Chapter 1.

1 [Atomic Structure]:

Atomic Structure → Shape, particles, and properties of an atom

Atomic Model → A visual representation, of a simple atom
Electron Shell → Area around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are in
Atomic Number → The number of protons an atom has
Nucleon Number → The number of protons and neutrons an atom has
Nuclide Notation → A symbol that indicates the element, its atomic number and
mass number
Isotope → Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of
neutrons
Relative Atomic Mass → Average relative mass of one atom if it has isotopes
Electronic Structure → Arrangement of electrons in the atom’s electron shells
Electron Configuration → The number of electrons located in each electron shell
Ion → Forms when an atom loses or gains electrons, giving it a positive or
negative charge
Cation → An atom that loses one or more valence electrons and becomes
positively charged
Anion → An atom that gains one or more valence electrons and becomes
negatively charged

Atomic Structure:
- Made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons 
Proton: Positively Charged particle [1+], has a mass of 1 unit
Neutron: Neutral particle [0], has a mass of 1 unit
Electron: Negatively Charged particle [1-], has a mass of 1⁄1836 units, but is
negligible when calculating atomic mass

Atomic Model:
- Shows how the electrons are distributed
1st Shell: Maximum of 2 electrons
2nd Shell: Maximum of 8 electrons
3rd Shell: Maximum of 8 electrons for first 20 elements, 18 for the rest
4th shell: Maximum of 18

                                                 
- When arranging the order, ensure that all electrons are equally spaced out
- If there are more than 4 in a shell, draw an electron in the order of {top, right,
bottom, left} individually with repeated electrons (2 in one area)
- Ensure that all the 4 spaces are filled with one electron each first before filling
in the rest in the same order

Nuclide Notation:
- Represents the properties of the element, when not in the periodic table
- For simpler memorisation, remember that the atomic number and mass number
is flipped from the periodic table to the nuclide notation

Nuclide Notation: Periodic Table:

79
197
79 Au            Au
197

Isotopes:
Similarities between Isotopes:
- Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons
- Isotopes have the same chemical properties [how they react with other
substances]
Differences between Isotopes:
- Isotopes have a different number of neutrons
- Isotopes have different physical properties
Relative Atomic Mass:
To calculate mass, use the formula

x y
∙ mass+ ∙ mass …(repeat depending on the number of isotopes there are)=Total Mass
100 100

Where x + y=100 , and x % is the percentage of that isotope, y % is the percentage

of the other isotope

Electronic Configuration:

- Electronic Configuration is written as a.b.c.d.…

- In the picture, the electronic configuration is 2.8.8.8, counting the number of
electrons in each shell
- When being asked to draw only the valence shell, ensure to only draw the
outermost one

Cations:

- When a cation is formed, remove the external electron shell and electrons that
have been lost, and draw square brackets and a positive sign on the top right
corner
Anions:

- When an anion is formed, add the external electrons with a different symbol,
[cross] or [dot] depending on what is used previously, and draw square brackets
and a negative sign on the top right corner

Chapter 1.2 [Radioactivity]:

Nuclear Decay  An unstable nucleus loses energy and emits electromagnetic

radiation and particles
Nuclear Fission  A nucleus of an atom splits and releases energy
Nuclear Fusion  Two light nuclei combine to form one heavier nucleus and
release a large amount of energy

Nuclear Decay:
The three types of nuclear decay include:
- Alpha Decay: Emits an alpha particle, or a helium nucleus of 42H
- Beta Decay: Emits a beta particle, or an electron −10e
- Gamma Radiation: Emits Gamma Radiation 200 y and an alpha particle
When calculating the number of total number of protons and mass number, it is
important to note that both sides of the equations should add up, as no protons
or neutrons should be lost

Chapter 2 [Periodic Table]:

Group  A vertical column of element

Period  A horizontal row of elements
Metals  Elements that have metallic properties
Non-Metals  Elements that lack metallic properties
Metalloids  Elements that possess properties of both metals and non-metals

Periodic Table Trends:

- Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons
- Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and undergo the
same types of chemical reactions
- Elements in the same period will change from metallic, to metalloid, to non-
metallic gradually from left to right
- Elements in the same period will increase in atomic number from left to right

Metals:
The properties of a metal are:
- Metals have high melting points
- Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
- Metals have a high density
- Metals are malleable [Able to be dealt with force and not succumb to it]
- Metals are ductile [Deformed without losing toughness]
- Metals are lustrous [Shiny]
- Metals have a high melting point

