Research (Exam)

Chapter I

Background of study

In the current study, we address the question whether women are better multi-
taskers than men. The idea that women are better multi-taskers than men is commonly
held by lay people (for a review see Mäntylä 2013). While the empirical evidence for
women outperforming men in multi-tasking has been sparse, researchers have shown
that women are involved more in multi-tasking than men, for example in house-hold
tasks (Offer and Schneider 2011; Sayer 2007). In this paper we address the question if
it is true that women actually outperform men when multi-tasking.

Multi-tasking is a relatively broad concept in psychology, developed over several

decades of research (for a review see Salvucci and Taatgen 2010); this research has
enormous relevance for understanding the risk of multi-tasking in real-life situations,
such as driving while using a mobile phone (Watson and Strayer 2010).

There are at least two distinct types of multi-tasking abilities. The first type is the
skill of being able to deal with multiple task demands without the need to carry out the
involved tasks simultaneously. A good example of this type of multi-tasking is carried
out by administrative assistants, who answer phone calls, fill in paperwork, sort
incoming faxes and mail, and typically do not carry out any of these tasks
simultaneously.

A second type of multi-tasking ability is required when two types of information

must be processed or carried out simultaneously. An example of the latter category is
drawing a circle with one hand while drawing a straight line with the other hand. While
humans have no difficulty carrying out each of these tasks individually, drawing a circle
with one hand and drawing a straight line with the other simultaneously is nearly
impossible (the circle becomes more of an ellipse and the line more of a circle, Franz et
al. 1991). Another example is the requirement to process different types of sensory
information at the same time (Pashler 1984), such as different auditory streams on
different ears (Broadbent 1952). While humans frequently are asked to do such tasks in
the psychological laboratory, humans seem to try to avoid these situations in real life,
unless they are highly trained (e.g., playing piano, with the left and right hands playing
different notes, or having a conversation while driving a car). Arguably, we are not
good at doing multiple tasks simultaneously (except when well trained), and that
probably explains why this type of multi-tasking is less common than the type in which
we serially alternate between two tasks (Burgess 2000). It is because of this that we
focus on the first type of multi-tasking in this study. Also, it is important to note that
the two types of multi-tasking described above are two extreme examples on a
continuum of multi-tasking scenarios.

Cognitive scientists and psychiatrists have postulated a special set of cognitive

functions that help with the coordination of multiple thought processes, which include
the skills necessary for multi-tasking, namely "executive functions" (Royall et al. 2002):
task planning, postponing tasks depending on urgency and needs (i.e., scheduling), and
ignoring task-irrelevant information (also known as "inhibition"). Healthy adults can
reasonably well interleave two novel tasks rapidly (Vandierendonck et al. 2010). The
involved (human) brain areas necessary for multi-tasking have been investigated and
we can at the very least make a reasonable estimate of which are involved (Burgess et
al. 2000). Among primates, humans seem to have a unique way of dealing with task
switching (Stoet and Snyder 2003), which we hypothesize reflects an evolutionary
unique solution for dealing with the advantages and disadvantages of multi-tasking
(Stoet and Snyder 2012). The specific contributions of individual brain areas to
executive control skills in humans have been linked to a number of mental disorders, in
particular schizophrenia (Evans et al. 1997; Kravariti et al. 2005; Royall et al. 2002;
Semkovska et al. 2004; Dibben et al. 2009; Hill et al. 2004; Laws 1999).

Currently, there are few studies on gender and multi-tasking, despite a

seemingly confident public opinion that women are better in multi-tasking than men
(Ren et al. 2009). Ren and colleagues (2009) extrapolated the hunter-gatherer
hypothesis (Silverman and Eals 1992) to make predictions about male and female multi-
tasking skills. The hunter-gatherer hypothesis proposes that men and women have
cognitively adapted to a division of labor between the sexes (i.e., men are optimized for
hunting, and women are optimized for gathering). Ren and colleagues speculated that
women’s gathering needed to be combined with looking after children, which possibly
requires more multi-tasking than doing a task without having to look after your
offspring. In their experiment, men and women performed an Eriksen flanker task
(Eriksen and Eriksen 1974) either on its own (i.e., single task condition) or preceded by
an unrelated other cognitive decision making task (i.e., multi-tasking condition). They
found that in the multi-tasking condition, women were less affected by the task-
irrelevant flankers than men. Thus, the latter study supports the hypothesis that women
are better multi-taskers.

