2 Secondary objectives

Additional information which may be required of a hydraulic transient
investigation can include operating times for equipment such as pumps,
turbines and valves, rates of filling or emptying of tanks and vessels and/
or necessary volumes of these tanks. Other pertinent information
relates to the timescale of the transient event, such as the time taken
for a steady flow to become established following a pump start or the
time for quiescent conditions to develop after some change in flow,
say after an alteration of valve setting. The analysis will also yield
parameters for the selection of suitable equipment such as self-acting
valves, for instance air valves and check valves, in order to avoid
unnecessary or unacceptable transient behaviour.

1.3 Permitted pressures

When considering maximum and minimum pressures, these must be
compared with defined maximum pressures. These allowable pressures
are determined by the strength of the pipeline, by the nature of the
liquid being conveyed and possibly by the nature and characteristics of
any pipe lining. For example, a relatively brittle lining such as cement
mortar may crack if pipe deformation is too great. Any crack in the
lining will potentially allow pipe contents to attack the pipe wall itself.

1.4 Maximum pressures

Regarding allowable peak pressures these are usually defined by the
supplier in accordance with codes of practice. For instance, with
respect to pipes the allowable maximum sustained pressure or long-
term pressure can be found in manufacturers’ literature. Likewise for
fittings the permissible pressure is readily obtainable from suppliers.

1.5 Pipe materials

Pipes come in a range of materials each having particular strengths and
weaknesses, from cast iron, which has been in use for well in excess of a
century, to medium density polyethylene (MDPE) introduced little
more than 20 years ago. Analysis often has to be undertaken on pipeline

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

systems comprising a mix of old and new pipes and the properties of
both types are important as well as any deterioration in these over
time. Since pipeline systems will usually be in service for many years
and be subject to extension and upgrading, to suit changes in
demand for instance, an understanding of properties of older or even
historic materials must still be retained as some reanalysis is often
necessary to accommodate changes to a network.

1.6 Rigid pipes

1.6.1 Grey cast iron

One of the earliest materials was grey cast iron (CI), with the first
recorded use being in 1455. Some of the cast iron pipes installed at
the Palace of Versailles in 1664 were removed relatively recently and
found to be in reasonable condition. Other pipes at Versailles are still
in service. Cast iron contains 3.5% carbon in the form of graphite
flakes and the pipe is designed as a rigid structure under combined
loadings from earth pressure, traffic, impact and transient pressures.
Various types of pipe joints have been provided including spigot and
socket, flanged, rubber gasket and joints with locking devices to resist
longitudinal thrust. Unlined pipes are subject to tuberculation with
nodular granules frequently developed in corrosive waters. Continued
exposure results in a gradual reduction in carrying capacity. Cast iron
has been produced in several classes. Some details of ratings and test
pressures are given in Tables 1.1 and 1.2.

Table 1.1. Ratings and test pressures for various classes of cast iron

Nominal Description Maximum working Recommended

internal pressure rating maximum site test
diameter including surge pressure
(mm)
bar g mWG bar g mWG

80—500 Spigot and socket 10 100 16 160

centrifugally cast iron pipe
class 1
80—500 Spigot and socket 16 160 25 250
centrifugally cast iron pipe
class 3
80—200 Standard fittings 12.5 125 20 200

mWG ¼ metres water gauge

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Pressure transients in water engineering

Table 1.2. Test pressures for various classes of cast iron

Nominal internal Description Works proof test pressure

diameter (mm)
bar g mWG

80—500 Spigot and socket centrifugally cast 35 350

iron pipe classes 1 and 3
80—200 Standard fittings 20 200

Cast iron fails catastrophically.

1.6.2 Asbestos cement

Asbestos cement (AC) as a pipe material was invented around 1930.
Pipes are usually manufactured in diameters up to 900 mm. Several
layers of asbestos fibres are soaked in cement. Being entirely non-
conducting it was thought impervious to electrolytic corrosion although
being cement-based AC is susceptible to attack by acidic, soft or
sulphate-bearing waters and soils. Asbestos cement is a brittle material
which can fail catastrophically. Pressure may be defined by pressure
classes B, C and D for pressure head ranges 61—122 mWG or alterna-
tively as shown in Table 1.3.

