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Polymetallic Nodules 

Rock concretions formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core 
Also contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, rare earths
Can occur at any depth, but highest concentrations are between 4000 and 6000 m 
Mostly in North Central pacific, Peru Basin and North Indian Ocean basin 
Gas Hydrates - Mannar, Micro manganese - Lakshadweep Sea, Phosphate - Karwar 

Pacific Shadow Zone

Area of almost stagnant water between rising currents caused by rough topography and geothermal heat source
Also traps nutrients and carbon which have a direct impact on capacity of ocean to modify climate
Geothermal currents loop back, leaving surface water untouched 
Shadow zone in Indian Ocean is less stagnant due to proximity to freshwater from Antarctica 

Ocean Relief - tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes

Major Relief Features - Shelf, Slope + Rise, Abyssal Plains, Trenches/Canyons 

Minor Relief Features - Ridges, Hills, Seamounts, Guyots, Trenches, Canyons, Fracture Zones, Arcs, Atolls

Water on Earth’s surface

Oceans (71%) > Ice Caps/Glaciers > Groundwater > Lakes > Soil Moisture > Atmosphere > Rivers > Biosphere

Major Relief Features

Gently sloping sea ward extension of the continental mass - Gradient 1°

Shelf ends at a very steep slope called Shelf Break
Covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers etc. 
Sedimentary deposits received over a long time become PETROLEUM
Width and Depth of shelf varies from one ocean to another: Widest - Siberian shelf, Narrowest - Peru-Chile shelf,
Sumatra west coast

Shelf can be formed by

Submergence of land
Relative rise in sea level
Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers and glaciers
Continental Shelf
Greenland - Glaciated shelf
Queensland - Coral Reef shelf
Nile - Shelf of a large river
Hudson - Shelf with dendritic valleys
Hawaii - Shelves between Hawaiian islands 

Importance

Marine food - best fishing grounds

Polymetallic nodules 
Petroleum 

Connects continental shelf and ocean basins

Begins where continental shelf drops into steep slope 
Canyons and Trenches
Continental Slope Gradient 2-5°
Slope boundary indicates end of continents 
Seaward edge of the Slope loses gradient and is called Continental Rise - Rise becomes flat and merges with the
Abyssal Plains

Flattest and smoothest regions of the world 

Abyssal Plains 
Terrigenous and shallow water sediments evens out the irregular topography

Trenches Steep sided, narrow basins

3-5 km deeper than surrounding ocean floor 
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Occur at bases of continental slopes and along island arcs - associated with active volcanos and earthquakes
Tectonic Origin - OO or OC convergence
Run parallel to adjacent fold mountains or island arcs
Most common in Pacific Ocean and form a ring around the eastern and western margins

Deepest Points

Pacific Ocean - Mariana Trench

Atlantic Ocean - Puerto Rico Trench
Indian Ocean - Java Trench
Arctic Ocean - Eurasian Basin

Minor Relief Features

Two chains of mountains separated by a large depression - Divergent Boundary (Tectonic Origin)
Iceland is a part of the mid-Atlantic ridge
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
Provide evidence in support of plate tectonics
Running for 75000 km, they form the largest mountain systems on earth

Sea Mount - Volcanic origin, Does not reach the surface of the sea, e.g. Emperor Sea Mount (extension of
Hawaiian Islands)
Guyots - Flat topped sea mount
Abyssal Hills
Volcanic Island

Most common in Pacific Ocean 

Deep Valleys sometimes cutting across continental shelves and slopes

Often extend from mouths of large rivers
Submarine Canyons Hudson Canyon - dendritic appearance and deeply cut into the slope and shelf
Largest Canyons are in Bering Sea off Alaska
Mouths of Indus, Mississippi and Zaire have Canyons that start from the mouth and cut across the shelf 

Low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central depression 
Atoll
Maybe a part of a lagoon, or enclose a body of fresh, brackish or highly saline water 

