Title:

Jamaica Cherry (Muntingia calabura) Leaf extract as an Antifungal Agents

against Sheath Blight on Rice (Oryza sativa) PSB Rc82.

Rationale:

Fungal disease is one of the common problem of farmers in their crops such as

rice, tomato and other plants. This fungus makes the plants unable to grow leaves and

fruits which affects the production of different crops and the income of farmers as well

(ausveg.com, n.d.).

Rice sheath blight is one of the most economically significant rice diseases

worldwide. This disease causes significant grain yield and quality losses. Yield losses of

up to 50% have been reported under most conducive environments.

Sheath blight is a soilborne disease caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani

AG1-IA. The fungus belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota, family Ceratobasidiaceae.

Early symptoms usually develop on the leaf sheaths at or just above the water line as

circular, oval or ellipsoid, water-soaked spots which are greenish-gray in color (Uppala,

S. and Zhou, X-G. 2018). Farmers integrate many management approaches to prevent

the spread of disease consisting of resistant or moderately resistant varieties, sound

cultural practices, and foliar fungicide application, is ideal for effective and economic

control of sheath blight and associated yield losses.

Rice variety selection is the first important step towards reducing crop yield

losses due to the disease. At present, there are no rice varieties with complete
resistance against sheath blight. However, rice varieties with different levels of

resistance are available.

Jamaica cherry scientifically known as Muntingia calabura is a fast-growing small

evergreen belong to genus Muntingia L. (muntingia) of the Elaeocarpaceae

(Elaeocarpus family). The plant is native to southern Mexico, Central America, tropical

South America, the Greater Antilles, St. Vincent and Trinidad. It is widely cultivated in

warm areas of the New World and in India, south-east Asia, Malaya, Indonesia, and the

Philippines, Rice (oryza sativa) is the seed of a cereal grass. It’s one of the most

important dietary carbohydrates in the world, with over half the global population

depending on it. Typically boiled or steamed, rice can also be ground into a gluten-free

flour. It’s a central component of many cuisines including those of India, China and

Southeast Asia.

The researchers thought of using Jamaica cherry to cure rice sheath blight by

extracting the leaves.

Objectives:

“Jamaica Cherry (Muntingia calabura) Leaf extract as an Antifungal Agents

against Sheath Blight on Rice (Oryza sativa) PSB Rc82” generally focus’ to test the

effectiveness of Jamaica cherry leaf extract against sheath blight on rice specifically

PSB Rc82.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:

1. phytochemical analysis of Jamaica cherry leaf extract

2. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of Jamaica cherry leaf

extract and same amount of water as antifungal agents against sheath

blight in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

a. 9 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract, 30 ml water

b. 6 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract, 30 ml water

c. 3 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract, 30 ml water

d. 0 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract, 30 ml water

3. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of water and same

amount of Jamaica cherry leaf extract as antifungal agents against

sheath blight in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

a. 45 ml water, 6 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract

b. 30 ml water, 6 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract

c. 15 ml water, 6 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract

d. 0 ml water, 6 ml Jamaica cherry leaf extract

4. to test the significant difference of different amount of Jamaica cherry

leaf extract and same amount of water as antifungal agents against

sheath blight in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

5. to test the significant difference of different amount of water and same

amount of Jamaica cherry leaf extract as antifungal agents against

sheath blight in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

Significance of the Study:

This study “Comparative Study between Jamaica Cherry (Muntingia calabura)

Leaf extract as an Antifungal Agents against Sheath Blight on Rice (Oryza sativa) PSB

Rc82” will help the community by preventing the spreading of fungal diseases especially

the sheath blight on rice.

This study will help the people specially the Philippine Rice farmers to increase

the production of rice

This fungicide will be less expensive than that of the commercial products. It will

be more available and sufficient for use.

 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Jamaica Cherry (Muntingia calabura)

Jamaica Cherry also known as Aratiles is a fast-growing tree, 5 to 10 meters

high, with spreading branches. Leaves are hairy, sticky, alternate, distichous, oblong-

ovate to broadly oblong-lanceolate, 8 to 13 centimeters long, with toothed margins,

pointed apex and inequilateral base, one side rounded and the other acute. Flowers are

about 2 centimeters in diameter, white, extra-axillary, solitary or in pairs. Sepals are 5,

green, reflexed, lanceolate, about 1 centimeter long. Petals are white, obovate, 1

centimeter long, deciduous and spreading. Fruit is a berry, rounded, about 1.5

centimeter in diameter, red on ripening, smooth, fleshy, sweet and many seeded

(Philippine Medicinal Plants, 2013).

According to Sarujini (2015), Muntingia, or JamaicaCherry, is a small, fast

growing tree that can reach up to 40 ft. tall at full maturity. The soft leaves are

evergreen and have an alternate phyllotaxy. Leaves are dark green on top and light

green underneath. The small, white flowers feature yellow stamens in the center. The

small, round fruits are abundant, and depending on the variety, have a red or yellow

color. Fruits are edible raw or made into jam. The fruit possessed potent anti-

inflammatory activity. The flowers have antiseptic and antispasmodic qualities, and are

made into medicinal teas. The M. calabura leaves exhibited potential anti-proliferative

and antioxidant activities. The present study on Muntingia is to give an overview on

traditional uses and pharmacological activity.

 Jamaica Cherry leaves (Muntingia calabura) contains antioxidants that generally

form by phenolic or pholifenols, the sinamat acid derivatives, flavonoids, tocopherols,

coumarin and polifungsional acids. Flavonoids that have an antioxidant activity consist

of flavonol, flavanon, flavones, isoflavones, catechins and kalkon. Phenolic compounds

that have antioxidant activity can be known through the way of extraction. Extractions

are a way to separate a desired substance when it is mixed with others. The mixture is

brought into contact with a solvent in which the substance of interest is soluble, but the

other substances present are insoluble. Components of active compounds from plants

or animals can be extracted based on “Like Dissolved Like Theory”, compounds will be

extracted depends on solubility (Triswaningsih et al.,2017).

Muntingia calabura is known throughout the world as “Jamaican cherry” and in

Malaysia, particularly among the Malay, it is known as “kerukup siam”. Being the sole

species within the genus Muntingia, it is native to southern Mexico, tropical South

America, Central America, the Greater Antilles, Trinidad, and St. Vincent. It is also

widely cultivated in warm areas in India and Southeast Asia such as Malaysia,

Indonesia, and the Philippines. Indeed, in Malaysia, M. calabura is commonly cultivated

as roadside trees (Morton, 1987; Sani et al., 2012; Yusof et al., 2011; Zakaria et

al., 2006a,b, 2007a–f, 2008, 2010, 2011).