1.6.3 Concrete pipes

Concrete pressure pipes can be classed as rigid or semi-rigid depending
on design. Pipe design pressures will commonly be from 14.1 kgf/cm2 .
This includes a 7.6 kgf/cm2 transient pressure allowance. Large-
diameter prestressed pipes are produced by a few manufacturers and
are available in larger diameters of 700—1200 mm and for heads up to
180 mWG. These become relatively more expensive at pressures
>17.6 kg/cm2 . These pipes tend to be heavy and may come in shorter

Table 1.3. Pressure classes for asbestos cement

Description Class

15 20 25

Test pressure (bar g) 15 (153 mWG) 20 (204 mWG) 25 (255 mWG)

Maximum working 7.5 10.0 12.5
pressure (bar g)

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

lengths thus requiring to have a larger number of joints. Unlike other

pipe types, concrete pipes cannot be cut to length. Compression-type
rubber gaskets are a fairly standard form of joint.

1.7 Flexible pipes

1.7.1 Ductile iron

Ductile iron (DI) is designed as a flexible pipe and has largely replaced cast
iron. It contains 3.5% carbon in the form of spheroids or nodules and has
similar corrosion characteristics as cast iron. It is a ductile material with
strength characteristics more like those of steel. Large-diameter pipes
are designed to withstand external loads as well as internal pressures.
Minimum wall thickness assumes a factor of safety against collapse
under vacuum pressures and provides working pressure ratings of at
least 14.1 kgf/cm2 þ 7 kgf/cm2 transient pressure allowance. Pipes may
be provided in diameters ranging to 1600 mm or more. Typically allowable
pressure falls with increasing diameter as illustrated by Table 1.4.
For cement-lined pipes allowable deflection is largely governed by the
need to avoid cracking of this lining. Suppliers will be able to provide
data on permitted deflections. In the case of Stanton Integral DI
pipes for example, the ratio of allowable vertical deflection
to
diameter D is expressed as a function of pipe size in Table 1.5.
Deflection can be obtained from the modified Spangler formula.

1.7.2 Steel pipe

Steel pipe is produced in various grades. Yield points are typically in the
range 1760—2950 kgf/cm2 with still higher strengths available. Pipe
design for normal waterworks operations may use a working tensile
stress 50% of yield point stress. Typical diameters may range from

Table 1.4. Allowable pressures for various pipe diameters

Nominal internal diameter (DN)

80—300 350—600 700—1200 1400—1600

Test pressure 50 40 32 25
(bar g)
Maximum working 40 25 25 25
pressure (bar g)

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Pressure transients in water engineering

Table 1.5.
/D as a function of pipe size

Integral pipe size Maximum % deflection
=D

DN 100 1.6
DN 150 2.1
DN 200 2.4
DN 250 2.7
DN 300 3.0
DN 350 3.1
DN 400 3.2
DN 500 3.4
DN 600 3.6
DN 700 3.8
DN 800 and above 4.0

150—3600 mm with more common sizes being in the range 400—

1500 mm. At working pressures <10.5 kgf/cm2 , strength is often
controlled by external load, requiring a certain minimum thickness to
guard against excessive deflection and collapse under vacuum pressures.
Common practice in the past has been to limit wall thickness to a
minimum of 6 mm for diameters up to 600 mm. While providing an
additional corrosion allowance, this thickness will frequently withstand
>17.6 kgf/cm2 and for high-strength steel considerably higher pressures.
Advances in cathodic protection and coating technology has made
possible wall thicknesses <6 mm. For larger pipe diameters and pres-
sures >10.5 kgf/cm2 , tensile strength often controls wall thickness.
Steel pipe test pressures vary according to the grade of steel. For
grades 22 to 27, pressures range from 70 kgf/cm2 (700 mWG) for
smaller diameters to 20 kgf/cm2 for larger diameters.
The maximum allowable deflection of a steel pipe should be not more
than 2% where a cement mortar lining and/or coating has been
provided. Concrete coating provides negative buoyancy for underwater
installation.
Older steel pipes in cold climates can potentially fail catastrophically.
Stainless steel pipe is also available and has the advantage of not
requiring corrosion protection. It is virtually maintenance-free and
relatively vandalproof.

1.8 Overpressure allowance

Many types of pipe are permitted, by codes of practice, to carry an over-
pressure allowance for transient or short-term events. For instance,

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

British Standards allow pipe materials, such as asbestos cement (AC),

ductile iron (DI) and steel, to carry peak transient pressures as high
as 115% of the maximum sustained working pressure.