Non-Metals:
The properties of a non-metal are:
- Non-Metals have low melting points
- Non-Metals are poor conductors of electricity and heat=
- Non-Metals have a low density
- Non-Metals are not malleable
- Non-Metals are not ductile
- Non-Metals are not lustrous
- Non-Metals have a low melting point

Metalloids:
The properties of a metalloid are:
- Metalloids are solids
- Metalloids are lustrous
- Metalloids are brittle [Easily shattered]
- Metalloids are poor conductors of electricity and heat, and are weaker than
metals
- Metalloids have a high melting point

Chapter 3 [Chemical Bonding]:

Covalent Bond  Formed by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms [2
Non-Metals]
Ionic Bond  Formed by the transferring of electrons from one atom to another
[A Metal and a Non-Metal]
Valency  Number of electrons an atom uses to form bonds [Number of
electrons an atom can gain or lose]
Atom  A single particle of a chemical element
Ion  Positively or Negatively Charged Atom or Polyatomic Atoms
Monoatomic Molecule  A single particle made of a single atom
Diatomic Molecules  A single particle made of 2 atoms of the same element
[Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen, and all Group 7 elements]
Molecules  A particle made of atoms joined together by covalent bonds or are
also acids
Formula Unit  A single particle made up of ions
Element  A substance containing only atoms or molecules of one element
Compound  A substance made up of molecules or formula units
Mixture  A substance containing more than one element not chemically
bonded together

Ionic Compounds:
Formed when an atom loses electrons to form an ion, and the electrons will be
transferred to the other atoms, to form ions

When drawing Ionic Compounds, ensure that:

- The cation is drawn on the left, and the anion is drawn on the right
- The cation and anion have different symbols of [dot] and [cross] to differentiate
them
- When the cation loses a valence shell, do not draw it in
- When an anion gains electrons, draw the symbol that is used to indicate
electrons in the cation for differentiation
- Draw the negative and positive signs to indicate the cation and anion electric
charge

Covalent Compounds:
Formed when atoms transfer and share electrons with one another to obtain an
octet structure, or a duplet structure to have the electronic configuration of a
noble gas as it is stable

When drawing Covalent Compounds, ensure that:

- Only the valence shells of the electrons are overlapping each other
- The electrons that are being shared should be in between the spaces of the
overlap, and not on the electron shell lines
- The different atoms should have different samples of [dot] and [cross] to
differentiate them
- The atoms should be only sharing in pairs, and not in singular atoms
- Both atoms should be sharing at least one electron, there cannot be only a
single atom sharing
- When drawing the shared electrons, draw them on the side the other atom is
on, space out the other electrons normally

Polyatomic Ions:
Formed when atoms that are covalently bonded together have an imbalance on
the electrons gained and lost, causing the polyatomic ions to have a positive or
negative charge

Sometimes, when the main atom that is sharing its electrons does not have
enough to share, the other atoms will then gain electrons from other atoms.
Therefore, the ion will have a negative charge.

Dative Bond:
Formed when in a covalent compound, an atom already has an octet structure,
and therefore does not need extra electrons to be shared with itself, resulting in
the shared electrons coming from only one atom, and the external electron can
also be lost. It can also be the case, where the main atom has too many electrons
to share, therefore it can share more electrons, and the other atom will lose the
respective electron. Therefore, the ion will have a positive charge.

Bonding Structures:
- Simple Molecular Structure [Simple covalent Bonds {E.g. Water, Carbon
Dioxide}]
- Giant Covalent Lattice Structure [Complex covalent bonds {E.g. Diamond,
Carbon}]

- Giant Ionic Lattice Structure [Ionic Bonds]

- Giant Metallic Lattice Structure [Pure Metals]

Chapter 4 [Chemical Equation Writing]:

Reactants  Substances that react with each other [On the left side of the
equation]
Products  Substances that are products on the reaction [On the right side of
the equation]

When writing chemical equations, ensure that you have the knowledge of all the
reactants and products of the equation.

1st Write down the word equation of the reaction [Not necessary]

Barium Chloride + Potassium Sulfate  Barium Sulfate + Potassium Chloride

2nd Write down the specific charges of each ion

2−¿ ¿
+ ¿, SO ¿
−¿ ,K 4
¿

Ba2+¿, Cl ¿

3rd Write out the chemical formulas of each substance

BaCl 2+ K 2 SO 4 → BaS O 4 + KCL

4th Balance the equation

BaCl 2+ K 2 SO 4 → BaS O4 +2 KCL

When dealing with transition metals, ensure that you pay attention to their
charges that are written, and all transition metals will form cations.