Flat topped elevation on continental margins

Depth of water is shallow but enough for navigation
Bank
E.g. Dogger Bank in North Sea, Grand Bank in Newfoundland
Banks are important fishery sites

Shoal Project out of water with moderate heights - dangerous for navigation

Predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that forms a mound or rocky elevation like
ridge 
Reef
In Pacific, they are associated with seamounts and guyots
Dangerous for navigation

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Marginal Seas

Sea enclosed by islands. Archipelagos and peninsulas

Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara, Later, east Siberian), Arabian Sea, Bering Sea
Shallower than open oceans, influenced by river runoff, climate and water circulation

Arctic Ocean  Beaufort Sea, Baffin Bay, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Latev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea (W-E)

Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Irish Sea, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Scotia
Atlantic Ocean  Sea
Mediterranean Sea - Adriatic, Aegean, Tyrrhenian

Indian Ocean Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Java Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea

Bering Sea, Celebes Sea, Yellow Sea, Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of
Pacific Ocean 
Okhotsk 
Human Impact - Marginal Seas are more vulnerable than open ocean

Overfishing
Industrial and Domestic Sewage Disposal - detergents, plastics, radioactive waste
Offshore oil drilling
Accidental release of pollutants (oil spills)
Agricultural run off rich in Nitrogen and phosphate - leading to algal blooms (in Black Sea)

Productivity 

Marginal Seas have intermediate productivity - highest near coastal upwelling regions and lowest towards open sea
Near the coast, river runoff and water column mixing introduces dissolved nutrients, trace elements and suspended particles into the
photic zones
Addition of suspended matter —> Turbidity —> Decreased sunlight penetration —> Decreased productivity 

Water Circulation

Depends on shape of sea, fresh-water input, evaporation

River run off + Precipitation > Evaporation (Black Sea, Baltic Sea) —> excess freshwater will flow seaward
River run off + Precipitation < Evaporation Mediterranean Sea) —> Sea water becomes saltier, sinks and flows towards the sea; Salinity
increases
Gulf of Mexico - Loop Current - Current from Caribbean Sea enters through Yucatan Channel and loops clockwise

Small body of water set off from a larger body of water where the land curves inwards - 3 sides land, 4th side ocean
Bay Bay is smaller and less enclosed than Gulf
Largest - Bay of Bengal

Large body of water with a narrow mouth, almost completely surrounded by land
Gulf
Gulf of Mexico - World’s largest gulf

Strait Passage of water between two water bodies or landmasses

Land mass between two land masses

Isthmus
Isthmus of Panama, Isthmus of Suez
Oceans 

Size - Pacific > Atlantic > India > Southern > Arctic
Largest, Deepest - 1/3 of earth’s surface
Roughly triangular in shape with its apex at Bering Strait in north
Largest number of deeps, trenches, islands
Pacific
Mariana and Mindanao trenches are the deepest
South East Pacific (West coast of South America) - Marginal seas are absent
Trenches (N-S) —> Aleutian, Kuril, Japan, Mariana, Philippines, Mindanao, Tonga, Kermadec

Atlantic  Roughly half the size of Pacific 

Most significant in terms of trade
Larger continental shelves in North Atlantic 
Grand Banks continental shelf is the most productive continental shelf (fishing in Laurentian Climate)

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Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs north to south along the S shape of the ocean (14000 km long)
Seamounts that form islands - Cape Verde, Canary
Volcanic Islands - St. Helena
Coral Islands - Bermuda
Trenches - Romanche, South Sandwich, 

Submarine ridges divide the ocean bottom into many basins - Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge (reunion hotspot),
Socotora-Chagos ridge, Seychelles Ridge, South Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge
Most islands are continental islands
Indian 
Continental Shelves are narrow - But shelf off Australia’s north coast is wide
Trenches - Sunda Trench, Diamantina Trench
Straits are important trade routes

