ABE 101

INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL
AND BIO ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
 1.0 Definition of Agricultural Engineering
• Agricultural engineering is the area of engineering concerned with
the design, construction and improvement of farming equipment
and machinery. Agricultural engineers integrate technology with
farming. For example, they design new and improved farming
equipment that may work more efficiently, or perform new tasks.

• Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical,

civil, electrical, Food science and chemical engineering principles with
knowledge of agricultural principles according to technological
principles.
 1.1 Roles of Agricultural &
Environmental Engineers
The main role of agricultural and environmental Engineer is to
solve problems found in agricultural production as well as the
environmental problems.
 1.3 Other Fields of Engineering
The fields include:
• Mechanical Engineering
• Civil Engineering
• Electrical and Electronic Engineering
• Metallurgical Engineering
• Aeronautical Engineering
• Petro-chemical Engineering
• Mechatronics Engineering and etc.
 1.3.1 Mechanical Engineering
It is a branch of engineering dealing with the design, construction, and use of
machines. E.g Electric generators, internal combustion engines, steam and gas
turbines, as well as power-using machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning
systems.etc

1.3.2 Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment,
including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewerage systems,
pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways and etc.

1.3.3 Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design and
application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and
electromagnetism.
 1.3.4 Metallurgical Engineering
Metallurgical Engineers extract, refine and recycle metals. They solve
problems such as reducing corrosion, maintaining heat levels and increasing
the strength of the product.
1.3.5 Mechatronic Engineering:
It is a synergy of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering
telecommunications engineering, control engineering and computer
engineering. A mechatronic engineer unites the principles of mechanics,
electrics, and computer to generate a simpler, more economical and reliable
system. An industrial robot is a prime example of a mechatronics system.
1.3.6 Aerospace Engineering
Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with
the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping
branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. Avionics
engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace
engineering.
 2.0 Areas of Specialization in
Agricultural Engineering
• Farm Power and Machinery Engineering,
• Soil and Water Engineering,
• Processing or Post Harvest Systems
Engineering,
• Farm Structures and Environmental Control
Engineering,
• Forestry and Wood Product Engineering
• Food Engineering.
 2.1 Farm Power and Machinery Engineering
Farm Power and Machinery Engineering deals with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of power and machinery systems needed for all aspects
of Agricultural Mechanization

2.2 Soil and Water Engineering

This aspect of Agricultural Engineering deals with the harnessing and
management of the soil and water resources of the ecosystem.

2.3 Processing or Post Harvest Systems Engineering.

Post Harvest Systems Engineering This aspect of Agricultural Engineering deals
with all the activities, processes, structures and machines which convert
agricultural raw materials (harvested crops) into finished consumer goods.
 2.4 Farm Structures and Environmental Control Engineering.

Farm Structures and Environment Control Engineering deals with the design and
construction of all structures that are used in agricultural production. The
structures include farm roads, residential buildings, livestock pens, warehouses
for storage and food processing, implement sheds and farm shops, storage
structures and etc.

2.5 Forestry and Wood Product Engineering

Forestry and wood product engineering deals with the machines required for
exploiting forest products such as timber and non-timber forest products. It also
handles machinery for afforestation such as loggers, tree fellers/pushers etc.
 3.0 Contributions of Agricultural
Engineering in National Development
• Food Security • Employment Generation
• Reduction of Drudgery in • Others.
Agricultural Work
• Rural Infrastructural
Development
• Natural Resources Conservation
• Industrial Development
3.1 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Jobs are available for graduates of the profession in the following

areas.
• Government Ministries.
• Government Parastatal.
• Private Companies and Industries
• Educational Institutions
• Research and Development Institutions
• International Organizations
• Self Employment
 4.0 FARM POWER AND MACHINERY
• Farm power can be described as any source of energy or
force that can be used in doing farm work.
• Farm machinery is a mechanical device, including
tractors and implements, used in farming to save labour.
• The field of Farm Power and Machinery involves the
application of mechanical, physical, biological and
electronic principles to the solution of real-life problems
or issues in crop/fruit/vegetable production and
processing
 4.1 SOURCES OF FARM POWER
• human
• Animal
• Mechanical power (Tractors + Power tillers + Oil
engines)
• 4. Electrical power
• 5. Renewable energy (Biogas + Solar energy + Wind
energy)
4.1.1 Human Power
Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools
at the farm. Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, water, threshing,
winnowing etc are also done by manual labour. An average man can
develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing farm work.

4.1.2 Animal Power

Animal power involves the use of animal in carrying out agricultural
activities. Example of animals power are camels, buffaloes, horses,
donkeys, mules and elephants etc.