Copper(I), Iron(II), Lead(II)

Chapter 5 [Acids and Bases]:

Acid  A molecule which when dissolved in water, dissociates to form hydrogen
ions, where the concentration of hydrogen ions is higher than the concentration
of hydroxide ions
Strong Acid  An acid that dissociates completely in water to produce a high
concentration of hydrogen ions [→]
Weak Acid  An acid that dissociates partly in water to produce a low
concentration of hydrogen ions [⇌ ]
Acid Basicity  A measurement of the number of hydrogen ions formed per acid
molecules that is dissociated in water
Metal Reactivity Series  Indicates whether the metal is reactive to acids
Litmus Paper  Differentiates between an acid and base
Methyl Orange  Differentiates between the strength of an acid
Phenolphthalein  Differentiates between the strength of an alkali
Universal Indicator  Determines the pH level of a substance
pH  An indication of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution, the
higher the concentration, the lower the pH
Base  Oxides or hydroxides of metals that react with an acid to form salt and
water
Alkali  Is a base that is soluble in water, where it dissociates to form hydroxide
ions, where the concentration of hydroxide ions is higher than the concentration
of hydrogen ions
Strong Alkali  An alkali that dissociates completely in water to produce a high
concentration of hydroxide ions [→]
Weak Alkali  An acid that dissociates partly in water to produce a low
concentration of hydroxide ions [⇌ ]
Oxide  The presence of O2−¿¿ in ionic compounds, or the presence of O2 in
covalent compounds

Reactions:

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen Gas

- Effervescence of a colourless, odourless gas, which extinguishes a lighted
wooden splint with a “pop” sound
- Grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution
- Grey solid became smaller (when metal is in excess)

Acid +Carbonate → Salt +Carbon Dixoide+Water

- Effervescence of a colourless, odourless gas, forms a white precipitate when
bubbled into limewater
- White solid dissolves to form a colourless solution
Acid +Base → Salt+ Water
- White solid dissolves to form a colourless solution
- Heat is liberated

Ca ¿
- Specific Neutralisation, Limewater and Carbon Dioxide
- White Precipitate forms (Calcium Carbonate) along with a colourless solution
(water)

Acid + Ammonium Salt → Salt + Ammonia Gas+ Water

- A colourless, pungent gas is evolved on warming the solution
- The gas turns damp red litmus paper blue

Acids:
Strong Acids:
- Hydrochloric Acid [pH 1.1]
- Sulfuric Acid [pH 1]
- Nitric Acid [pH 1.2]

Weak Acids:
- Ethanoic Acid [pH 4-6]
- Citric Acid [pH 4-6]
- Tartaric Acid [pH 4-6]

Acid Basicity:
- Monobasic and form 1 H ion [ HCl , HN O3 ,C H 3 COOH ]
+¿¿

+¿¿
- Dibasic and form 2 H ions [ H 2 S O 4 , H 2 S O3 ]
+¿¿
- Tribasic and form 3 H ions [ H 3 P O4 ]

Acid Properties:
- Sour Taste
- Changes colour of indicators
- Contains hydrogen ions
- Conducts electricity
- Reacts with metals, carbonates, and bases

Uses:
- Cleaning surfaces
- Food production
- Manufacturing of fertilisers, dyes, drugs, explosives, pharmaceuticals, fizzy
drinks, aspirin, and explosives

Alkalis:
Oxides:
- Acidic Oxides [Non-Metal oxides except carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and
water]
- Basic Oxides [Metal oxides except zinc oxide, aluminium oxide, and lead (II)
oxide]
- Neutral Oxides [Non-Metal oxides, show neither acidic nor basic properties]
- Amphoteric Oxide [Metal oxides, show both acidic and basic properties]
We can use the acronym “ZAP” to remember the amphoteric metals, Zinc,
Aluminium and Pb, Lead

Strong Alkalis:
- Sodium Hydroxide [ NaOH , pH 14]
- Potassium Hydroxide [ KOH , pH 13]

Weak Alkalis:
- Ammonia [ NH 3, pH 11]
−¿¿
+¿+O H ¿
N H 3+ H 2 O ⇌ N H 4

Bases Properties:
- Bitter taste
- Feel slippery or soapy
- Corrosive
- Break down fat, hair, and vegetable matter