We tested whether women outperform men in the first type of multi-tasking. In

Experiment 1, we tested whether women perform better than men in a computer-based
task-switching paradigm. In Experiment 2a, we tested whether women outperform men
in a task designed to test "planning" in a "real-life" context that included standardized
tests of executive control functions. Our prediction was that women would outperform
men.

Statement of the Problem

1. What is the Profile of the respondents, In terms of;

Age:

Sex:

National:

2. What are the possible effect of woman better than men in our entrepreneurs?

3. What is the significance relationship between woman are better than men to the
Sex, Age, nationalist of the entrepreneurs?

Scope and Delimitation

This study is directed to find a solution that women are better than men in doing
business that started from July to July 2023. Entrepreneurs who sell angry at their age
of 18 years will be respondents on being entrepreneurs. There are business people who
were not asked because they were busy selling, and other business people might just
disturb us.

Significant of study

This research will be useful to students because they will know the effect of
women being better than men in their sales. In this study, entrepreneurs will know the
things that can be done to them by being good at women than men. This research will
also be useful to beginners and administrators because they will understand the
changes in attitude towards life and selling in the public function of entrepreneurs who
are involved in selling violence. they easily understand the students' behavior. this
research will help entrepreneurs to know the risk that they can help to prevent and
prevent their child from selling bad products. this research will be useful in the next
research because they can get some information that may be needed in their research
and some of their questions can possibly be answered by this research.

Definition of terms

1) Ability - possession of the means or skill to do something.

2) Colleagues - a person with whom one works in a profession or business

3) Psychology - the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially
those affecting behavior in a given context.

4) Postulated - suggest or assume the existence, fact, or truth of (something) as a basis

for reasoning, discussion, or belief.

5) Simultaneously - at the same time.

Chapter II

Review of Related literature

Literature

Osman et. al (2018) investigated that the women’s role in local governance is lower
than the men and reason behind the low contribution is the culture. religion and
injustice agains, low economic empowerment, the low self-confidence, low educational
levels and excessive marital obligations. The study finding recommend the education of
women in the country; Economic power of the women; leadership training and
involvement in local governance at district level But and Asad (2017) studied that the
son preference problem around the globe is present. The son is considered superior
than daughter. They told that women after marriage left the house and enter into
another home while son for ever help the parents and give support to them in every
corner of life. They help them in the time of sickness and give support to them till
death, so son is consider the real owner of the houses while daughter considered
temporary owner of the house. Being a mother of a son is the only channel which is a
final source of the parents for long live and if the son is king everyone give high status
to both in society. This discussion confirms that ideology of son is superior than
daughter and State policies are still unable to uplift the women status and to eliminate
discriminatory customs roles in Sissala East District of Ghana. Ninety three percent of
workplace deaths (fatal occupational injuries) in the US between 1980 and 1997were
men (97,053 deaths). The male fatality rate (8.6 per 100,000 workers) was 11 times
greater than the female death rate of the 1980-97 time range (0.8). This accounts for
the other 7% of work place deaths (6,886 deaths). The gender pay gap is the average
difference between men's and women's aggregate wages or salaries. The gap is due to
a variety of factors, including differences in education choices, differences in preferred
job and industry, differences in the types of positions held by men and women,
differences in the type of jobs men typically go into as opposed to women (especially
highly paid high risk jobs), differences in amount of work experiences, difference in
length of the work week, and breaks in employment. These factors resolve 60% to
75% of the pay gap, depending on the source. Various explanations for the remaining
25% to 40% have been suggested, including women's lower willingness and ability to
negotiate salaries and sexual discrimination. According to the European Commission
direct discrimination only explains a small part of gender wage differences. They told
that there is a gap between men and women in the wage rate in the world. The main
reason is the skill and knowledge. Men skill and knowledge is more than the women
and because of this they receive more pay than the women. Human capital theories
discussed that education, knowledge, training,experience, or skill of a person pay more
wage rate than women. The women mostly work in home as a caretaker and the whole
family expenditure is depend on the men, so the men improve their knowledge,
education skill for the livelihood of their family to facilitated their house expenditure.
Women have less access to education and skill while the family head spend more on
education on men for the future protection of their family. This earnings discrimination
is considered to be a part of pollution theory. This theory suggests that jobs which are
predominated by women offer lower wages than do jobs simply because of the
presence of women within the occupation. As women enter an occupation, this reduces
the amount of prestige associated with the job and men subsequently leave these
occupations. The entering of women into specific occupations suggests that less
competent workers have begun to be hired or that the occupation is becoming
deskilled. Men are reluctant to enter female-dominated occupations because of this and
similarly resist the entrance of women into maledominated occupations. The gendered
income disparity can also be attributed in part to occupational segregation, where
groups of people are distributed across occupations according to ascribed
characteristics; in this case, gender. Occupational gender segregation can be
understood to contain two components or dimensions; horizontal segregation and
vertical segregation. With horizontal segregation, occupationalsex segregation occurs as
men and women are thought to possess different physical, emotional, and mental
capabilities. These different capabilities make the genders vary in the types of jobs they
are suited for. This can be specifically viewed with the gendered division between
manual and non-manual labor. With vertical segregation, occupational sexsegregation
occurs as occupations are stratified according to the power, authority, income, and
prestigeassociated with the occupation and women are excluded from holding such
jobs. As women entered the workforce in larger numbers since the 1960s, occupations
have become segregatedbased on the amount femininity or masculinity presupposed to
be associated with each occupation census data.