4.1.3 Mechanical Power

Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes:
• Stationary oil engines
•Tractors
•Power tillers
• Self propelled combines.
4.1.4 Electrical Power

Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms.
Motor is a very useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running.
Its maintenance and operation needs less attention and care.

4.1.5 Renewable Energy

It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind, biomass
etc. Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic
purposes with suitable devices.

4.1.5.1 Water Power

Water power is the use of water energy in agricultural activities. It can be
employed as energy for doing farm work through the construction of hydro-
electrical power.
 4.1.5.4 Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced from plants and organic
wastes everything from crops, trees, and crop residues
to manure . Crops and biomass wastes can be converted to
energy on the farm.

4.1.5.3 SOLAR POWER

Solar energy is the energy obtained directly from the
sun in the form of short wave electromagnetic radiation.
Solar energy can be used in agriculture in a number of ways,
saving money, increasing self-reliance, and reducing
pollution.
 5.0 Classification of Agricultural
Tractor
Tractor is such a machine that is used to pull or push
agricultural machinery or trailers, for plowing, tilling, disking,
harrowing, planting, and similar tasks in the field.

The classification of Agricultural tractor is as shown in the

next slide.
 Classification of Agricultural Tractor

Mode of construction Type of Drive Purpose of usage

Track type Wheel type •Row crop tractors

•Utility Tractor
•General purpose tractor
Walking Riding •Orchard tractor
type type •Garden tractor
•Rotary tiller
•Earth moving tractors

2 wheel 3wheel 4 wheel

 5.1 Makes of Agricultural Tractors
• Massey Ferguson (MF) • Zetor
• New Holland • Hindustan
• Eicher • Escort
• Ford • International
• Swaraj • Case
• Duetz • Mahindra
• Harsha • Styr and etc
 5.2 Functional Units of a Tractor
• Engine • Hydraulic control and
• Clutch hitch system
• Gear Box • Brakes
• Differential unit • Power take-off
• Final drive • Tractor pulley
• Rear wheels • Control panel
• Front wheels
• Steering mechanism
Engine:
The engine is the tractor’s main source of power.

Clutch:
The clutch engages and disengages power transmission

Gear Box:
For speed and torque selection

Differential Unit:
Differential unit is designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at
different speeds.

Final Drive:
Final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle and the wheels.
Front Wheels:
Purpose of front wheel is for steering the tractor hence being light weight and small is
beneficial for ease of control.

Steering Mechanism:
The function of the steering system is to provide directional stability.

Hydraulic Control and Hitch System:

All tractors are equipped with hydraulic control system for operating three-point hitch of
the tractor.

Brakes:
Brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor.

Rear Wheels:
Rear wheels offer stability and weight distribution. Rear wheel are mostly large and it
provides more torque, since friction is the driving force of the wheel.

:
Power Take-Off :
The PTO is the 'Power Take-Off' and provides rotational energy to an
attachment/implement .

Tractor Pulley:
The function of the pulley is to transmit power from the tractor to
stationary machinery by means of a belt. It is used to operate thresher,
centrifugal pump, silage cutter, and several other machinery.

Control Panel:
A control panel is a flat, often vertical, area where control or
monitoring instruments are displayed or it is an enclosed unit that is
the part of a system that users can access, such as the control panel of
a security system.
 6.0 SOURCES 0F WATER FOR IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE

The most common sources of water for irrigation and

drainage include :-
• Rivers
• Reservoirs
• Lakes
• Rainfall
• Domestic water
• Groundwater and etc.
 7.0 Methods of Controlling Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a natural process in which