1.9 Pipe linings for rigid and flexible pipes

To protect pipes from corrosion a range of lining materials are available
having different advantages and disadvantages. Types of lining are:
bitumen, coal tar, coal tar epoxy, epoxy resin, cement mortar, paint
systems and polyethylene. The lining can influence the outcome of
pressure surge investigations in a number of respects. For example,
pipe lining determines to some extent the resistance to flow experi-
enced and therefore the head discharge relationship for the system.
Furthermore, the strength of the lining may dictate allowable pressures,
for example where a cement mortar lining is used.

1.9.1 Bitumen
Bitumen linings comprise a mixture of 80% bitumen and 20% dry lime.
The bitumen deteriorates with age. Burstall (1997) reported ‘puffing-
up’ of bitumen to give a rough tuberculated appearance. Deterioration
can also result in loss of lining in raw water pipelines.

1.9.2 Coal tar enamel

Coal tar enamel was used up until the 1960s but its use in potable water
mains was discontinued on health and water quality grounds. Because of
resistance in low pH waters it finds use in raw water lines serving wellfields.

1.9.3 Coal tar epoxy lining

Coal tar epoxy lining is lighter than other lining systems and may be
used in pipe crossings where weight is a consideration. It can leach
chemicals into potable water and so its use is not preferable.

1.9.4 Cement mortar

Cement mortar is a standard lining for ductile iron and steel pipes and
for relining of cast iron mains. In some parts of the world it is perhaps
the only lining system which has a proven track record over many
years and so may be preferred over alternatives for that reason. In

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Pressure transients in water engineering

treated water mains a long life can be anticipated and with correct
chlorine residuals gives a clean surface with little or no change in
carrying capacity of the main. It is a brittle material which can fail
catastrophically. Maximum pipe deflection (change in diameter/original
diameter) should be
2% to avoid risk of cracking. Failure of lining has
also been attributed to pressure transients.

1.9.5 Paint systems

Often found on raw water lines, for example wellfield risers, paints are
applied either directly onto steel or onto an existing cement mortar
lining. The paint system may be used to inhibit corrosion of a cement
mortar lining in a low pH water environment.

1.9.6 Polyethylene lining

Heated steel pipes are dipped into a bath of powdered polyethylene thus
providing an external coating and a lining in one operation. May be
used on sewers carrying aggressive contents and also on risers of well-
fields.

1.10 Plastic pipes

Plastic pipes represent an area of growth. All plastics are corrosion
resistant, ductile and relatively impervious. Generally no protective
lining is applied either internally or externally. These materials can be
subdivided into thermoplastics and glass-fibre-reinforced thermosetting
resins. Both categories are available in a range of synthetic materials,
giving a wide-range spectrum of chemical resistance.

1.10.1 Thermosetting plastics

Thermosets are hardened by heating usually in the presence of a
catalyst. The hardened state is retained under reheating.
In general, thermoset pipes have greater stiffness, lower thermal
expansion coefficients and can be used at higher temperatures than
thermoplastics. Some thermoplastics may be tougher but not stronger
than thermosets which include glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), fibre-
reinforced plastic (FRP) and reinforced plastic matrix (RPM).
Thermoset pipes are laminates in which a relatively brittle but
chemically resistant resin is reinforced using strong and stiff glass

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

fibres which themselves have very poor chemical resistance in an

aqueous environment. Heterogeneous materials used to form these
fibre-reinforced pipes tend to be tougher than thermoplastics and the
energy required to produce a crack is greater. While fast cracks are
possible where only short discontinuous fibres are used as reinforce-
ment, failure in most cases is preceded by leakage due to cracking of
the resin between fibres, producing a flow path for pipe contents to
leak. To guard against this happening a 0.2% strain limit is recom-
mended.
Pipes made from thermosetting materials are usually classified in
terms of pressure rating up to around 64 bar g and ring stiffness EI=D3
from 250 N/m2 to 8000 N/m2 .