Fungi

The Fungi are an ancient and diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms.

Molecular experiments suggest that the common ancestor of the fungi lived in the

Precambrian. The earliest fungi were probably aquatic species whose zoospores

propelled themselves through water using single flagella. Fungi called chytrids that are
found in aquatic habitats and soils today may resemble these ancestral microbes. The

exploration of the evolutionary relationships between different groups of fungi using

molecular phylogenetic methods has produced a rich natural classification that

embraces six phyla. These modern approaches to fungal classification have built upon

a rich tradition of observational research that began in the eighteenth century (Money,

2015).

The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar

mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are

also many fungi species that don’t produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a

typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The

kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to

as Ascomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of

fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus probably present on

earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic

penicillin, Penicillium notatum, are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to

the domain Eukarya (“Boundless Biology”, 2013).

Fungi constitute the largest number of plant pathogens and are responsible for a

range of serious plant diseases. Most vegetable diseases are caused by fungi. They

damage plants by killing cells and/or causing plant stress. Sources of fungal infections

are infected seed, soil, crop debris, nearby crops and weeds. Fungi are spread by wind

and water splash, and through the movement of contaminated soil, animals, workers,

machinery, tools, seedlings and other plant material. They enter plants through natural

openings such as stomata and through wounds caused by pruning, harvesting, hail,
insects, other diseases, and mechanical damage. Some of the fungi are responsible for

foliar diseases – Downy mildews; Powdery mildews; and White blister are some of the

highly prevalent foliar diseases. Other fungi – Clubroot; Pythium species; Fusarium

species; Rhizoctonia species; Sclerotinia and Sclerotium species – are soilborne

diseases. Some fungal diseases occur on a wide range of vegetables. These diseases

include Anthracnose; Botrytis rots; Downy mildews; Fusarium rots; Powdery mildews;

Rusts; Rhizoctonia rots; Sclerotinia rots; Sclerotium rots. Others are specific to a

particular crop group, e.g. Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) in brassicas, Leaf blight

(Alternaria dauci) in carrots, and Red root complex in beans (ausveg.com, n.d.).

According to Money (2015), though there are mutualistic relationships between

fungi and organisms from other kingdoms, none have yet been described for fungi in

nature. Fungi engage in a range of aggressive interspecific interactions, which can

occur at a distance or following contact, due to parasitism or production of volatile and

diffusible chemicals, including enzymes, toxins and other antifungal metabolites.

Interactions between fungi and bacteria are many and varied, and these

microorganisms affect each other’s growth, survival and virulence. These effects can be

negative, positive or mutualistic. Intracellular viruses are widespread in fungi in all phyla.

The host range of a virus type is very narrow, and frequency of infection within a

species is variable, but sometimes high. Most viruses cause few or no obvious

symptoms, but large beneficial and adverse effects have been reported. Fungi also

interact with protists feeding on some and killing others which have ingested them.

Most fungi are associated with plants as saprotrophs and decomposers. These

fungi break down organic matter of all kinds, including wood and other types of plant
material. Wood is composed primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Lignin is a

complex polymer that is highly resistant to degradation, and it encrusts the more readily

degradable cellulose and hemicellulose. Fungi are among the few organisms that can

effectively break down wood, and fall into two main types—brown and white rot

fungi. Brown rot fungi selectively degrade the cellulose and hemicellulose in wood,

leaving behind the more recalcitrant lignin (Boerjan et al. 2013).

Sheath Blight

Rice sheath blight, caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG1-1A, is one of the most

devasting diseases of the crop. To move forward with effective crop protection against

sheath blight, it is important to review the published information related to pathogenicity

and disease management and to determine areas of research that require deeper

study. While progress has been made in the identification of pathogenesis-related

genes both in rice and in the pathogen, the mechanisms remain unclear. Research

related to disease management practices has addressed the use of agronomic

practices, chemical control, biological control and genetic improvement: Optimizing

nitrogen fertilizer use in conjunction with plant spacing can reduce spread of infection

while smart agriculture technologies such as crop monitoring with Unmanned Aerial

Systems assist in early detection and management of sheath blight disease. Replacing

older fungicides with natural fungicides and use of biological agents can provide

effective sheath blight control, also minimizing environmental impact. Genetic

approaches that show promise for the control of sheath blight include treatment with

exogenous dsRNA to silence pathogen gene expression, genome editing to develop

rice lines with lower susceptibility to sheath blight and development of transgenic rice
lines overexpressing or silencing pathogenesis related genes. The main challenges that

were identified for effective crop protection against sheath blight are the adaptive

flexibility of the pathogen, lack of resistant rice varieties, absence of single resistance

genes for use in breeding and low access of farmers to awareness programmers for

optimal management practices (Almoneafy AA, Kakar KU, Nawaz Z, Li B, Chun-lan Y,

Xie G-L 2014).

According to Uppala (2018), Rice sheath blight is one of the most economically

significant rice diseases worldwide. This disease causes significant grain yield and

quality losses. Yield losses of up to 50% have been reported under most conducive

environments. Sheath blight is a soilborne disease caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia

solani AG1-IA. The fungus belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota, family

Ceratobasidiaceae.

Early symptoms usually develop on the leaf sheaths at or just above the water

line as circular, oval or ellipsoid, water-soaked spots which are greenish-gray in color).

As the disease progresses, they enlarge and tend to coalesce forming larger lesions

with grayish white centers surrounded by tan to dark brown irregular borders or outlines.

Infection can spread to leaf blades and cause irregular lesions with dark green, brown,

or yellow-orange margins. The lesions can develop extensively and coalesce on partial

or whole leaf blades, which may produce a rattlesnake skin pattern. These damaged

tissues interrupt the normal flow of water and nutrients to the plant tissues above

(leaves and panicles). As the plant approaches heading, the canopy becomes dense,

creating a humid microclimate that is favorable for the rapid development of the

disease. The disease may move up the plant and infect the flag leaves and panicles
under severe conditions. The fungus can spread into the culms from early sheath

infections and weaken the infected culms, resulting in the lodging and collapse of tillers.