particles of soil are moved by wind and water,
and displaced to another location.
There are broadly two methods of controlling
soil erosion:
a) Cover crops methods
b) Barrier methods
a) COVER METHODS
These methods all protect the soil from the damaging effects of
rain-drop impact and improves soil fertility. Cover crop method
includes:
Mulching.
Bare soil between growing plants is covered with a layer of organic
matter such as straw, grasses, leaves and rice husks - anything
readily available. Mulching also keeps the soil moist, reduces
weeding, keeps the soil cool and adds organic matter. If termites
are a problem, keep the mulch away from the stems of crops
Cover crop.
Cover crops are a kind of living mulch. They are plants - usually
legumes - which are grown to cover the soil, also reducing weeds.
Sometimes they are grown under fruit trees or taller, slow maturing
crops. Sometimes they also produce food or fodder. Cowpeas, for
example may be used both as a cover crop and a food crop.
Green manures
usually legumes are planted specially to improve soil fertility by returning fresh
leafy material to the soil. They may be plants that are grown for 1-2 months
between harvesting one crop and planting the next. The leaves may be cut and
left on the surface of the soil as a mulch or the whole plant dug into the soil.
Green manures may also be trees or hedges which may grow for many years in
a cropping field from which green leaves are regularly cut for use as mulch
(alley cropping).
Mixed cropping and inter-cropping
By growing a variety of crops - perhaps mixed together, in alternate rows, or
sown at different times - the soil is better protected from rain splash.
Early planting
The period at the beginning of the rainy season when the soil is prepared for
planting, is when the damage from rain splash is often worst. Sowing early will
make the period when the soil is bare, as short as possible.
Crop residues
After harvest, unless the next crop is to be immediately replanted, it is a good
idea to leave the stalks, stems and leaves of the crop just harvested, lying on
the soil. They will give some cover protection until the next crop develops
Agroforestry
Planting trees among agricultural crops helps to protect
the soil from erosion, particularly after crops are
harvested. The trees will give some protection from
rain splash. Fruit, trees, legume trees for fodder or
firewood and alley cropping all help reduce soil erosion.
Minimum cultivation
Each time the soil is dug or ploughed, it is exposed to
erosion. In some soils it may be possible to sow crops
without ploughing or digging, ideally among the crop
residue from the previous crop. This is most likely to be
possible in a loose soil with plenty of organic matter.
b) BARRIER METHODS
Barrier methods all slow the flow of water down a
slope. This greatly reduces the amount of soil which
run-off water can carry away and conserves water. To
be effective any barrier must follow the contour lines.
The barrier methods include:-
Contour ploughing
Whenever possible all land should be ploughed along
the contour line - never up and down, since this simply
encourages erosion. In some cultures this may be very
difficult due to the pattern of land inheritance.
Man-made terraces
Well-built terraces are one of the most effective methods of controlling soil
erosion, especially on steep slopes. However, terraces require skill and very hard
work to build. Each terrace is levelled - first by levelling the sub-soil, then the top
soil - and firm side supports are built, often of rock. Man-made terraces are
unlikely to be an appropriate method in countries with no tradition of terrace
building.
Contour barriers
Almost any available material can be used to build barriers along the contours.
Here are some examples: old crop stalks and leaves, stones, grass strips, ridges
and ditches strengthened by planting with grass or trees.
Natural terraces
Planted grass along the contour lines. We used fibrous grasses with a dense root
system such as Napier grass, Guatemala grass and Guinea grass. The strips of land
in between were cultivated. As the soil is cultivated, nature moves the soil to
form a natural terrace. The rainwater passes through the grass strip, depositing
any soil carried behind the grass. In our experience in Bangladesh and Brazil, rains
formed natural terraces within five years. Once well established, the grass barrier
can be planted with banana, pineapple, coffee, fruit or firewood trees.
 8.0 Water Control Structures
A Water Control Structure means a permanent
structure placed in a farm canal, ditch, or
subsurface drainage conduit (drain tile or tube),
which provides control of the stage or discharge of
surface and/or subsurface drainage. The primary
purpose of the water control structure is to
improve water quality by elevating the water table
and reducing drainage outflow. A secondary
purpose is to restore hydrology in riparian buffers
to the extent practical. Water control structures
include the following:-
 Fig.1 Stilling basin
1. Stilling basin:- A depression in a channel or reservoir deep
enough to reduce the velocity or turbulence of the flow.
 Fig.2 Drop spillway
2. Drop spillway:- It is a weir structure. Flow passes through the weir
opening, drops to an approximately level apron or stilling basin and
then passes into the downstream channel. Drop spillway is one of the
most commonly used gully control structures. It is mainly used at the
gully bed to create a control point.
 Fig.3 Gravity chute

3. Chute:- It is a sloping channel or slide for conveying

things to a lower level.
 fig4. Flume

4.Flume:- Is a human-made channel for water in the form of an

open declined gravity chute whose walls are raised above the
surrounding terrain, in contrast to a trench or ditch.
 Fig 5.Weir

5.Weir:- Is a concrete or masonry structure which is constructed

across the open channel (such as a river) to change its water flow
characteristics. Weir can be in rectangular or triangular shapes.
 9.0 Drainage Control Structures

• Drainage Structures include curb inlets, drop inlets

and rectangular structures which are specifically
designed to collect surface runoff and deliver it to
underground storm water conveyance systems.
• The inlets are also available in a wide range of sizes
and configurations depending on local requirements
and conditions. These structures are manufactured
for a variety of length, width and height
combinations. They are also furnished with integral
floor and top slabs.
The major drainage system would almost certainly
include open channels and natural watercourses within
an urbanized (or urbanizing) catchment.
Natural drainage features include lakes, rivers,
swamps, sea, rapids, waterfalls, cataracts, springs,
deltas, fjords, sand or mud, and bays.
 10.0 Soil Conservation Structures
Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of
the top most layer of the soil from erosion or
prevention of reduced fertility caused by over
usage, acidification, salinization or other
chemical soil contamination.
Conservation Structures includes:
• Cropping systems & tillage practices don’t
always provide adequate erosion control;
sometimes special structures is needed.
•Terraces
•Contour bunds: small graded terraces, placed
across slope to act as barrier to runoff, store
water.
• Culverts: allow water to pass under road,
railroad tracks, etc
•Storage Dams, Levees, Bank Protectors.
 11. FARM STRUCTURES