Foreign studies

For the first time in history, a major political party in the United States has
several women who have declared their candidacy to be their party’s presidential
nominee. But TV pundits have been questioning whether, despite the progress
indicated by the huge influx of women elected into Congress last fall, the U.S. is ever
going to elect a woman to the country’s highest leadership position.

This is baffling to us, especially in light of what we see in our corporate research. In
two articles from 2012 (here and here) we discussed findings from our analysis of 360-
degree reviews that women in leadership positions were perceived as being every bit as
effective as men. In fact, while the differences were not huge, women scored at a
statistically significantly higher level than men on the vast majority of leadership
competencies we measured

We recently updated that research, again looking at our database of 360-degree

reviews in which we ask individuals to rate each leaders’ effectiveness overall and to
judge how strong they are on specific competencies, and had similar findings: that
women in leadership positions are perceived just as — if not more — competent as
their male counterparts.Still, the disturbing fact is that the percentage of women in
senior leadership roles in businesses has remained relatively steady since we conducted
our original research. Only 4.9% of Fortune 500 CEOs and 2% of S&P 500 CEOs are
women. And those numbers are declining globally.

There are of course many factors that contribute to this dearth of women at senior
levels. For centuries, there have been broad, cultural biases against women and
stereotypes die slowly. People have long believed that many women elect not to aspire
to the highest ranks of the organization and take themselves out of the running (though
recent research disputes that). Lots of research has shown that unconscious bias places
a significant role in hiring and promotion decisions, which also contributes to the lower
number of women in key positions.

Our current data presents even more compelling evidence that this bias is incorrect and
unwarranted. Women are perceived by their managers — particularly their male
managers — to be slightly more effective than men at every hierarchical level and in
virtually every functional area of the organization. That includes the traditional male
bastions of IT, operations, and legal.

As you can see in the chart below, women were rated as excelling in taking initiative,
acting with resilience, practicing self-development, driving for results, and displaying
high integrity and honesty. In fact, they were thought to be more effective in 84% of
the competencies that we most frequently measure.

According to our updated data, men were rated as being better on two capabilities
—”develops strategic perspective” and “technical or professional expertise,” which were
the same capabilities where they earned higher ratings in our original research as well.

Local studies

When discussing the careers of women leaders, there’s a phenomenon referred to as

the “glass cliff.” It’s an obvious relative to the term glass ceiling, which describes the
invisible barrier to advancement that women often face when they are up for promotion
to the highest levels of an organization. The “glass cliff” describes the idea that when a
company is in trouble, a female leader is put in charge to save it. When women are
finally given a chance to prove themselves in a senior position, they are handed
something that is already broken and where the chances of failure are high.