The damage caused by sheath blight ranges from partial infection of the lower sheaths

with little impact on grain filling to the premature death of plants and lodging with a

significant reduction in grain yield and quality (X. Zhou, 2018)

Sheath blight was first reported in Japan in 1910. Since then, it has been

reported in almost all rice growing areas of the world. The disease has become one of

the most economically important diseases of rice throughout the world. R. solani has

been classified into 14 anastomosis groups (AGs) based on hyphal interactions. Within

a single AG group, intraspecific groups are defined on the basis of morphology,

pathology, pectinase isoenzymes, and DNA sequencing. The sheath blight fungus

belongs to AG-1 IA. Due to its significance in rice production, extensive research and

extension activities have been underway throughout the world with the aim of

developing integrated management strategies using resistance varieties, cultural

practices, chemical control, and biological control for effective control of sheath blight

(Agrios G., 2013).

Rice (Oryza sativa)

Agriculture is the main source of income in many developing countries and

increased agricultural productivity has the potential to increase farming income and

alleviate poverty in rural areas. Rice is the single most important agricultural crop in the

Philippines, and is therefore a major source of income for millions of Filipino

farmers (Bordey, 2010; Koide et al., 2013). 1 Interestingly, rice production in the
Philippines increased from 5.32 million metric tons in 1970 to 16.82 million metric tons

in 2008.

To meet demand, rice production can be increased either by increasing the area

of rice cultivation or by increasing the efficiency of existing resources allocated for rice

production (Koirala, Mishra, & Mohanty, 2013). Increased production can be arranged in

two ways; (i) a shift in production limits, and (ii) by developing and promoting technology

to increase production. in addition, increased rice production can also contribute to

reducing poverty, especially in rural areas (Bordey, 2010; Dawe, 2000).

Rice is the staple food for about 80% of Filipinos, which accounts for 46% and

35% of their caloric intake and protein consumption, respectively. Rice is the single

most important agricultural crop in the Philippines, and is therefore a major source of

income for millions of Filipino farmers (Bordey, 2010).

Unfortunately, several factors threaten the future of Philippine rice production.

Urbanization, industrial land-use, and competing agricultural uses have decreased the

physical area devoted to rice production. From 3.4 million hectares in 1991, the actual

rice area declined to 2.8 million hectares in 2001. Furthermore, the declining quality of

land and water resources aggravates the diminishing quantity of physical resources as

a result of years of mono-cropping practices (Cassman and Pingali 1995; Flinn and De

Datta 1984).

Evidence of declining productivity abounds. On the scientific front, the yield

potential of indica-inbred rice cultivars has stagnated at 9 to 10 metric tons per hectare

(Peng, et al. 1999; Tiongco and Dawe 2002). The average actual farm yields are only

about half of the experiment station yields (Sebastian, Bordey and Alpuerto 2006).
Some studies also show a decline in rice total factor productivity (TFP) in the late 1980s

(Umetsu, Lekprichakul and Chakravorty 2003) and through the 1990s (Estudillo and

Otsuka 2006). Fortunately, rice research and development (R&D) holds the promise of

mitigating, if not countering, the impacts of these challenges. While the Philippines is

already benefiting from technological innovations, efforts are continuously made to

apply science in rice production.

PSB Rc92

The varieties are PSB Rc82, NSIC Rc12, NSIC Rc146, NSIC Rc158, PSB Rc80,

and NSIC Rc192. These varieties are also high yielding and resistant to drought. Of

these varieties, PSB Rc80 and NSIC Rc192 take the least number of days to mature, at

only 97 and 92 days after sowing (DAS), respectively. On the other hand, PSB Rc82

matures at 107 DAS, NSIC Rc12 and NSIC Rc158 mature at 108 DAS, and NSIC

Rc146 matures at 104 DAS. (Andres, 2011)

PhilRice researchers said EMVs are better than the traditional varieties for two

reasons. First, farmers can save on irrigation costs, one of the limiting factors in rice

production in the semi-arid conditions of lowland farms. Second, farmers will have more

time to use their farm for other dry season crops after rice. (Andres, 2011)

In case farmers get a low palay yield, they still have a chance to get a substantial

income from the harvest of the other crops that they plant after rice. In Ilocos Norte, for

instance, farmers who plant EMVs can plant vegetables and other high value

commercial crops 15 days earlier than those who plant the usual rice varieties that

mature in 120 DAS.

 The researchers warned that although the EMVs possess good agronomic

characteristics, they are still susceptible to stem borers and rice bugs that are rampant

in the lowlands during both wet and dry seasons. (Andres, 2011)

These pests can cause the white head and dead heart diseases and are known

to reduce palay yield by about 30 to 40 percent if not properly controlled. (Andres, 2011)

In field trials they conducted in various ricefields in Region 1, the researchers

found that the average days to maturity of these varieties are not longer than 106 DAS.

In fact, when they planted PSB Rc80 and NSIC Rc192 in farmers’ fields in Brgy. Quiling

Sur in Batac, Ilocos Norte during the wet season, PSB Rc80 matured at 97 DAS, while

NSIC Rc192 matured at 92 DAS. That is one to two weeks earlier than the traditional

varieties used by farmers in Batac. (Andres, 2011)

Grains of PSB Rc80 and NSIC Rc192 are heavier than those of PSB Rc82.

1,000 grains of the two varieties weigh 22 grams, while those of PSB Rc82 weigh only

18 grams. That’s not all. The panicle length of PSB Rc80 averages 22.3 cm, while that

of NSIC Rc92 is about 21 cm. (Andres, 2011)

PSB Rc82, NSIC Rc112, NSIC Rc146, and NSIC Rc158 have average panicle

lengths of 19.6 cm, 21.3 cm, 20.4 cm, and 21.4 cm, respectively. This means that these

varieties produce more grains than other varieties planted by farmers. (Andres, 2011)

These varieties can be planted through broadcast, direct seeding, or

transplanting. If transplanted in arid farms, PSB Rc82 can still give a yield of 2.2 tons

(44 cavans) or more per hectare. If it is planted through broadcast method, it can yield

2.7 tons (54 cavans). PSB Rc80, NSIC Rc112, NSIC Rc146, and NSIC Rc192 can also
give these yields if they are planted in the same weather and soil conditions. These

yields are still higher than those derived from the upland varieties. (Andres, 2011)

When NSIC Rc158 was tried in a farmer’s field, it gave the highest yield of 2.5

tons per hectare when it was transplanted, and about 3 tons per hectare when it was

broadcast. Farmers who may want to plant PSB Rc80 and NSIC Rc192 can ask help

from PhilRice offices in Batac, Ilocos Norte or in Maligaya, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija. They

only need 20 to 40 kilos of certified seeds of these varieties for a one-hectare ricefield.