Distribution of temperature in ocean water

Temperature influences - currents, marine life, climate

Sources of heat - Sun (supports life in the photic zone), inner heat of earth itself (negligible compared to Sun, but important in deep ocean
where bacteria can use it to produce food)
Diurnal range of temperature in oceans is very small because - vertical and horizontal mixing of water, high specific heat of water

Latitude - Decreases from equator towards poles as among of insolation decreases (0.5° C per latitude)
Unequal distribution of land and water - Oceans in Northern Hemisphere receive more heat due to contact with larger extent of land -
Highest temperatures are recorded slightly north of equator
Prevailing Wind - Winds from land to sea, drive warm water away from the coast resulting in upwelling of cold water from below.
Onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and raise the temperature
Ocean Currents - Warm ocean currents increase the temperature in cold area, cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean seas
Enclosed seas in low latitudes record higher temperature than open seas, enclosed seas in higher latitudes have lower temperature than
open seas
Heat loss - evaporation, radiation, scattering

Thermocline

Boundary between surface waters and deeper waters

90% of water is found below
Rapid decrease of temperature in this zone

Temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes 

1st layer - 500m thick, 20° - 25°C warm oceanic water (only in summer in mid latitudes, throughout the year in tropics)
2nd layer - Thermocline - 500-1000m thick 
3rd layer - very cold and extends upto the deep ocean floor, rate of decrease of temperature is less

In polar regions, the surface temperatures are close to 0°C, so there is not much temperature gradient with depth
Maximum temperature is at oceans, and heat is transferred to deeper layers by convection

Pycnocline

Boundary separating two liquids of different densities 

In oceans at 100m-1000m, due to large density difference between surface waters and deep ocean waters
Not so well defined in polar areas due to sinking of cold water - only one block of cold water exists
Prevents vertical currents 
Extremely stable - compartmentalises surface and deep-water processes 

Thermohaline Circulation

Circulation of deep ocean currents caused by differences in water density due to temperature and salinity differences
Also called Ocean Conveyor Belt
Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermo-haline circulation

Rate of decrease of temperature with depth is higher at equator than in the poles 

Isotherms are closely spaced where temperature gradient is high

In summer, isotherms shift north over land and south over sea
In winter, isotherms shift south over land and north over sea 

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Oceans get heated and cool down slower than land - attain maximum temperature at 2pm though maximum isolation is at noon
Diurnal temperature range is barely 1°C in oceans
Temperature changes are more pronounced if cloud cover is absent and atmosphere is calm

CURRENTS

Movement of a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction

Most important ocean movements due to their influence on climate

Influenced by two types of forces - primary forces that initiate the movement of water, secondary forces that influence currents to flow

Primary forces - insolation, wind, gravity, Coriolis forces

Secondary forces - temperature, salinity 

Heating causes water to expand —> Water near the equator is 8cm higher in level than in middle latitudes
Insolation 
Creates a gradient down which water flows - flow is from east to west

Affect both magnitude and direction

e.g. Monsoon winds cause reversal of direction of currents in Indian Ocean
Wind
Oceanic circulation roughly corresponds to atmospheric circulation

Gravity Pulls the water down to create gradient 

Right in N hemisphere, L in S Hemisphere —> Circular current movements called GYRE

Coriolis Force
e.g. Circular Movement in Sargasso Sea 

Salinity Saline water is denser and sinks below

Cold currents - Cold water at pole sinks and moves towards the equator
Temperature
Warm currents - Warm water from equator flows on the surface towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water
Surface Currents - 10% of water volume
Deep Sea Currents - 90% of water volume

Cold Currents - West coast of continents in low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres), east coast in higher latitudes (northern hemisphere) 
Warm currents - East coast of continents in low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres)

General movement in northern hemisphere is clockwise, in Southern Hemisphere is anti-clockwise —> caused due to Coriolis force
Follows circulation of winds, transports heat across latitude belts 
Warm currents move towards cold seas, Cold currents towards warm seas
Shape and position of coasts play an important role in guiding the direction of currents
Currents have greater speeds at the surface than at deeper levels