• Farm structures provides shelter and

conducive environment for the preservation
of quality and quantity of plants and crops,
increase the productivity of animals
and farmers, and ensure safety and good
working condition of machineries and
equipment.
Below are the types of farm structures and
their uses.
 Fig6. Farmhouse

1. A farmhouse:- is a structure used primarily as a residence for families,

farmers, and workers on a farm. A farmhouse is a structure used primarily
as a residence for families, farmers, and workers on a farm. It can be
connected to a barn sometimes
 Fig7.Barn

2. BARN:-A barn is another popular type of farm structure and it is used for
more than one purpose. A barn can serve as a shelter for livestock or
livestock feeds like hay, grains etc. It can be also used for storage of farm
produces, farm supplies, and machinery. There are different types of barns.
They are named according to their purpose.
 Fig8. A chicken coop or chicken house
3. A chicken coop or chicken house:- is a small structure used for keeping
chickens especially the female ones. It is built basically to protect them
from bad weather and also a place where they can lay their eggs for easy
collections. The chickens are not kept in the coop or house all day. The
chicken house has a door which allows the chicken to come outside during
the day and absorb sunlight. And they sleep in the chicken house at night.
 Fig 9. Brooder house

4.Brooder house:- A brooder house is a farm structure used

for keeping young livestock especially poultry. This structure is
a heated enclosed shelter.
 Fig 10. Cow-shed

5. Cow-shed: - A cow shed can also be referred to as a barn. But it

is only designed for the purpose of keeping cows.
 Fig11. Stable
6.Stable: - A stable is a structure used for keeping
horses, although it can also be used for keeping
some other types of livestock.
 Fig12. silos

7. Silo:-A silo is a storage facility for storing of grains such as corn,

rice etc. such or silage. There are different types of silo such as
tower silos, bunker silos, bag silos, concrete stave silos, fabric silos,
etc. The most common types of silos used in modern day farming
are the tower, bunker and bag silos.
 Fig 13 . A Greenhouse

8. A Greenhouse: - is a special type of farm structure used for cultivating

plants and crops which require regulated weather conditions. The walls
and roof of a greenhouse are constructed majorly with glass or other
transparent material. Most of the commercial greenhouse structures are
high-tech structures used in modern day farming.
 Fig14. An Abattoir
9. An Abattoir:- also known as a slaughterhouse is a farm building where
animals for consumption are killed before being moved to packaging
department. These are just some of the very important types of farm
structures. You can learn more about each of them to know about their
specifications and how to construct them. You don’t need to have all of them
on your farm. Only according to the type and size of your farm.
10. Milking Shed: - A milking shed is a farm structure with a very high
hygienic standard used for milking. This structure is very important in places
where the milk is not pasteurized.

11. Root Cellar:- A root cellar is not very common in the modern day
farming. It is an underground storage facility used for storing fruits,
vegetables and other foods. It also has been helpful in places where they
experience winter so they can keep the foods safe in that climate.

12. Pigpen Or Sty:- A pigpen or sty is used for rearing domestic pigs. It is
also known as a hog pen or pig parlour.
12. Livestock Buildings and Structures