Using the right amount of seeds will result in healthier seedlings, which recover faster

after transplanting. And because these varieties are resistant to drought, farmers can

plant them at the start of the second cropping cycle (Andres, 2011)
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Title:

Synergistic Effect of Horseradish (Armoracia rustinaca) leaves and Garlic

(Allium sativum) extract as an Antifungal agent against Diplocarpon rosae, the

Casual Black Spot on Rose Leaf.

Rationale:

Black spot of roses is a serious widespread disease caused by the fungus

Diplocarpon rosae. On rose plants, the spots are roundish and up to 1 cm (0.5 inch) in

diameter with fringed margins. Leaves on susceptible varieties turn yellow and drop

early. Affected plants may defoliate twice in a season, are greatly weakened, produce

fewer and inferior blooms, and are subject to canker diseases and winterkill. Large

numbers of spores are formed in speck-size fruiting structures (acervuli) and

disseminated by splashing rain, dew, overhead sprinkling, and gardeners working

among wet plants. The spores germinate and penetrate rose tissue in 9 to 18 hours or

longer; new leaf spots appear in 3 to 16 days and spores in 10 to 18 days. The cycle

may be repeated throughout the growing season. Black spot may be controlled by

fungicide application, planting resistant varieties, and removing any infected leaves

immediately.

Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb.) is a hardy perennial

of the Cruciferae. The plant is thought to be indigenous to temperate eastern Europe

and probably has been in cultivation for less than 2,000 years. The ancient writers,

Dioscorides of Greece and Pliny of Rome, listed horseradish underThlaspi orPersicon;

the early Renaissance herbalists, as Mattioli and Gerard, underRaphanus; Linnaeus

under the genus Cochlearia; today’s taxonomists under the genus Armoracia. The roots

were employed for medicine by ancient and medieval people as a preventative or cure

for many ills; but today it is used mainly as a condiment on meats and seafoods.

Garlic has long been used medicinally, most recently for its cardiovascular,

antineoplastic, and antimicrobial properties. Sulfur compounds, including allicin, appear

to be the active components in the root bulb of the garlic plant. Studies show significant

but modest lipid-lowering effects and antiplatelet activity. Significant blood pressure

reduction is not consistently noted. There is some evidence for antineoplastic activity

and insufficient evidence for clinical antimicrobial activity. Side effects generally are mild

and uncommon.

The researchers thought to combine Horseradish and Garlic extract against

blackspots on rose leaves.

Objectives:

“Synergistic Effect of Horseradish (Armoracia rustinaca) leaves and Garlic

(Allium sativum) extract as an Antifungal agent against Diplocarpon rosae, the Casual

Black Spot on Rose Leaf” generally sights to test the effectiveness of horseradish

leaves and garlic extract solution against black spots on roses.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:

1. phytochemical analysis of horseradish leaves extract

2. phytochemical analysis of garlic extract

3. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of horseradish leaves

extract and same amount of garlic extract as antifungal against

blackspot in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

a. 15 ml horseradish leaves extract, 10 ml garlic extract

b. 10 ml horseradish leaves extract, 10 ml garlic extract

c. 5 ml horseradish leaves extract, 10 ml garlic extract

d. 0 ml horseradish leaves extract, 10 ml garlic extract

4. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of garlic extract and

same amount of horseradish leaves extract as antifungal against

blackspot in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf

a. 15 ml garlic extract, 10 ml horseradish leaves extract

b. 10 ml garlic extract, 10 ml horseradish leaves extract

c. 5 ml garlic extract, 10 ml horseradish leaves extract

d. 0 ml garlic extract, 10 ml horseradish leaves extract

5. to test the significant difference of different amount of horseradish

leaves extract and same amount of garlic extract as antifungal against

blackspot in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf.

6. to test the significant difference of different amount of garlic extract and

same amount of horseradish leaves extract as antifungal against

blackspot in terms of the diameter it occupies on the leaf.

Significance of the Study:

This study “Synergistic Effect of Horseradish (Armoracia rustinaca) leaves and

Garlic (Allium sativum) extract as an Antifungal agent against Diplocarpon rosae, the

Casual Black Spot on Roses” will help the community by preventing the spreading of

fungal diseases especially the black spots on roses.

This study will help the people specially the farmers to maintain the production

and growth of roses

This fungicide will be less expensive than that of the commercial products. It will

be more available and sufficient for use.

 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Horseradish (Armoracia rustinaca)

Horseradish, (Armoracia rusticana), hardy perennial plant of the mustard family

(Brassicaceae) known for its hotly pungent fleshy root, which is made into a condiment

or table relish. Native to Mediterranean lands, horseradish is now grown throughout the

temperate zones and is a troublesome weed in many cool, moist areas. The root is

traditionally considered medicinal and is commonly used as a substitute for

true wasabi (Eutrema japonicum) in Japanese cuisine (Petruzello, 2015).

Horseradish is an herbaceous perennial plant in the family Brassicaceae that is

cultivated for its large, edible root. The leaves of the plant grow in a distinctive rosette

pattern sprouting from single or multiple stems. The leaves have long petioles and can

be smooth or crinkled, reaching 30–100 cm (12–40 in) in length. The taproot is thick and

fleshy and cylindrical in shape and can reach 50 cm (20 in) in length. The plant

produces many white flowers on racemes. Horseradish plants are usually grown as

annuals, surviving only one growing season and can reach a height of 1.5 m (5 ft).

Horseradish may also be referred to as red cole or pepper rod and originates from

south-eastern Europe and western Asia (Plant Village, 2017).

Horseradish is the common name for a perennial herb, Armoracia

rusticana (syn. Cochlearia armoracia, Armoracia lapathifolia)) of

the mustard or cabbage family (Brassicaceae), characterized by an upright stem, large,

long-stalked, oblong lower leaves, smaller stalk-less or short-stalked upper leaves,

small white, pinkish, or pinkish purple flowers in clusters, and a large, white,

tapered root. The name also is applied to just the root of this plant, which is used to
make a pungent condiment that is popular for culinary purposes and also has a history

of medicinal use. Horseradish is mainly cultivated for its large white, tapered root; the

edible leaves can be used in salads but rarely are eaten. As a root vegetable, which is

grated for use and often mixed with vinegar, the sharp taste of horseradish offers a

unique culinary experience and is used in many dishes, such as sauces, soups, and

with meats and fish. Horseradish also provides a function for the ecosystem, being

consumed by herbivores and also providing a nectar and pollen source

for pollinating bees, flies, and beetles (New World Encyclopedia, 2011).