We see this happen frequently enough that it made us wonder, are women in fact more
qualified to lead during a crisis? Could that be why they are handed the reins when
times are tough?

During the Covid-19 crisis, we’ve heard anecdotally about women leaders doing a better
job and new research backs that up. One study found that outcomes related to Covid-
19, including number of cases and deaths, were systematically better in countries led by
women. Another looked at governors in the U.S. and similarly found that states with
female leaders had lower fatality rates. We decided to look at our global database of
360-degree assessments to see if we saw any patterns in how male and female leaders
inside organizations are reacting and responding to the crisis.
Foreign studies

Women RuleNevertheless, a mere 6% of respondents in this survey of 2,250

adults say that, overall, women make better political leaders than men. About one-in-
five (21%) say men make the better leaders, while the vast majority — 69% — say
men and women make equally good leaders.

The paradox embedded in these survey findings is part of a wider paradox in modern
society on the subject of gender and leadership. In an era when women have made
sweeping strides in educational attainment and workforce participation, relatively few
have made the journey all the way to the highest levels of political or corporate
leadership.

Why not? In the survey, the public cites gender discrimination, resistance to change,
and a self-serving “old boys club” as reasons for the relative scarcity of women at the
top. In somewhat smaller numbers, respondents also say that women’s family
responsibilities and their shortage of experience hold them back from the upper ranks
of politics and business.

What the public does not say is that women inherently lack what it takes to be leaders.
To the contrary, on seven of eight leadership traits measured in this survey, the public
rates women either better than or equal to men.

For example, half of all adults say women are more honest than men, while just one-in-
five say men are more honest (the rest say they don’t know or volunteer the opinion
that there’s no difference between the sexes on this trait). And honesty, according to
respondents, is the most important to leadership of any of the traits measured in the
survey.

The next most important leadership trait, in the public’s view, is intelligence. Here
again, women outperform men: 38% of respondents say women are smarter than men,
while just 14% say men are smarter, and the remainder say there’s no difference
between the sexes.

Local studies

In the current study, we address the question whether women are better multi-taskers
than men. The idea that women are better multi-taskers than men is commonly held by
lay people (for a review see Mäntylä 2013). While the empirical evidence for women
outperforming men in multi-tasking has been sparse, researchers have shown that
women are involved more in multi-tasking than men, for example in house-hold tasks
(Offer and Schneider 2011; Sayer 2007). In this paper we address the question if it is
true that women actually outperform men when multi-tasking.

Multi-tasking is a relatively broad concept in psychology, developed over several

decades of research (for a review see Salvucci and Taatgen 2010); this research has
enormous relevance for understanding the risk of multi-tasking in real-life situations,
such as driving while using a mobile phone (Watson and Strayer 2010).

There are at least two distinct types of multi-tasking abilities. The first type is the skill
of being able to deal with multiple task demands without the need to carry out the
involved tasks simultaneously. A good example of this type of multi-tasking is carried
out by administrative assistants, who answer phone calls, fill in paperwork, sort
incoming faxes and mail, and typically do not carry out any of these tasks
simultaneously.

A second type of multi-tasking ability is required when two types of information must be
processed or carried out simultaneously. An example of the latter category is drawing a
circle with one hand while drawing a straight line with the other hand. While humans
have no difficulty carrying out each of these tasks individually, drawing a circle with one
hand and drawing a straight line with the other simultaneously is nearly impossible (the
circle becomes more of an ellipse and the line more of a circle, Franz et al. 1991).
Another example is the requirement to process different types of sensory information at
the same time (Pashler 1984), such as different auditory streams on different ears
(Broadbent 1952). While humans frequently are asked to do such tasks in the
psychological laboratory, humans seem to try to avoid these situations in real life,
unless they are highly trained (e.g., playing piano, with the left and right hands playing
different notes, or having a conversation while driving a car). Arguably, we are not
good at doing multiple tasks simultaneously (except when well trained), and that
probably explains why this type of multi-tasking is less common than the type in which
we serially alternate between two tasks (Burgess 2000). It is because of this that we
focus on the first type of multi-tasking in this study. Also, it is important to note that
the two types of multi-tasking described above are two extreme examples on a
continuum of multi-tasking scenarios.