1.10.2 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are synthetic materials softened by application of heat
and are capable of repeated softening by subsequent heating. The
principal types of thermoplastics used in the water industry are polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE). Other materials such as acrylo-
nitride butadience styrene (ABS) and polypropylene (PP) may be used
in special circumstances.
PVC was developed by German scientists shortly before World War
II. Meanwhile in the UK, ICI scientists had discovered a means of
producing polyethylene. Being lightweight, flexible and virtually free
from chemical attack made these materials contenders for pipeline
materials.
Initial poor performance of uPVC was attributed to a combination of
poor installation, interference damage and unsuitable operating condi-
tions including high transient pressures. From about 1973, when the
industry fully appreciated the limitations of the material, the failure
rate of uPVC has been below that of spun grey iron (cast iron).
Pressure pipes for water services may be obtainable in four classes as
indicated in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6. Four classes of pressure pipes

Pressure class

B C D E

Pressure, bar g 6 9 12 15

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Pressure transients in water engineering

Table 1.7. The five series for HDPE defined in DIN 8074

Series

1 2 3 4 5

Pressure, bar 2.5 3.2 4.0 6.0 10.0

Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) has to some extent replaced

the earlier high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density poly-
ethylene (LDPE). Materials are defined by density ‘’ as follows:
LDPE 0:910

0:925
MDPE 0:925

0:940
HDPE 0:940

0:965
There is also an ultra-high molecular weight, high-density polyethylene
(UHMW-HDPE). LDPE has found application in small-bore water
pipes while MDPE and HDPE may be used for water main and effluent
main duties including sea outfalls. UHMW-HDPE is used in the trans-
port of abrasive slurries. Normal operating temperature range is from
408C to þ608C. Jointing is usually by butt-fusion welding up to
D ¼ 1600 mm and extrusion welding for D > 1600 mm.
DIN standard 8074 defines 5 series for HDPE, as shown in Table 1.7.
Other standards for polyethylene have a classification system based
upon the diameter/wall thickness ratio D=s ¼ standard dimensional
ratio (SDR) and based on continuous operation for 50 years at 208C
(Table 1.8).
For liquids other than water these pressures may be reduced by a
chemical resistance factor. At temperatures greater than 208C the
maximum continuous working pressure reduces so that by 608C,
maximum pressure is only 40% of the value at 208C.

Table 1.8. Classification system for PE

Type of Maximum operating pressure, bar g

material
Water Industrial

SDR11 SDR17 SDR11 SDR17

PE 80 12.5 8.0 10.0 6.0

PE 100 16.0 10.0 16.0 10.0

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

Table 1.9. Wall thickness and pressure ratings for PP

Class

A B C D E

Pressure, bar 3 6 9 12 15

Polypropylene (PP) may be used for higher-temperature applications,

e.g. normal service temperatures up to 808C and even 1008C with a
reduced life. The same jointing techniques apply as for a polyethylene
pipe.
Specifications usually define wall thickness for a standard series of
pressure ratings, e.g. for PP (Table 1.9). ‘Alloys’ of thermoplastics
have also been used in pipe production. An example of this is the
Hepworth Industrial Plastics range of Hep3O mains which is
produced from three materials: chlorinated polyethylene (PE), poly-
vinyl chloride (uPVC) and acrylic derivatives. The objective is to
combine the tough ductile character of PE with the higher strength
of uPVC.
Composites of both thermoplastics and thermosets have been used,
such as Permastran which is made up of a PVC core overlaid with
continuous rovings of fibreglass bonded with epoxy resin. The fibreglass
fibre provides Permastran with its hydrostatic strength while the PVC
provides a corrosion-resistant core. For a pipeline designed for
maximum working pressure of 350 psi a safety factor of 2 would be
provided and a maximum of 350 þ 42 psi would be allowed for surge
pressures.

1.11 Failure modes of pipes

An understanding of pipe strength and deformation limits is necessary
to prevent premature failure. Two main forms of failure are collapse and
brittle failure. Brittle fracture is a phenomenon in which a long, fast
brittle crack runs along the pipeline in a characteristically wavy
manner. Susceptibility of thermoplastics to this is dependent upon
material and principally hoop stress. Brittle fracture in uPVC follows
the slow growth of a crack from a defect or region of different mechan-
ical properties. A conservative 0.5% hoop strain limit will avoid brittle
fracture over a 50-year life.