Garlic (Allium sativum)

Garlic (Allium sativum) is an herb related to onion, leeks, and chives. It is commonly

used for conditions related to the heart and blood system. Garlic produces a chemical

called allicin. This is what seems to make garlic work for certain conditions. Allicin also

makes garlic smell. Some products are made "odorless" by aging the garlic, but this

process can also change the effects of garlic. People commonly use garlic for high blood

pressure, high levels of cholesterol or other fats in the blood, and hardening of the arteries.

It is also used for the common cold, osteoarthritis, and many other conditions, but there is

no good scientific evidence to support these uses. There is also no good evidence to

support using garlic for COVID-19 (WebMD, 2009-2021)

Garlic has been mentioned in medicinal texts since the Ebers papyrus (c. 1550

BC). Garlic extracts are commonly used by HIV-infected patients, because these

extracts possess antiseptic, bacteriostatic, antiviral, immune-enhancing, hypotensive,

and anthelmintic properties. Traditionally, garlic has been used to treat respiratory

catarrh, recurrent colds, bronchitic asthma, influenza, and chronic bronchitis. Currently,
garlic and garlic preparations are investigated for their antihypertensive,

antiatherogenic, antithrombotic, antimicrobial, fibrinolytic, cancer preventive, and lipid-

lowering effects (Reuter, 1995) and have been used for preventing cardiovascular

disease.

The active component ajoene in garlic inhibits collagen-induced platelet

aggregation (Apitz-Castro et al., 1983), and garlic is used for its antiplatelet and

fibrinolytic effects in patients with cardiovascular disease. However, the risk of bleeding

in people using anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents increases, so its concomitant use

should be avoided (Rose et al., 1990). The use of large amounts of garlic can cause

platelet disorders and/or hemorrhage. Garlic supplements should be discontinued

approximately 10 days before elective surgical procedures, especially by patients using

aspirin or warfarin (German et al., 1995). The use of dried garlic powder causes some

modest short-term reduction (8–12 weeks) in total cholesterol concentrations, but these

effects are not sustained over 6 months.

In the presence of garlic supplements, blood concentrations

of saquinavir decreased by approximately 50% among our study participants. Garlic

contains a large number of biologically active constituents. The constituents of garlic

can be divided simply into two groups: sulfur-containing and no sulfur-containing

compounds. Most of the medicinal effects of garlic are preferable to the sulfur

compounds and the alliin splitting enzyme alliinase, which converts alliin

into allicin (responsible for the characteristic garlic odor). The major flavoring

constituents of garlic are sulfur compounds (diallyl disulfide, allyl sulfide, and diallyl

trisulfide). Garlic is available in different forms of pharmaceutical preparations, such as

dry powder products, oil macerates, volatile garlic oil (obtained by water vapor

distillation), and juices of fresh garlic. Researchers have found garlic supplements can

cause a potentially harmful side effect when combined with a type of medication used to

treat HIV/AIDS. In healthy volunteers, oral administration of a garlic preparation for 3

weeks decreased the AUC and Cmax of HIV-1 protease inhibitors saquinavir (Piscitelli et

al., 2002) and, to a lesser extent, ritonavir. Although the exact mechanism of these

effects was not clear, the similarity in the reduction of the AUC, the mean maximum

concentration, and the 8-h concentration of saquinavir suggested that garlic affected the

bioavailability of saquinavir and its systemic clearance.

Diplocarpon rosae

Diplocarpon rosae, or black spot fungus, isn’t just a disease of roses. It can

attack any plant with fleshy leaves and stems if the conditions are right. You’ve already

taken the first step in treating black leaf spot. You’ve been inspecting your garden on a

regular basis and you’ve caught it early. Black spot fungus begins to develop in the

spring when temperatures reach into the sixties and the garden has been continuously

wet for six to nine hours. By the time temperatures reach into the seventies, the disease

is running rampant and won’t slow down until the daytime temperatures rise above 85 F.

(29 C.). It starts with tiny black spots on leaves, no bigger than a pinhead. As the fungus

develops, those black spots on leaves are ringed with yellow. Soon the entire leaf turns

yellow and falls (Rhoades, 2013)

Black spot, also spelled blackspot, common disease of a variety of plants caused

by species of Pseudomonas bacteria or by any number of fungus species in the

genera Asterina, Asterinella, Diplotheca, Glomerella, Gnomonia, Schizothyrium, Placos

phaeria, and Stigmea. Infections occur during damp periods and appear as round to

irregular black spots on leaves and sometimes on petioles, stems, and flower parts of

susceptible plants. Black spot of roses is a serious widespread disease caused by the

fungus Diplocarpon rosae. On rose plants, the spots are roundish and up to 1 cm (0.5

inch) in diameter with fringed margins. Leaves on susceptible varieties turn yellow and

drop early. Affected plants may defoliate twice in a season, are greatly weakened,

produce fewer and inferior blooms, and are subject to canker diseases and winterkill.

Large numbers of spores are formed in speck-size fruiting structures (acervuli)

and disseminated by splashing rain, dew, overhead sprinkling, and gardeners working

among wet plants. The spores germinate and penetrate rose tissue in 9 to 18 hours or

longer; new leaf spots appear in 3 to 16 days and spores in 10 to 18 days. The cycle

may be repeated throughout the growing season. Black spot may be controlled

by fungicide application, planting resistant varieties, and removing any infected leaves

immediately (Britannica, 2017)

Rose

A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the

family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens

of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs,

climbing, or trailing, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Their flowers

vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colors ranging from white

through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native

to Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa Species, cultivars and hybrids are all

widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural
significance in many societies. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses,

to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily,

and this has been used in the development of the wide range of roses (Wikipedia,

2012).

Because the fungus occurs in various pathogenic races, it is difficult to select for

black spot resistance. However, there are rugosa, hybrid tea, floribunda, grandiflora,

shrub and miniature roses that have some degree of resistance. For example, highly

resistant cultivars include Bebe Lune, Carefree Beauty, Coronado, David Thompson,

Ernest H. Morse, Fortyniner, Grand Opera, Lucy Cromphorn, Simplicity, Sphinx, and

Tiara. Grow roses where good air circulation and sunlight penetration facilitate rapid

leaf drying. Irrigate to avoid wetting the leaves or water early in the day so the leaves

dry quickly. Fungicides are useful during periods when the weather is wet to protect

leaves and canes from infection. Begin in early spring and maintain the protection as

needed throughout the growing season if wet conditions exist (Giliman, 2011).

Black spot of rose is one of the most common and important diseases of roses

throughout the world. In a natural environment, this disease is prevalent and becomes a

major issue, frequently causing epidemics. It is caused by the fungus Diplocarpon

rosae and will progressively weaken the plant so that fewer and fewer blooms form if

the disease is left unchecked. Plants weakened by this disease are increasingly subject

to winter injury.