These are structures used for handling

livestock during various routine management
practices or for housing the livestock.
They include: crushes, dips, spray race, calf
pens, dairy shed/parlour, poultry houses and
structures (deep litter, coops, folds/arks, runs,
battery cages), rabbit hutches, piggery/pig sty,
fish ponds, silos, zero grazing unit, bee hives
1.Crushes
These are used for restraining an animal when carrying out certain livestock
routine practices, such as, spraying and milking.
Crushes have a holding yard and consist of a head rail and a horizontal split which
allow easy access to the sides of the animals' body. The horizontal and vertical
bars aid in fixing the animals' head during dehorning. The tad bar at the entrance
holds an animal in. There is an open gate at the front of the crush to allow exit of
the animal. Examples of the crushes:
(a) A three post crush: Normally used when handling one animal.
(b) A crush for a small scale farmer: It is longer than the three-post crush.
Its length is 3 m and width is 1 m.
(c) A crush for holding many animals: This is mainly used during vaccination of
livestock
2. Dips
It is a farm structure designed to accommodate a chemical dip wash in which
animals are immersed for the purpose of controlling ticks. There are two types of
dips:
•Plunge dips
•The machakos dip
3. Spray race
This is a structure used for tick control. Its main principle of operation is showering
of animals with an acaricide rather than immersion. Animals walk through a confined
area (race) where a pipe system with many nozzles (usually 20 - 30) are fitted at
certain intervals and at particular angles.
The animals are wetted as they walk through the length of the race with dip-wash
sprays coming through the nozzles.
The nozzles are placed at strategic places on the side, floor and overhead pipes and
at such angles that the animal gets wetted from all sides.
The wash is drawn from a reservoir besides the race through a centrifugal pump
driven by an engine or tractor and is circulated under pressure through the piping to
the nozzles.
Advantages of a spray race
It is faster and can spray more animals per hour than a plunge dip.
Suitable for pregnant, heavy, young, goat, sheep and sick animals as they do not get
shock.
Fresh wash every spraying time.
It is economical.
It is less laborious.
No poisoning of animals due to swallowing of the acaricide
Disadvantages
•It requires high technical skill to operate and ma
•In wet weather, the nozzles may get clogged with dirt found in the wash.
•It is only economical with a large her
•High initial cost of construction.

4. Dairy shed/ parlour

A dairy shed is part of the dairy unit that is used during milking. It comprises of the
following parts:
•A night shade.
•A calf pen which should be fitted with a feed and water trough.
•A feeding and watering area.
•The milking section.
•A feed and equipment store.
There are two types of milking sheds:
a)Permanent milking shed:
This has a milking machine permanently installed at the milking section.
b) Movable milking shed:
These units are fitted with small wheels which facilitate their movement to different sites.
Movable milking sheds are common in large dairy farms. Cows are fed
on concentrates while in the parlour.
5. Calf Pens
These are structures for housing calves. The calf pen can be
either communal or individual. Individual calf pens are
most suitable. They prevent cross-suckling among calves which
results in hair balls in the rumen, Provide for better individual
attention given to the calves. Minimize spread of diseases. Calf
pens should be located near or within the dairy unit.
Types of calf pens:
•Permanent calf pens:
These are fixed on the ground and cannot be relocated to other
areas.
They are prominent in the zero-grazing method of livestock rearing.
•Movable calf pens:
These are mobile and can be relocated to new sites as a farmer
may decide.
They are most common in the paddocking method of animal
grazing.
 13. Poultry Houses and Structures

These are housing structures used

for poultry production. They should be sited in
free draining areas and away from main house.All
the structures must provide warmth, Be properly
lit and Well ventilated. They should be kept
damp-free. They include:
• poultry shed run,
• deep litter,
• battery cage etc.
(a) Poultry shed and run
This structure has a shed and run and is sometimes attached to a nest box.
The run is enclosed with a chicken wire. It has a door for use by the keeper to
gain entry into the run when there is need. The shed should preferably be made
of wooden walls. It provides protection against bad weather and predators.
It must be properly ventilated to allow free air circulation, easy to access for
cleaning, collection of eggs and for the arrangement of feeding troughs. Place
nest boxes inside the shed. The stand must be fitted with rat guards to prevent
entry of rats into the shed.

(b) Battery cage system

These are the structures used to house birds under the intensive system of
poultry production. Individual birds or a few birds are confined in cages or
batteries arranged from side to side. The size of the cage is about 0.5 m-per hen.
A 10 cm length of feed trough should be allocated per cage. The farmer can,
however, have one long feed trough that runs through several cages in each tier.
Battery cage can be multiple tier, stair step or flat-deck.
(c) Coops
These are specialized types of cages that are used for rearing hens that are
brooding. They are commonly used in small scale, non-commercial poultry
rearing systems.
(d) Fold/Ark
It has both the run and the shelter section. The run is covered with chicken
wire mesh. It provides birds with space for exercise and to get natural
vegetation and insects. The shelter part of the fold is covered with solid
materials to provide protection against predators and bad weather conditions.
The fold is moved to new sites at regular intervals to reduce the accumulation
of bird droppings. One fold can carry up to 25 birds. Normally a fold measures
about 3.5 m x 1.5 m wide x 1.5 m high.
(e) Night shelters
These are used in free range system where birds are allowed to move within a
fenced enclosure called a run. Birds spend the night in these shelters but are
allowed to go out and scavenge for food during the day. These structures are
also equipped with laying nests. The night shelters are mostly used by small-
scale, non-commercial poultry keepers. Night shelters are raised off the ground
by use of stands or hung on a tree to keep off predators.
•Deep Litter
This is a poultry house where birds are confined. A deep litter has a low
masonry wall of 0.6 m on the leeward side. The rest of the upper part is
made of wire mesh. The floor space should allow for 4-5 birds/m2. The
house should contain laying boxes and perches for the hens. Keep the
roof leak-proof and avoid dampness in and around the house. The
building must keep away stray birds, predators and rodents.