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Pressure transients in water engineering

1.12 Maximum pressure and allowable amplitude of surge in

plastic pipes
Unlike other materials, plastic pipes generally have no overpressure
allowance and the maximum sustained allowable pressure is also the
peak transient pressure. In addition some thermoplastic pipes have a
restriction placed upon the amplitude of pressure change experienced
during a transient event where this can be considered detrimental to
the life expectancy of the pipe. Typically for PVC and PE this amplitude
restriction has been set at half maximum sustained working pressure.
Since thermoplastic pipe materials have a lower strength than other
materials such as DI and steel, thicker walls are used to compensate.
The diameter of pipe available at higher pressure will also be more
limited. The typical life of these pipes has been set at 50 years by manu-
facturers although this is conservative.

1.13 Minimum pressures

As far as low or underpressures are concerned matters can be more
complicated. First there is the matter of possible damage to the pipe
to be considered. Thin-walled pipes, especially those having a relatively
small deformation modulus, may be at risk of collapse due to buckling as
a consequence of a lower pressure within the conduit than that external
to the pipe.
Fatigue damage may also occur and ovalization of a flexible pipe can
also cause high stresses in the pipe wall. For flexible conduits the shape
of cross-section may deviate from an original circular form. This process
of ovalization can increase over time and with falling pressure resulting
in reduced pipe stiffness. This aspect is considered in more detail in
Chapter 22.
Under sub-atmospheric conditions gas can evolve from solution with
potentially adverse consequences. Collapse of gas- or vapour-filled
cavities may possibly result in overpressures. It has also been reported
by Glass (1980) that evolution of certain gases from solution in
contaminated water could be responsible for promoting attack by
sulphate-reducing bacteria on the interior of a bitumen-lined steel
pipe in the same way as anaerobic corrosion is known to affect the
exterior of pipes.
A second consideration relates to the nature of the liquid being
conveyed. Codes of practice recommend that where treated water is
being carried then positive pressures should be maintained within the
pipeline system to avoid risk of contamination. Piezometric level

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 Motivation for hydraulic transient analysis

within the pipeline should be above possible groundwater levels and

also above the operating levels of any air valves which may be
present. By maintaining internal pipeline pressure at or above these
levels any leakage will be from inside the system to outside, thus
avoiding the possibility of contamination by groundwater. By keeping
minimum piezometric height above the operating level of any air
valve, the possibility of ingress of contaminants via the valve is also
avoided. A minimum pressure head of around þ2 m water gauge
(mWG) measured from the crown of the pipe may be an appropriate
minimum to adopt in many circumstances. Where the pipe is deeply
buried, this minimum may be raised, again to ensure that internal
pressure always exceeds external pressure from groundwater.

1.14 When is analysis necessary?

The questions are sometimes asked, ‘under what circumstances is an
analysis required and is there a convenient checklist which can be
applied?’ Each pipeline system is typically unique, having its own
characteristics defined by topography, flows and other factors. It is not
possible to be definite in saying that a specific scheme does not require
any analysis. Caution would suggest that some form of study be carried
out, even if not a detailed computer analysis. In the past, guidelines
have been laid down to identify these pipeline systems at risk and in
need of detailed examination. One such is the ASCE (1975) two-stage
checklist. Looking through the categories of pipeline included one might
get the impression that the large majority of systems require investigation.
Rather than essentially duplicating the list provided by the American
Society of Civil Engineers, some comments will be made. The increased
availability of programs and their ease of use, allow a pipeline to be
studied quite quickly.
Only for very straightforward systems can an analysis be avoided. For
instance, a short, simple line operating under low head and with rela-
tively low velocities might be exempt from an initial study, except
where the issue of sub-atmospheric pressures could be problematic,
i.e. risk of pipe collapse. During commissioning there is an opportunity
to measure transient pressures and introduce any protection which may
be required. Increasing concern over water quality and the avoidance of
vacuum pressures has made it necessary to study pipeline systems where
simply pipe strength considerations might have made the need for
analysis less important. The earlier checklist did not include liquid
quality considerations.

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Pressure transients in water engineering

Longer pipelines, parallel lines of differing characteristics, branching

and looped systems should all be studied. Pipelines containing inter-
mediate features such as valves, booster pumps and tanks require
investigation. Particular attention should be paid to higher head
systems or schemes where velocities are large. Where air valve opera-
tion is possible or fast-acting valves are present, study of behaviour is
essential. Where water quality is a factor, analysis is also considered
necessary.

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