As is true with most fungi, this fungus requires free water for infection to occur.

The spores require at least 7 hours of wetness before they can germinate. Fruiting

structures of the pathogen called acervuli form within two weeks of the initial infection.
These structures release spores which are blown, splashed or otherwise carried to new

tissue initiating new infections. A temperature of 65°F is ideal for spore germination and

the disease develops most rapidly at about 75°F. Temperatures of and above 85°F

inhibit the spread of the disease. The fungus survives the winter in fallen leaves and at

infection sites on the canes. Spores will not survive in the soil, and individual spores will

not survive longer than a month (K. Horst, 2009).

 REFERENCES

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2009.

Bender, D. A., and A. E. Bender. 2005. A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. New York:

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198609612

Bert. 2007. How To grow horseradish. Horseradishplants.com. Retrieved January 16,

2009.

Bratsch, A. Speciality Crop File: Horseradish. Virginia Cooperative Extension.

CABI Crop Protection Compendium. (2008). Armoracia rusticana datasheet.

Retrieved from: http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/7174.

Drost, D. (2010). Horseradish in the Garden. Utah State Cooperative Extension.

Retrieved from https://extension.usu.edu/filespublications/publication

HG_Garden_2006-07.pdf.

Downey, R. 2000. Wasabi: Green, and grate. Seattle Weekly March 22, 2000. Retrieved

January 15, 2009

Gillman, Dan. Black Spot of Rose. September 2011.

<https://ag.umass.edu/landscape/fact-sheets/black-spot-of-rose>..

Glueck, M. A. 2004. The horseradish chronicles: The pain of chrain. Jewish World

Review April 1, 2004. Retrieved January 16, 2009.

Herbst, S. T. 2001. The New Food Lover's Companion: Comprehensive Definitions of

Nearly 6,000 Food, Drink, and Culinary Terms. Barron's Cooking

Horst, R. Kenneth and Raymond A. Cloyd. Compendium of Rose Diseases and

Pests. The American Phytopathological Society, 2007.

Guide. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0764112589

Lin, C.-M., J. F. Preston, and C.-I. Wei. 2000. Antibacterial mechanism of allyl

isothiocyanate. Journal of Food Protection 63(6): 727–734. Retrieved January 15,

2009.

Plants for a Future (PFAF). 2000. Armoracia rusticana. Plants for a Future. Retrieved

January 15, 2009.

Pleasant, B. 2003. Horseradish. Mother Earth News October/November 2003.

Retrieved January 15, 2009.

Purves, D., and J. W. Lichtman. 1985. Cell marking with horseradish peroxidase. From

D. Purves and J. W. Lichtman. Principles of Neural Development. Sunderland:

Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0878937447.

Richard, H. n.d. Arômes alimentaires. Arômes. Retrieved January 15, 2009.

Rinzler, C. A. 1997. Book of Herbs and Spices. Ware, England: Wordsworth

Editions. ISBN 1853263907.

Sinclair, Wayne A. and Howard H. Lyon. Diseases of Trees and Shrubs.

Cornell University, 2005.

Turner, W., and S. Hibberd. (1568). The First and Seconde Partes of the Herbal of

William Turner Doctor in Phisick: Lately Ouersene, Corrected and Enlarged With the

Thirde Parte, Lately Gathered, and Nowe Set Oute With the Names of the Herbes, in

Greke Latin, English, Duche, Frenche, and in the Apothecaries and Herbaries Latin,

With the Properties, Degrees, and Naturall Places of the Same; Here Vnto is Ioyned

Also a Booke of the Bath of Baeth in England, and of the Vertues of the Same With
 Diuerse Other Bathes, Moste Holsom and Effectuall, Both in Almanye and England.

Imprinted at Collen, by the heirs of Arnold Birckman. (on microfilm)

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Retrieved January 15, 2009.

Title:

Utilization of Pineapple Peel (Ananas comosus) as an alternative fungicide

against Aphids sp in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plant: A Feasibility Study

Rationale:

Fungicides is a firmly entrenched practice for most agricultural crops worldwide.

The treatment is intended to protect the crop against seed- and soil-borne diseases. In

recent years, there is increasing evidence that fungicidal applications to manage

diseases might inadvertently also affect non-target organisms, such as endophytes.

Endophytes are ubiquitously present in plants and contribute to plant growth and

development besides offering resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is an economically important and widely cultivated

vegetable crop that is consumed both fresh and processed. The nutritional value of

tomato fruits is related to the content of carotenoids, polyphenols, sugars, organic acids,

minerals and vitamins. Currently, there is a growing interest in the qualitative and

quantitative increase in the content of health-promoting compounds in tomato fruits

Pineapples (Ananas comosus) have exceptional juiciness and a vibrant tropical flavor

that balances the tastes of sweet and tart. It has a wide variety of health benefits. The

aim of the study is to evaluate the antibacterial activity of pineapple peel extract on

against selected bacterial pathogens. The antimicrobial activities of the peel extract

were determined using agar well diffusion method and broth dilution technique which

include Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal

Concentration (MBC). The aphids are soft-bodied small insects (< 7 mm) and feed by
sucking plant sap. They usually live in colonies on the undersides of leaves or tender

terminal shoots. Aphids excrete considerable amount of sugary liquid, honeydew, on

which sooty mold usually turns them black and also serves as food for ants, bees and

their parasitic wasps. The aphids are unique on the account of their peculiar mode of

reproduction, development and polymorphism. They may reproduce either by

parthenogenesis, zymogenesis or aerogenesis.

Objectives:

“Utilization of Pineapple Peel (Ananas comosus) as an alternative fungicide

against Aphids sp in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plant: A Feasibility Study”

generally aims to test the effectiveness of Pineapple Peel solution against Aphids sp in

terms of mortality rate with several percentage test on Tomato plants.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:

1. phytochemical analysis of Pineapple peel extract

2. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of pineapple peel

extract and same amount of water against aphids in terms of mortality

rate

a. 12 g Pineapple Peel powder, 40 ml Water

b. 8 g Pineapple Peel powder, 40 ml Water

c. 4 g Pineapple Peel powder, 40 ml Water

d. 0 g Pineapple Peel powder, 40 ml Water

3. to compare the effectiveness of different amount of pineapple peel

extract and same amount of water against aphids in terms of mortality

rate
 a. 60 ml Water, 8 g Pineapple Peel powder

b. 40 ml Water, 8 g Pineapple Peel powder

c. 20 ml Water, 8 g Pineapple Peel powder

d. 0 ml Water, 8 g Pineapple Peel powder

4. to test the significant difference between the amounts of pineapple

peel powder mixed with water in its effectiveness as antifungals

against Aphids in terms of mortality rate

5. to test the significant difference between the amounts of water mixed

with pineapple peel powder in its effectiveness as antifungals against

Aphids in terms of mortality rate

Significance of the Study:

This study “Utilization of Pineapple Peel (Ananas comosus) as an alternative

fungicide against Aphids sp in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plant: A Feasibility

study” will help the community by preventing the spreading of fungal diseases especially

the aphids on tomato plant.