Impact of Ocean Currents

Cold Ocean currents play a role in formation of deserts on the west coast of tropical and subtropical continents - arid due to dessicating
effect 
Warm currents bring rain to coastal areas - e.g. summer rainfall in British type climate

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Moderation of climate on the coasts - North Atlantic Drift brings warmth to England coast, Canary current brings cooling effect to
Spain
Fishing grounds where warm and cold currents meet - Newfoundland (Labrador + Gulf Stream) - mixing of warm and cold water
replenishes oxygen and favours the growth of plankton
Mixing of warm and cold currents creates fog and precipitation in form of drizzle
Pile up warm waters in tropics, which is the major force behind tropical cyclones
Warm and rainy climates on east coast of tropical and subtropical latitudes, cold and dry on west coast
Ships choose routes aided by currents and winds

Desert Formation

Major hot deserts of the world are located on western coasts of continents between latitudes 15° and 30° N/S
Lie along horse latitudes or sub tropical high pressure belts - air descending, not favourable for precipitation
Rain bearing trade winds blow off shore and Westerlies that reach on-shore blow outside desert limits 

Canary Current - Sahara Desert

Californian Current - California Desert
Benguela Current - Namib Desert
West Australian Current - Australian Desert
Peruvian Current - Atacama Desert

Equatorial Currents - Under influence of trade winds

Counter equatorial current - Equatorial currents pile up water near Indonesia/Australia which flows back
between the north and south equatorial currents
Factors that aid formation of counter equatorial current —> Piling up of water in Western Pacific, doldrums
Pacific Ocean
(region of calm) between the equatorial currents, Piling of water in western part of earth due to rotation
Kuroshio current (W) 
Oya Shio current (C) - Okhostk current merges into it - Oya Shio and Kuroshio meet near Hokkaido/Honshu
North Pacific Current - Continues further as northward Alaskan Current and southward Californian Current

Atlantic Ocean
Equatorial Currents - South Eq. Current bifurcates into two branches in North Brazil - northern branch joins the
North Eq. Current (a part of it flows into Antilles Current and another part into Gulf of Mexico) and southern
part form Brazilian Current
Near Grand Banks - Gulf Stream + (Labrador + East Greenland Current) —> Moves west as the North Atlantic
drift under influence of Westerlies
Mixing of Gulf Stream and Labrador Current produces Newfoundland Fog and one of the most important
fishing grounds
Rise of water in Gulf of Mexico - drainage of Mississippi + water brought in by equatorial currents
North Atlantic Drift - Northward as Norwegian Current, south ward as Canary Current

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Norwegian Current - Keeps the ocean to north of Norway partly free of ice - Barents Sea is navigable in
summer
Sargasso Sea is within the North Atlantic Gyre - large quantities of sea weed - surrounded by Canary Current,
North Atlantic Equatorial Current, Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift
Falkland Current passes between Argentina and Falkland Islands, splitting off from West Wind Drift - mixes
with warm Brazil current at southern Brazil

Effect of winds on currents is most pronounced in North Indian Ocean

Winter - there are equatorial and counter equatorial currents - Anti-clockwise circulations in Arabian Sea & Bay of
Indian Ocean Bengal 
Summer - Due to SW monsoons, there are no equatorial currents - Clockwise circulation in Arabian Sea & Bay of
Bengal 

Phytoplankton

Primary producers in marine food chains

Microscopic, single celled mostly
Include - Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Cryptomonads, Green Algae, Blue Green Algae (Diatoms and Dinoflagellates dominate)
In areas where cold and warm currents meet, or there is upwelling of water, nutrients are replenished - more phytoplankton activity because
it brings nutrients to the photos zone where Phytoplankton survive

In colder climates, the air is colder than the water - Air cools the upper layers which sink and nutrient rich water upwells
SALINITY

Salinity = gm of salt in 1000gm of water

Factors affecting ocean salinity

Evaporation and Precipitation

Freshwater flow from rivers (coastal areas) and melting of ice (polar areas)
Wind, by transferring water to other areas
Ocean currents - salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated 