Maintenance Practices of Poultry Houses

• Regular cleaning and disinfecting of the poultry houses.
• Ensure roofs are leak-proof.
• Minimize entry of dust into the poultry Dust is a predisposing factor to
respiratory infections in birds.
• Put the poultry house into a resting period before start of a new
project.
• Repair broken parts of the structure.
• Dusting should be don~ regularly to control external parasites
 14. Rabbit hutches/Rabbitry

These are houses for keeping rabbits. The house should be

painted white to reflect much of the solar radiation that
causes sunburn in rabbits. A rabbitry unit is divided into
two parts:
• The feeding and watering area
• The resting and exercising area.
A wire netting of 1 cm mesh or wooden slats fixed 1 cm
apart can be used for the floor. It has a hinged door for easy
opening and closure. The hutch is fitted on stands of about
60 cm above the ground. Inside the hutch, provide feed and
water troughs and a nest box of size 38 cm X 25 cm X 20
cm. Place the hutch under a shade and in a site protected
from the prevailing wind direction.
Features Of A Good Rabbitry
1.Adequate ventilation and well lit but protected from direct sun rays.
2.Spacious: Space requirement for a doe is 80 - 115 cm".
3.Must be protected from direct rain and wind.
4.The sides and floor of the hutch should have chicken wire mesh.
5.The rabbitry must be safe from predators and pests like dogs, cats and
snakes
6.It should be raised off the ground.
The floor of a rabbit hutch may be made of solid wood or wire mesh.

Maintenance of a Rabbit Hutch

1. Repair broken parts.
2. Repair leaking roof to prevent dampness inside.
3. Paint the wooden posts to last long. Apply old engine oil to keep
off ants.
4. Clean regularly.
 15. Piggery /Pig Sty
Pigs are housed in a structure known as piggery or pig sty. Pigs are very sensitive to
extreme weather conditions; therefore a piggery should provide warmth and be
well ventilated.

Essential features of a piggery

• Farrowing pen: –
It is used for farrowing and ensuring the safety of the piglets. The pen is provided
with a farrowing crate to prevent the sow from lying on the piglets and a heat
source to protect the piglets against chilliness. It contains a creep area where only
the piglets can access creep feed.
• Weaners pen: –
It is where weaned pigs are kept. It should have a feeding, watering and resting
section.
• Boar pen: –
This is where breeding boars are kept. It allows room for sows to be served during
the breeding season.
• Gilts pen –
It is used for keeping young female pigs up to the age of service (usually 12
months).
 16. Fish Ponds
These are structures that are constructed in the farm
for rearing fish. Fish ponds require a large amount of
water; therefore it is important to construct them
near a water source such as a stream or a river. The
water should come from a higher ground so that it
flows downhill into the fish pond and be drained out
easily. The site of a fish pond must be well selected
for successful construction and maintenance.
Procedure of establishing a fish pond include the
following:-
(i) Site selection: Select a suitable place where water flows gently from
the source. The ground soil of high water-retention capacity is
preferred.
(ii) Site marking: After selecting the site, use pegs to mark the channel
from the river, the entrance and exit of the pond, and the channel to
take water back into the river.
(iii) Clearing the land: All vegetation is cleared off the site of the pond
area.
(iv) Digging the pond: Soil is dug out. The top soil is placed in a
particular place as it will be reuse. the upper side of the pond is dug 0.5
m deep and the lower side of the pond 1.5 m.
(v) Construction of dyke: The dyke is the wall constructed all round the
pond.
Pond floor
(vi) A cone is established by digging a trench 0.5 m wide and lower than
the general level of the pond bottom. It is then filled with clay soil and
compacted or concrete is used to help prevent water seepage.
Parts of a fish pond
Inlet:
This is the canal or a pipe that brings water into the fish pond. It is made in the dyke slightly above the
level of the pond water. A screen of fine mesh is filled across the inlet to prevent the entry of
undesirable species of fish into the pond.
Outlet:
This is made at the deeper end of the pond just a little above the bottom of the pond. A pipe is
connected to it to make the outlet firm. A screen is fitted at the mouth of the outlet to prevent the fish
from escaping from the fish pond. It is used to drain water back into the river during harvesting.
Spill way:
It is the channel that allows removal of excess water from the pond. It is made at the top of the dyke
on the lower side of the pond. The spillway prevents the water from overflowing on the dykes.
Factors to be considered when sitting a fish pond
(i) Topography: The selected area should be gently sloping. This allows easy flow of water into and out
of the pond. It also helps avoid flooding of the fish pond.
(ii) Accessibility to the fish pond: It should be located near the homestead or where it can be reached
easily.
(iii) Security of the area: The site must be protected from tresspassers, thieves or predators such as
mongoose, kingfishers, etc.
(iv) Free of pollutants from sewage and dumping sites.
(v) Nearness to water source: A fish pond should be constructed near a reliable water source. This
ensures an adequate water supply.
(v) Soil type: The ground where the fish pond is constructed must have soils with a high water
retention capacity to minimize water seepage. Clay soil is preferred.
17.0 HOUSING UNITS FOR CROP STORAGE
17.1 storage:
Storage is the art of keeping the quality of agricultural materials and
preventing them from deterioration for a specific period of time beyoung
their normal shelf life. Storage is essential for the following reasons:
• Perishable nature of agric and bio materials.
• Provision of food materials all year round.
• Pilling provisions for large scale processing.
• Preservation of viability.
• Prevention of original varieties from extinction.
• Preservation of nutritional quality.
• Weapon for national stability
• Price control and regulations.
• Optimization of farmers gain.
• Opportunity for export market etc.
17.2 Storage Structures
The facilities that house stored materials for the purpose of preserving their qualities are
called storage structures. Broadly storage structures are classified as:
• Traditional structures:
Small sized and short term with high level of infestation. They are mostly made of
unrefined local materials.
• Modern structures:
Mostly large capacity and long term with better regulation of the storage environment.
They are made of improved and refined materials.
17.2.1 Traditional Storage Structure
They are mostly for short term and small scale storage. They require low level scientific
knowledge to construct, operate and maintain. The traditional storage structure include:
Aerial Storage
Storage on the Ground
Domestic Structure
Rhombus
Traditional Cribs
Barn
Shelf
Pits / Underground Storage etc
17.2.2 Modern Storage Structures
Modern storage structure is mostly used for medium or long term and
medium or large scale storage. These include:
•Improved crib
•Ware house
•Silo/bin
•Controlled atmosphere storage system
•Refrigerator
•Cold storage
•Evaporative coolant system
•Hermetic and nitrogen storage system.
18.0 Dam, Hydraulic Structures and Farm Roads