Cognitive scientists and psychiatrists have postulated a special set of cognitive functions
that help with the coordination of multiple thought processes, which include the skills
necessary for multi-tasking, namely "executive functions" (Royall et al. 2002): task
planning, postponing tasks depending on urgency and needs (i.e., scheduling), and
ignoring task-irrelevant information (also known as "inhibition"). Healthy adults can
reasonably well interleave two novel tasks rapidly (Vandierendonck et al. 2010). The
involved (human) brain areas necessary for multi-tasking have been investigated and
we can at the very least make a reasonable estimate of which are involved (Burgess et
al. 2000). Among primates, humans seem to have a unique way of dealing with task
switching (Stoet and Snyder 2003), which we hypothesize reflects an evolutionary
unique solution for dealing with the advantages and disadvantages of multi-tasking
(Stoet and Snyder 2012). The specific contributions of individual brain areas to
executive control skills in humans have been linked to a number of mental disorders, in
particular schizophrenia (Evans et al. 1997; Kravariti et al. 2005; Royall et al. 2002;
Semkovska et al. 2004; Dibben et al. 2009; Hill et al. 2004; Laws 1999).

Currently, there are few studies on gender and multi-tasking, despite a seemingly
confident public opinion that women are better in multi-tasking than men (Ren et al.
2009). Ren and colleagues (2009) extrapolated the hunter-gatherer hypothesis
(Silverman and Eals 1992) to make predictions about male and female multi-tasking
skills. The hunter-gatherer hypothesis proposes that men and women have cognitively
adapted to a division of labor between the sexes (i.e., men are optimized for hunting,
and women are optimized for gathering). Ren and colleagues speculated that women’s
gathering needed to be combined with looking after children, which possibly requires
more multi-tasking than doing a task without having to look after your offspring. In
their experiment, men and women performed an Eriksen flanker task (Eriksen and
Eriksen 1974) either on its own (i.e., single task condition) or preceded by an unrelated
other cognitive decision making task (i.e., multi-tasking condition). They found that in
the multi-tasking condition, women were less affected by the task-irrelevant flankers
than men. Thus, the latter study supports the hypothesis that women are better multi-
taskers.

We tested whether women outperform men in the first type of multi-tasking. In

Experiment 1, we tested whether women perform better than men in a computer-based
task-switching paradigm. In Experiment 2a, we tested whether women outperform men
in a task designed to test "planning" in a "real-life" context that included standardized
tests of executive control functions. Our prediction was that women would outperform
men

Foreign studies

We’ve been collecting data since 2016 (from 3,876 men and 4,779 women so far) on
levels of confidence leaders have in themselves over their careers and we saw some
interesting trends.
When we compare confidence ratings for men and women, we see a large difference in
those under 25. It’s highly probable that those women are far more competent than
they think they are, while the male leaders are overconfident and assuming they are
more competent than they are. At age 40, the confidence ratings merge. As people age
their confidence generally increases; surprisingly, over the age of 60 we see male
confidence decline, while female confidence increases. According to our data, men gain
just 8.5 percentile points in confidence from age 25 to their 60+ years. Women, on the
other hand, gain 29 percentile points. One note: This is what we see in our data though
we recognize that there are studies that come to different conclusions on whether
women truly lack confidence at early stages in their car

Conceptual framework

The input of the study includes that women are better than men ( effect of women are
better than men) are good day traders and the positive control, compared those who
sell good quality as an alternative trader and the brand of merchandise as a business
repellant. The process method used to study the acceptability test as color, odorW and
texture using the products INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Input Process.
Output

What is the Profile of Analysis of Data through Improved role of woman

woman better than men better than men
A. Questionnaires
respondents, In terms of;
Higher returns
B. Informal interview
Age:
Better quality of services
C. Statiscal and scientific
Sex:
treatment
National:

Seminars:

Roles of woman are better

than men specimen
collection performance.

Paradigm of the study