Dissolved salts - Chlorine > Sodium > Sulphate > Magnesium

Red Sea - High salinity as it is landlocked

North Sea - higher salinity due to saline water brought by North Atlantic Drift
Baltic Sea - low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity (Vistula and Oder)
Black Sea - low salinity due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers (Don, Danube, Dnieper, Dniester) 
Northern Part of Western Hemisphere - low salinity due to freshwater from melting ice from Arctic
Mediterranean Sea - high salinity due to evaporation and not many rivers flowing into it
Bay of Bengal - low salinity due to influx of river water
Arabian Sea - High salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of freshwater compared to BoB
Highest salinities are in mid-latitudes - 15° - 20° (highest insolation)
Fluctuates in Arctic (thawing-freezing) and in estuaries (tidal changes) 

Vertical Distribution

More saline water is dense - subsides below less saline water - stratification by salinity 
Salinity generally increases with depth
Deeper layers - salinity is less variable as water isn’t lost and salt isn’t added
Halocline - Region where salinity increases sharply

WAVES

The energy and not the water moves on the ocean surface
Water particles only travel in a circle as the wave passes
Wave approaches - upward and forward, wave passes - down and back
Wind generates waves, and the energy is released on the shorelines - waves grow larger as they absorb energy from the wind
Steep waves are mostly formed by local wind
When the wave approaches the coast, it slows down
Maximum wave height is determined by strength of wind, area over which it blows in a single direction
When the depth of water is less than half of the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks

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TIDES

Vertical Motion (Waves and Currents are horizontal motion)

Periodical rise and fall of sea level - mainly due to attraction of sun and moon
Moon’s pull is more important than Sun 
Gravitational pull and centrifugal force cause two major tidal bulges on earth
On the side of the moon - Gravitational force, On the opposite side of the moon - Centrifugal force

Horizontal tide generating forces are more important than vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges
Tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater height
When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands, they become low
Shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can magnify the intensity of tides - funnel shaped bays change tidal magnitudes
Tidal currents - When tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries 
Tides can be predicted in advance

Surges - Irregular movements of water caused by local winds and pressure changes
Tide generating force = Difference between attraction of moon and centrifugal force

Highest tides - Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia (Canada)

Tide types based on frequency 

Semi-diurnal - 2 HT, 2 LT ; Most common; Successive HT or LT are approximately of equal height

Diurnal - 1 HT, 1 LT ; Successive HT or LT are approximately of same height
Mixed Height - Tides having variations in height, West coast of North America and many islands of the Pacific Ocean

Relative position of moon, earth and sun controls the nature and magnitude of tides

Spring Tide: Sun, Moon, Earth in straight line - twice a month on full moon and new moon
Neap Tide: Sun and Moon are at right angle - Forces counteract

7 day gap between Spring and Neap tide

Moon at Perigee/Earth at Perihelion - Unusually high and low tides (tidal range greater than normal)
Moon at Apogee/Earth at Perihelion - 2 weeks later, tidal ranges are less than normal

Ebb - HT to LT - water levels are falling

Flow - LT to HT - water levels are rising

Tidal Bore
When a tide enters a narrow and shallow estuary, front of the tidal wave appears to be vertical due to piling up of water of the river against the
tidal wave and the friction of the bed
Favourable conditions - Strong tide, Thin river channel, large tidal range
Always occur during flow tide and mostly never on neap tides
Tidal bores form in Amazon even though the mouth is wide because mouth is shallow and has many low lying islands and sand bars
Most powerful tidal bores in Qiangtang River, China
Unpredictable and dangerous - disrupt ecology, affect shipping

What affects tidal ranges?

