Lesson 2: The Atom I

First 20 Elements-

1. Hydrogen (H)
2. Helium (He)
3. Lithium (Li)
4. Beryllium (Be)
5. Boron (B)
6. Carbon (C)
7. Nitrogen (N)
8. Oxygen (O)
9. Fluorine (F)
10. Neon (Ne)
11. Sodium (Na)
12. Magnesium (Mg)
13. Aluminium (Al)
14. Silicon (Si)
15. Phosphorus (P)
16. Sulfur (S)
17. Chlorine (CI)
18. Argon (Ar)
19. Potassium (K)
20. Calcium (Ca)

Lesson 3: The Atom II

Atoms are the building blocks
-Atoms cannot be seen with a microscope
-Everything around us is made up of atoms
-There are 118 known atoms
-98 are natural and 20 are created in a laboratory
Atoms in elements and compounds
-Atoms can combine with other atoms to a cluster of atoms known as a molecule
-They can also form a large grid-like structure of atoms known as a lattice
Elements
-If an element is created with only one type of atom it is known as an element
Compounds
-if a substance is made up of different types of atoms it is known as a compound
-The molecules that create compounds range from large to small
Inside atoms
-Scientists now know that atoms are made up of even smaller particles called subatomic
particles
-Each atom is made up of three types of subatomic particles, Protons, electrons, and
neutrons

Lesson 4: Electron Configuration

Electrons and nucleus
-The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom must be equal to the number
of protons in the nucleus
-As a result atoms are neutrally charged
-The Rutherford experiments show that the nucleus only takes up a small percentage of the
atom
Ion
-Atoms can loose or gain electrons which cause it to be electrically charged known as an ion
-If an atom loses electrons then it has more protons then electrons and becomes positively
charged
-This positively charged atom is known as a cation and negatively charged atoms are known
as anions
Lesson 05: Electron Configuration II
Ions
- Ions are electrically charged particles
-Form when atoms lose or gain electrons
-When an atom gains an electron, it has a negative charge and is called an anion
-When an atom loses an electron, it has a positive charge and is called a cation

Ion and Electron Structure

-An atom is at its most stable if the outer shell is filled
-An atom will always try to either gain or lose electrons, so it has a full outer shell

Example: Chlorine and Sodium

Chlorine atom
-Equal number protons and electrons
-Zero overall charge
-BUT has one slot open in its outer shell
So it wants to gain (get) an electron from somewhere else to fill it up

Sodium atom
-Equal number protons and electrons
-Zero overall charge
-BUT has one electron in outer shell
-So it wants to lose (get rid of) that electron so it can have a full outer shell
-(it will end up with one less shell!)

Positive Ion (cation)

-A cation is formed when an atom loses electrons
-This happens because outer shell is mostly empty
-Atom will lose all the electrons in outer shell
-Only filled shells remain
-It is nearly always metal atoms that lose electrons

Negative Ion (anion)

-Anions form when atoms gain electrons
-This happens because outer shell is almost full
-Only needs to gain a few electrons to fill the shell
-It is nearly always non-metal atoms that gain electrons
Lesson 6: Introducing bonding

3 different types of bonding-

-Non-mentals = covalent bonding (shared). Covalently bonded compounds share electrons so
that each atom can have a full outer shell. E.g Methane, Ammonia, Sulfar dioxide

-Covalent bonding characteristics

-Low melting points
-Solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
-Small, finite structures (although polymers are finite but very long)
-Can be very reactive due to size and combination of non-metals
-Normally soft and brittle when solid
-Volatile (e.g. iodine, I2, evaporates from solid to gas easily at room temperature)

-Non mental + Metal = ionic bonding (taken not shared) Ironically bonded compounds involve
an element donating an electron so that each atom can have a full outer shell. E.g Table salt

-Ionic bonding characteristics

-High melting points
-Hard but brittle
-Uniform, repeat structure (alternating + & – ions)
-Unreactive when solid (especially “ordinary” ionic compounds, e.g. NaCl, MgO)
-Dissolve in water to create solutions
-Do not conduct electricity when solid, but do in solution or when molten

-Metals =metallic bonding (Independent) This means that the electrons are free to move
and we can say that there is a “sea” of moving electrons.
-Metallic bonding characteristics
-The melting point is a measure of when a solid starts to become a liquid. Metals generally
have high melting points.