This study will help the people specially tomato farmers to increase the

production of tomatoes.

This fungicide will be less expensive than that of the commercial products. It will

be more available and sufficient for use.

 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

Pineapple is an herbaceous biennial or perennial plant in the family

Bromeliaceae grown for its edible fruit. The pineapple plant has a short stout stem and a

rosette of sword-shaped leaves with needle-like tips. The leaves are waxy, have

upturned spines on the margins and may be soild green or striped with red, white or

cream. When the plant flowers, the stem begins to elongate and produces a flower head

of small purple or red flowers, each with a pointed bract. The stem continues to

elongate and sets down a tuft of of short leaves called a 'crown'. Individual fruits

develop from the flowers and fuse to form one large cylindrical fruit topped by the

crown. This fruit, known as a pineapple, has a tough rind made up of hexagonal units

and a fibrous, juicy flesh which may be yellow to white in color. Pineapple may reach

1.5–1.8 m (5–6 ft) in height and some varieties can grow for in excess of 20 years.

Pineapple originates from the tropical regions of the Americas (Plant Village, 2017).

Pineapple (Ananus comosus, Bromeliaceae) is a wonderful tropical fruit

having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits.

Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat

and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body's

primary water-soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal

cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre.

Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-

containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzymes (bromelain) in pineapple aid

digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderizing meat. Bromelain

has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing

swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and

gout and speeding recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been

used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of

injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and

helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may

improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers.

Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in

the treatment of arteriosclerosis and anemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it

combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used

in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic

requirements of size, shape, color, aroma and flavor (Research Gate, 2011).

Ananas comosus (pineapple) is a humid tropical fruit that originated from

Paraguay and Brazil located in the Amazon basin of South America from before

spreading to the rest of the world. Among all important tropical fruits globally, pineapple

is third after banana and citrus and contributes well over 20% of global production of

tropical fruits especially because of its richness in sugar, bromelain, citric and malic

acids, vitamins A, B, and C, minerals, and considerable amount of calcium, potassium,

and fiber (Hemalatha & Anbuselvi, 2013;Joy, 2010).

Pineapple (Ananascomosus), which is extensively grown in Costa Rica, Brazil,

Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Nigeria, China, Mexico, and Columbia, is

considered to be the king of fruits because of its attractive flavor (Pariona, 2018).
Pineapple fruit has immense health benefits as it contains considerable amount of

dietary fiber, calcium, potassium, manganese and vitamin C while the fat and

cholesterol content are very low (Joy, 2010). Pineapple can be grown in most of the

areas of Sri Lanka, but it is prominent in the low country wet zone and intermediate

zones (Department of Agriculture, 2015).\

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Tomato, a vegetable consumed daily in human diets, have received great

attention in the scientific community, and a great deal of experiments have tested their

utility against several diseases. Herein, we present a scientometric analysis of recent

works aimed to estimate the biological effects of tomato, focusing on bibliographic

metadata, type of testers, target systems, and methods of analysis. A remarkably

variable array of strategies was reported, including testers obtained by standard and

special tomatoes, and the use of in vitro and in vivo targets, both healthy and diseased.

In vitro, 21 normal and 36 cancer human cell lines derived from 13 different organs were

used. The highest cytotoxic effects were reported on cancer blood cells. In vivo, more

experiments were carried out with murine than with human systems, addressing healthy

individuals, as well as stressed and diseased patients. Multivariate analysis showed that

publications in journals indexed in the agriculture category were associated with the use

of fresh tomatoes; conversely, medicine and pharmacology journals were associated

with the use of purified and formulate testers. Studies conducted in the United States of

America preferentially adopted in vivo systems and formulates, combined with blood

and tissue analysis. Researchers in Italy, China, India, and Great Britain mostly carried

out in vitro research using fresh tomatoes. Gene expression and proteomic analyses
were associated with China and India. The emerging scenario evidences the somewhat

dichotomic approaches of plant geneticists and agronomists and that of cell biologists

and medicine researchers. A higher integration between these two scientific

communities would be desirable to foster the assessment of the benefits of tomatoes to

human health (Researchgate.com, 2018).

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most important vegetable plants in

the world. It originated in western South America, and domestication is thought to have

occurred in Central America. Because of its importance as food, tomato has been bred

to improve productivity, fruit quality, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Tomato has been widely used not only as food, but also as research material. The

tomato plant has many interesting features such as fleshy fruit, a sympodial shoot, and

compound leaves, which other model plants (e.g. rice and Arabidopsis) do not have.

Most of these traits are ergonomically important and cannot be studied using other

model plant systems. There are 13 recognized wild tomato species that display a great

variety of phenotypes and can be crossed with the cultivated tomato (Kimura and Sinha,

2016).

The tomato is the edible, often red, berry of the nightshade Solanum

lycopersicum, commonly known as tomato plant. Growing fresh tomatoes is one of the

true joys of the vegetable farmers. Aside from being tasty, tomatoes are very healthy as

they are a good source of vitamins A and C. But tomatoes can suffer from all kinds of

diseases and pests like blight, leaf spot, and mildew. Causes often are related to

weather conditions, which of course cannot be controlled (Iannoti, 2019).

 Despite technically being a fruit, the tomato is generally categorized as a

vegetable. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of antioxidant lycopene, which has

been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer.

They are also a great source of vitamin C, potassium, folate and vitamin K. They are

usually red when mature, but can come in variety of colors, including yellow, orange,

green and purple. Then there are many subspecies of tomatoes, with different shapes

and flavor (Bjarnadottir, 2015).

According to England (2018), several kinds of diseases can plague tomato

plants. Watch leaf health, watering status, and the way that the plants are growing so

that you can catch the disease early to treat or eradicate it. It cannot be said enough-

prevention is the best medicine. By far, no tool in organic gardening is important as

preventing the disease in the first place. There aren’t organic alternatives that can

simply replace fungicides and other treatment sprays. Instead, you’ll notice that each

disease requires and adjustment in care. When we take the time to plant carefully and

tend properly from the get-go, we can-in most cases-avoid the headache of disease in

the first place.