Depth of ocean water

Openness and closeness of sea
Configuration of coastline
Gravitational pull of Sun and Moon

Importance of Tides

High tides help in navigation - raise water level which allows vessels to approach shores more easily overcoming the shallow bars - Due
to tidal nature of mouths of Thames and Hooghly, London and Kolkata have become important ports
Fishing - more fish come to shore during high tide
Desilting sediments and removing polluted water from river estuaries
Tidal electricity - Canada, France, Russia, China, Durgaduani in Sundarbans

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OCEAN RESOURCES

Ocean Deposits

Terrigenous

Derived from land

Mainly on continental shelf and slope
Mostly inorganic
Derived form disintegrated rock material 

Pelagic 

Found in deep sea plains and deeps

Both organic and inorganic
Organic material in the form of ooze which contains remnants of shells and skeletons of various marine organisms
Inorganic material in form of red clay - silicon and aluminium oxide, iron, manganese
Red clay covers more than half of Pacific Sea floor

Mineral Resources

Most mineral resources are in dissolved or suspended form

Source for most of the mineral resources found in the sea is the land

Mineral deposits on continental shelf/slope

Mixed with sand

Beach sands of Western India, coastal Brazil, Australia NZ, SL, USA have zircon and monazite
Eastern and Western coast of Australia - 30% rutile (Titanium oxide mineral)
Phosphorite is found as nodules - coasts of California, Mexico, Peru, Japan
Magnetite in areas of volcanic rock material
Cassiterite - Tin Ore - result of granite weathering - Occurs in a belt from Northern Thailand - Western Malaysia to Indonesia
Placer deposits of gold along the coast of Alaska
Platinum - Australia, South Africa, USA
Diamonds in sediments washed down by rivers in Australia/SA
Oil and Natural Gas - form 90% of value of minerals from the sea - Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, North Sea
Submerged coal deposits - Japan, UK, Africa, Maharashtra coast in India

Mineral deposits in deep sea floor

Manganese nodules - contain cobalt, nickel, manganese, copper - found in areas of low sedimentation rates like abyssal plains
Polymetallic sulphides in Western Indian Ocean 
Metalliferous sediments

Energy

Tidal Energy - Rise and fall of tides - During high tide, a reservoir is filled and the falling water during ebb can be used to rotate a
turbine
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion - Exploit temperature difference between surface and sub-surface waters - expensive - used in Cuba,
Belgium - Proposed at Kulsekaripattinam in TN
Geothermal Energy - Heat from fracture zones and active volcanos under sea

Desalinisation Technologies

Electrodialysis - Iron selective membrane for desalinisation

Flash distillation
Reverse Osmosis - Most widely used - Suitable osmotic membrane is sued which rejects salts and allows water to pass through under
high pressure

Biotic Resources 

Fish, crustaceans, molluscs, sea weed - sea food is high in nutritional value
Marine plants and animals are used in curative medicine
Whale blubber - hardening agents, cosmetics, lubricants
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Krill - small shrimp like organisms near Antarctic waters - food for whales, sea birds, seals - Krill decompose quickly so catcher vessels must
be able to process them quickly
Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons
Benthos - live on the sea sediments
Aquaculture - Oysters, Mussels, Clams - well developed in Europe
Algae and Kelp used as fodder, seasoning agents, mulch 
Brown algae - Algin - Used in paints and ceramics
Red algae - Agar and Carrageenan - important medium for bacterial research 

SEA LEVEL CHANGES

Calculated from a series of continuous records of tidal oscillations over a considerable period of time
Relative rise in sea level could be due to subsidence of land or actual rise in sea level

Eustatic Change - Volume of water changes due to global warming, melting of ice sheets or spread of ice

Tectonic Change - Change in level of land 

Isostatic Changes - Takes place due to addition or removal of load (land subsides due to load of glaciers) - Scandinavia is still rising
after the  ice deposited during last ice age
Epeirogenic Changes - Broad scale tilting of continents 
Orogenic Changes - Folding and flexuring of the lithosphere which creates mountains - relative fall in sea level