18.1 Dams:
Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain
water. Dams are built to provide water for human consumption, for
irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use in industrial processes.
They are used to increase the amount of water available for
generating hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of
floodwater created by large storms or heavy snowmelt, or to
increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve navigation
and allow barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also
provide a lake for recreational activities such as swimming, boating,
and fishing. Many dams are built for more than one purpose; for
example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing, to
generate hydroelectric power, and to support an irrigation system.
Water-control structures of this type are often designated
multipurpose dams.
Fig15. Dam
18.2 Hydraulic Structures:
A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially
submerged in any body of water, which disrupts the natural flow of
water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the
flow. An example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which
slows the normal flow rate of the river in order to power turbines. A
hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body of water
where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.
Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water.
When used to measure the flow of water, hydraulic structures are
defined as a class of specially shaped, static devices over or
through which water is directed in such a way that under free-flow
conditions at a specified location (point of measurement) a known
level to flow relationship exists. Hydraulic structures of this type can
generally be divided into two categories: flumes and weirs. Hydraulic
Structures is presenteed in fig 16
Fig16. Hydraulic Structures
 19.0 Farm Roads
A farm road is a state road or county road that connects rural or
agricultural areas to market towns. It is a service road that serves
predominantly agricultural or forestry purposes and has only local
significance.
19.1 Type of Farm Roads:
From the service point of view the farm roads shall be grouped into
the following two classes.
• The road serving farm stead and
• The road serving fields
According to the construction and materials used the roads may be
grouped into two types;
The flexible road made up of layers of various materials such as lime
stone, gravel, kanker, red earth etc.
The rigid road made up of cement concrete.

FARM STEAD ROAD:

The farmstead road generally carries traffic of greater weight and density
than the field road. Therefore it should have a smooth, hard surface
requiring minimum maintenance and easy cleaning. For this, the concrete
is most suitable. If any existing flexible road is to be made use of, then it
should be reconditioned with a wearing surface.