Uses:
- To neutralise acids through neutralisation [Toothpaste to neutralise acids on
teeth to prevent decay, medicine to reduce excess acid in the stomach which
cause heart burn]
- To dissolve dirt and grease [Floor cleaners and cleaning glass windows]

Application:
When gases such as Sulphate and Nitrate dissolve in rainwater, strong acids will
form resulting in acid rain. Acid rain will seep into the soil, causing it to be acidic.
Calcium Carbonate will be used as a liming agent as it reacts selectively with only
the acids without reacting to Ammonium Nitrate, the fertiliser. In addition, as
calcium carbonate is not soluble in water, it will not dissolve or dissociate to
contribute hydrogen ions into the soil water.

Insoluble Bases:
Copper(II) Oxide, Aluminium Oxide, Zinc Oxide, Magnesium Oxide

Soluble Bases:
Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide, Barium Hydroxide, Calcium Hydroxide,
Ammonia
Sodium Oxide and Potassium Oxide will react with water to form hydroxides
N a2 O+ H 2 O →2 NaOH

Acids [ HCl , HN O3 ,C H 3 COOH , S O4 , H 2 S O3, H 3 P O4 ] will form when their

respective ions dissolve in water.

Indicators:
Litmus Paper/Litmus Solution:
- Turns red in acids
- Turns blue in alkalis
- Turn purple in neutral (only the solution)

Methyl Orange:
- Red below pH 3.1 [Strong Acid]
- Yellow above pH 4.4 [Weak Acid]
- Shades of orange from pH 3.1 to 4.4 [In between]

Phenolphthalein:
- Colourless below pH 8.1[Weak Alkali]
- Pink above pH 10.0 [Strong Alkali]
- Shades of faint pink from pH 8.1 to 10.0 [In between]

Universal Indicator:

- Strong Acid [Red, Orange and Yellow]

- Weak Acid [Lime and Light Green]
- Neutral [Green]
- Weak Alkali [Turquoise, Blue]
- Strong Alkali [Dark Blue, Purple]
- Red  Orange  Yellow  Green  Turquoise  Blue  Purple

Answering Techniques:
1. Ionic Compounds
Atom X will lose y electrons to form an octet/duplet and a stable noble gas
electronic configuration, allowing it to become an X ion. Then, Atom Y will gain
the lost electrons, to become an octet and have a stable noble gas electronic
configuration, allowing it to become a Y ion. With the intermolecular
electrostatic forces of attraction between both ions as they have opposite
charges, they will move towards each other to form Salt XY and a ionic
compound.

2. Covalent Compounds
Atom A requires z electrons to form an octet/duplet and a stable noble gas
electronic configuration. Atom Y requires ß electrons to form an octet/duplet
and a stable noble gas electronic configuration. Therefore, the intermolecular
electrostatic forces of attraction will pull both atoms together, allowing them to
share a pairs of electrons, allowing both to have stable electronic configurations
and form an covalent bond.

3. Concentration of Hydrogen Ions

a. Number of Hydrogen Ions
C is a monobasic/dibasic acid, therefore when it fully dissociates into water, it will
form 1/2 hydrogen ions per molecule. D is a dibasic acid, therefore when it fully
dissociates into water, it will form 2/3 hydrogen ions per molecule. As D will form
a greater number of hydrogen ions per molecule that is fully dissociate, it will
have a greater concentration of hydrogen ions.

b. Acid Strength
E is a strong acid, therefore it will fully dissociate into water, forming a high
concentration of hydrogen ions. F is a weak acid, therefore it will partially
dissociate into water, forming a low concentration of hydrogen ions. Therefore,
E will have a great concentration as it is a strong acid.

4. Electrical Conductivity
Using either 3a or 3b, as hydrogen ions are mobile charge carriers, C/E will have
greater electrical conductivity as it has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions.

5. Differentiating between Acid/Base/Carbonate/Metal/Ammonium Salt

1 Add a specific Acid/Base/Carbonate/Metal/Ammonium Salt/Indicator into
st

both samples that will react with only one/ have a different reaction between
each one
2nd X + Selected Substance will react [Forming effervescence of a colourless,
odourless/pungent gas]
3rd Do a specific test to test gas produced
4th Y + Selected Substance will not react/produce a different result