During the fourth quarter of 2018, tomato production slightly improved by 0.6

percent, from the 28.13 thousand metric tons in the same quarter of 2017 to 28.30

thousand metric tons this quarter. Northern Mindanao posted the highest production of

16.11 thousand metric tons, representing 56.9 percent of the total tomato production. It

was followed by Ilocos Region with 8.4 percent share and Zamboanga Peninsula, 6.7

percent (National Statistics Authority, 2018).

Fungi

The Fungi are an ancient and diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms.

Molecular experiments suggest that the common ancestor of the fungi lived in the

Precambrian. The earliest fungi were probably aquatic species whose zoospores

propelled themselves through water using single flagella. Fungi called chytrids that are

found in aquatic habitats and soils today may resemble these ancestral microbes. The

exploration of the evolutionary relationships between different groups of fungi using

molecular phylogenetic methods has produced a rich natural classification that

embraces six phyla. These modern approaches to fungal classification have built upon

a rich tradition of observational research that began in the eighteenth century (Money,

2015).

The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar

mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are

also many fungi species that don’t produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a

typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The

kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to

as Ascomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of

fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus probably present on

earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic

penicillin, Penicillium notatum, are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to

the domain Eukarya (“Boundless Biology”, 2013).

Fungi constitute the largest number of plant pathogens and are responsible for a

range of serious plant diseases. Most vegetable diseases are caused by fungi. They
damage plants by killing cells and/or causing plant stress. Sources of fungal infections

are infected seed, soil, crop debris, nearby crops and weeds. Fungi are spread by wind

and water splash, and through the movement of contaminated soil, animals, workers,

machinery, tools, seedlings and other plant material. They enter plants through natural

openings such as stomata and through wounds caused by pruning, harvesting, hail,

insects, other diseases, and mechanical damage. Some of the fungi are responsible for

foliar diseases – Downy mildews; Powdery mildews; and White blister are some of the

highly prevalent foliar diseases. Other fungi – Clubroot; Pythium species; Fusarium

species; Rhizoctonia species; Sclerotinia and Sclerotium species – are soilborne

diseases. Some fungal diseases occur on a wide range of vegetables. These diseases

include Anthracnose; Botrytis rots; Downy mildews; Fusarium rots; Powdery mildews;

Rusts; Rhizoctonia rots; Sclerotinia rots; Sclerotium rots. Others are specific to a

particular crop group, e.g. Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) in brassicas, Leaf blight

(Alternaria dauci) in carrots, and Red root complex in beans (ausveg.com, n.d.).

According to Money (2015), though there are mutualistic relationships between

fungi and organisms from other kingdoms, none have yet been described for fungi in

nature. Fungi engage in a range of aggressive interspecific interactions, which can

occur at a distance or following contact, due to parasitism or production of volatile and

diffusible chemicals, including enzymes, toxins and other antifungal metabolites.

Interactions between fungi and bacteria are many and varied, and these

microorganisms affect each other’s growth, survival and virulence. These effects can be

negative, positive or mutualistic. Intracellular viruses are widespread in fungi in all phyla.

The host range of a virus type is very narrow, and frequency of infection within a
species is variable, but sometimes high. Most viruses cause few or no obvious

symptoms, but large beneficial and adverse effects have been reported. Fungi also

interact with protists feeding on some and killing others which have ingested them.

Most fungi are associated with plants as saprotrophs and decomposers. These

fungi break down organic matter of all kinds, including wood and other types of plant

material. Wood is composed primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Lignin is a

complex polymer that is highly resistant to degradation, and it encrusts the more readily

degradable cellulose and hemicellulose. Fungi are among the few organisms that can

effectively break down wood, and fall into two main types—brown and white rot

fungi. Brown rot fungi selectively degrade the cellulose and hemicellulose in wood,

leaving behind the more recalcitrant lignin (Boerjan et al. 2013).

Aphids

Aphids are economically important insect pests of agriculture and forest crops.

They feed on phloem sap by extremely efficient mouthparts modified into long and

flexible stylets. Adaptation to phytophagy is completed by an extremely ductile

reproduction system that can alternate biparental and parthenogenetic generations. In

order to reach plant phloem, aphids must overcome plant defences, either physically

and/or chemically. However, plants respond to aphid attack by activating defence genes

that lead to the production of physical barriers and/or chemical toxic compounds (direct

resistance). In addition, attacked plants can attract the natural enemies of aphids by

releasing specific volatile compounds (indirect resistance). We can take advantage of

these different types of resistance in order to enhance the sustainable control of these
phytophagous insects. In this review we summarize the main aspects of plant-aphid

interactions, focusing on those issues that can have an economic application.

Aphid’ is the common name for the insects belonging to the superfamily

Aphididea, within the order Hemiptera. There is virtually no part of terrestrial plants that

is not attacked by an aphid, either above or below ground; they can even feed on bark.

The reason lies in the amazing biological features that these tiny insects have evolved

to maximize their performances as phytophagous insects. The combination between

specific feeding and reproductive habits concurred in making the aphids one of the most

economically important groups of pests in agriculture; in temperate climates they are

considered the most important insect pest (Minks and Harrewijn 1989), especially in

those cases where their attack is associated with the transmission of phytopathogenic

viruses. Aphids may observe any type of host specificity, from strict omophagy, e.g., the

grapephylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Fitch, to poli-phagy, e.g., the green peach

aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzer, whose summer generations develop on an exceedingly

wide range of host plant species (Dixon, 1987).

Studies with artificial diets containing [14C] sucrose showed that aphids possess

the ability to synthesize amino acids and lipids from dietary sugars (Febvay et al. 1999).

However, to obtain essential amino acids, they depend on the bacterial symbiont

Buchnera aphidicola Munson Baumann & Kinsey, hosted in the aphid body cavity in the

cytoplasm of specialized cells (bacteriocytes).Dietary sugars exceeding dietary needs

are synthe-sized into oligosaccharides and excreted by means of the well-known

honeydew, and this lowers the osmotic pressure of the ingested sap, otherwise lethal to

aphids (Douglas 2006). Honeydew is actively searched for by ants, which often attend
aphidcolonies and protect them from natural enemies (such as ladybird predators and

parasitic wasps), causing further damage to crops. Nonetheless, honey-dew is also

used by natural enemies and honey bees as food (Hogervorst et al. 2007).
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