Significance of sea level changes

Key evidences regarding climate change in the past

Estimate rates of tectonic upliftment in past geological periods
Understanding sea level changes due to global warming is key to protecting the low lying countries and small islands
Tidal power generation

Flandrian Transgression - ready rise in sea level since the last glaciation (when sea levels were 100-150m lower) and large areas of
continental shelves were dry

Exact age of changes in sea level - radiometric dating techniques on materials found in raised beaches
Submarine Canyons are evidence that there was a relative rise in sea level as they are formed only in submerged conditions
Oxygen isotopes preserved in calcareous deposits of microfossils 
Peat formed in inter tidal zones can be dated radiometrically 
Tracing changes in shorelines
Depth of sediments indicates the possible duration of submergence

Accumulation of sediments/Carbonate deposition activities by marine organisms lead to rise of sea level by reducing volume of basin
Orogenesis causes a shortening and thickening of continental crust - corresponding increase in volume of basin and fall of sea level

Short term changes in sea level

Low temperature, High salinity —> Dense water —> low volume —> Lower Sea Level
Low pressure —> Water is sucked in by upward moving airmass —> Sea level is higher
Fast flowing ocean currents when taking a curved path cause a rise in sea level on outer fringes
Condensation into ice reduces sea level
Piling up of water due to winds/currents
Thermal expansion due to global warming - rise in sea level
Ice cap melting due to global warming - 15% of Greenland ice cap has melted

Impact of sea level fall

Changes in base level of rivers - Rivers cut their channels deeper than before - Rejuvenated landforms
River channels become longer as shore extends outwards into the sea
Drying of continental shelves - desiccation of coral reefs
In temperate and high latitudes, fall in sea level can cause extension of ice caps - glacial landforms like glacial till and fjords

Impact of sea level rise

Low lying coastal areas and small islands will be submerged - damage port, industries etc
At current level of sea level rise due to global warming, 33% of croplands could be submerged
Accelerated coastal erosion

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Gorundwater resources affected due to saline water intrusion in coastal areas
Affects delta ecosystems 

LAWS AND CONVENTIONS

UN International Conferences on Law of the Seas

Defines rights and responsibilities of nations with regard to use of ocean waters - businesses, environment, natural resources
UN does not play a direct part in implementation
International Maritime Organisation and International Whaling Commission have a role to play
Consensus process rather than majority vote 
US has signed but not ratified

State has full sovereignty 

Territorial Waters
12 miles from the coast

Coastal state can take action against offenders who break the law within territorial waters
Contiguous Zone
24 miles from the coast

Within EEZ coastal state has right to exploit all economic resources - fish, minerals, oil and gas
Introduced to halt clashes over fishing and oil extraction
EEZ Land locked and geographically disadvantaged states can participate in an equitable basis in exploiting a part of the
surplus
Coastal states are expected to grant consent to other states for peaceful work such as scientific research

Free for navigation, laying submarine cables, airspace, fishing (with some restrictions to control overfishing)
High Seas
States must share with the international community part of the revenue derived from exploiting economic resources
London Convention - Dumping of wastes in sea

Does not cover wastes from exploration and exploitation of marine mineral deposits
Provisions do not apply when there is a need to secure safety of life or vessels 
Amendments to prevent incineration of wastes at sea, dumping of low level radioactive wastes at sea
IMO is responsible for Secretariat activities with respect to the Protocol

1996 Protocol

Appropriate preventive measures to be taken when wastes thrown into the sea are likely to cause harm even when there is no conclusive
evidence to prove a cause relation between inputs and their effects
Polluter Pays principle
Protocol should not result in pollution being transferred from one part of the environment to another
No export of wastes to other countries 

2006 Protocol

Basis to regulate carbon capture and storage in sub-sealed geological formations

Allow storage of CO2 under the sea bed

UNCLOS

Obligations for safeguarding marine environment and protecting freedom of scientific research on the high seas
International Seabed Authority - legal regime for mineral resource exploitation in deep sea bed areas beyond jurisdiction
Can hold states liable for violation of international obligations

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