Lesson 7: Ionic Formulae I

-When naming ionic compounds, you start with cation + (roman numeral) + anion
-All compounds must be neutrally charged. E.g Fe+3 and O2- therefore for it to be even the
formula is Fe2O3
-Drop and switch can be applied. By switching the two numbers the ionic compound naming
can easily be performed. E.g You can switch Fe+3 and O2- becoming Fe2 and O3 then
becoming Fe203
-When you have one polyatomic anion you include brackets
Naming Ionic compounds
-The ending of the anion is usually the part that changes, mostly to –ide. This tells us they contain
only atoms from one element

Lesson 9: Bonding I: Ionic Boding Properties

Opposites Attract – Lattices
- The oppositely charged ions are attracted into a lattice that gets bigger and bigger until it
consists of millions of ions
Lattices Are 3-dimensional
- We have shown ions attracting and building into a 2-dimensional sheet.
-In fact the whole process will be going on in three dimensions to build up a giant 3-D lattice.
Ionic bonding properties:
-High melting points
-Hard but brittle
-Uniform, repeated structure (alternating + & – ions)
-Unreactive when solid (especially “ordinary” ionic compounds, e.g. NaCl, MgO)
-Dissolve in water to create solutions
-Do not conduct electricity when solid, but do in solution or when molten

Lesson 10: Bonding I: Ions in Solution

Practical
Lesson 11: Investigation Practical
Gatorade 0.15 0.16 0.16 AV. 0.16
Powerade 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15
Salt 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27
 solution
Glucose 0 0 0 0
Tap water 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04

Lesson 12: Investigation

Title: The effect of different solutions on the conductivity (amperes)
Aim: To investigate the effect of different solutions on the conductivity
Hypothesis: I predict the salt solutions conductivity is greater than Gatorade, sucrose and
tap water.
As Gatorade contains sugars it restricts the attraction of ions.

Lesson 15: Bonding ll: Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding: The strong attraction between the metal ions in the lattice to the
delocalised electrons is what forms metallic bonds.
-Metal atoms lose electrons to create a complete outer shell, the electron becomes
delocalised and the metal ions become attracted to the delocalised electron

Lesson 16: Bonding ll: Properties of metals

Properties of metals:
-Lustre
-Malleable
-Ductile
-Solid at Room Temperature
-Excellent conductors of electricity and heat
-High density
-High melting point
-Strong
-Hard
-Elasticity

Alloys: two or more metal elements combined.

-Brass - copper + zinc
-Bronze - copper + tin
-Solder – tin + lead

Lesson 17: Bonding III: Covalent Molecular Bonding

Refer to PP

Lesson 18: Bonding III: Covalent Network Bonding

•Carbon atoms form giant structures.
•The interesting thing is that there is more than one possible arrangement for the atoms.
•Although this does not affect the chemical properties it can make a huge difference to the
physical properties such as hardness, slipperiness, melting point and density.
•Different arrangements of the same element are called allotropes
Lesson 19: Covalent Molecular vs Network
Lesson 25: Law of Conservation Mass

Lesson 26: Chemical Equations I

Water chemical equation- H2 + O2 ---- >H2O
Magnesium oxide word equation- Magnesium metal + Oxygen Gas ---->
Magnesium Oxide + Energy
Magnesium oxide chemical equation- Mg + O2 ----> MgO
28: Acids and bases
 Acid are strong or weak
 There are only three types of strong acids (hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric)
 Acids produce hydrogen ions H+ in solution
 Acids have a pH between 0 and less than 7
Indicators: Acid Or Alkali?
•An indicator is a dye which changes colour according to whether it is in an acidic or alkaline
solution.
•For example litmus is an indicator that is red in acid and blue in alkali
•Litmus is available as a liquid that can be added to the solution.
•It is also available as strips of paper so that you can add a drop of the solution to the paper.
•Litmus will tell you whether a solution is acid or alkali: what it won’t tell you is how acid or
alkali.
•Universal indicator has a whole range of colours that tell us how strong an acid or alkali is.

What Is An Acid?
•Strong acids are corrosive “eating away” at things like metal, stone and flesh.
•Weak acids, like lemon juice and vinegar, taste sour.
•Acids turn litmus red.
•Acids have a ph below 7.
•Acids contain hydrogen (but not all things that contain hydrogen are acids.)
Acids can be neutralised with alkalis
Lesson 29: General Reactions
Look In reader for general reactions -

Lesson 31: Neutralisation

Refer to PP
Lesson 23: General Reactions II
Cation then Anion
If cation is +4 and anion is –2 = CA2