FIELD ROAD
Field road should have sufficient hardness and not necessarily
smoothness. Hence all that is required is a good hard base with a surface
of gravel of broken stone. The base may be constructed using rubble,
broken brick, late rite or any other cheap material available in the locality.
19.2 THE REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD ROAD:
An ideal road should be perfectly straight, level,
smooth hard and dry. Such perfection can of course be
rarely reached and hence in practice a compromise of
all the above requirements is to be made.
The requirement are as follows:-
•Straightness
•Levelness
•Smoothness
•Hardness and
•Dryness
19.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS:
According to the materials used for construction, roads may be classified as
1.Earthen roads
2. Gravel roads
3. Water bond macadam roads
4. Tar or bitumin roads and
5. Cement concrete roads
Earthen roads:- are temporary roads made up of earth available in the
locality. They are suitable for low speed vehicles such as bullock drawn
carts.
Gravel roads :- are better than earthen roads and are stable for light traffic.
Water bound macadam roads:- are still better, and suited for heavy traffic
of low speed vehicles.
Bitumen or tar roads:- are roads that are coated with bitumen or tar and
they are suitable for rubber tyred vehicles of both slow and high speed.
Cement concrete roads:- are stable and suited for all kinds of traffic. Each
of the roads has its own qualities which influence the choice and
design. The choice of road depends mainly on the traffic, finance and local
conditions.
 20. FOOD PROCESSING
Food processing is the technique which converts raw food
items into well-cooked and preserved eatables.
The following are some techniques and methods that are used
to convert raw food into processed food:-
• Drying
• Preservation
• Smoking
• Freezing
• Salting
• Vacuum packs
• Sugaring
• Pickling
20.1 Storage and Processing Machines:
Storage and processing machine include:
•Separators
•Shellers/Threshers
•Size reduction machines
•Mixers
•Feed mills
•Dryers
•Crushers
•Pelleters
•Decorticators etc.
 21.0 SHELLERS/THRESHERS
The operation of detaching the grains from the ear
head, cob or pod is called threshing. It is basically the
removal of grains from the plant by striking, treading
or rupturing.
The threshing mechanism, which separates the grain
from the stalks, consists mainly of a revolving
cylinder and the concaves. A feeder beater is usually
located in front of the cylinder and at the upper end
of the elevator-feeder to assist the elevator-feeder in
feeding the grain to the threshing mechanism.
Components of a Thresher
They include:
•Feeding unit (Feeding Hopper)
•Threshing unit:
•Cleaning unit
•Power transmission unit
•Main frame
•Output unit (grain outlet)
•In some cases Transport wheels.

Types of threshers:
The types of thresher include;
•Maize thresher
•Wheat thresher
•Paddy
•Rice threshers etc.
•Multi-crop
Fig17 . Wheat thresher.
 22.0 SIZE REDUCTION MACHINE
Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit
masses into small unit masses, coarse particles or
fine particles. Size reduction process is also termed
as Comminution or Diminution or Pulverizations.
Size reduction machinery:
• Crushers
• Grinders
• Fine grinders
 Fig18. Jaw crusher

Crushers:
Crusher is mostly used to break large pieces of solid materials into small
lumps by Squeezing or pressing the material until it breaks.
 Fig19. Gyratory Crusher

Types of crushers
i. Jaw crusher
ii. Gyratory crushers
Grinders:
Grinder is used to mill the grains into powder
Types of grinders
a. Attrition mill b. Hammer Mill c. Impactors d. Rolling
Compression Mill
Attrition mill
Attrition mill is also known as burr mill. Grains are rubbed
between the grooved flat faces of rotating circular disks. One
plate is stationary and fixed with the body of the mill while the
other one is rotating disk. Material is fed between the plates and
is reduced by crushing and shear. The axis of the roughened disks
may be horizontal or vertical. The mill has different patterns of
grooves, corrugations on the plates perform a variety of
operations.
Fig.20 Attrition mill
Hammer mill
-

Hammer mill Consists of high speed rotor rotating inside a cylindrical

casing. Attached to the rotor is a fixed or swinging hammer and
materials fed into the mill from the top of the casing and is broken by the
rotating hammers and fall out through a screen at the bottom. Size
reduction takes place by impact force..Hammers are rotated between
1550 to 4000 rpm, strike and grind the material until it becomes small
enough to pass through the bottom screen; fineness of grinding is
controlled by the screen size and can grind tough fibrous solids, steel
chips, food grains, hard rock etc.
Ball mill
It is a cylindrical or conical shell slowly rotating about a horizontal
axis. The shell is made of steel lined with high carbon steel plate,
porcelain or silica rock. Half of its volume is filled with solid grinding
balls; Size reduction is achieved by impact of the balls when they drop
from near the top of the shell. When the ball mill is rotated, the balls
are carried by the mill wall nearly to the top and are released by the
gravitational pull and drop to the bottom and picked up again.The
energy consumed in lifting the balls is utilized for grinding
job.Centrifugal force keeps the ball in contact with the mill wall.
 Fig 20. Roller mills

Roller mills are similar to roller crushers .They have smooth or finely
fluted rolls, and rotate at differential speeds. It is widely used to
grind flour and Because of their simple geometry, the maximum size
of the particle that can pass between the rolls can be regulated.