Annals of GIS

ISSN: 1947-5683 (Print) 1947-5691 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tagi20

An exploratory study of place-names in Sinai

Peninsula, Egypt: a spatial approach

Nahed T Zeini, Atef M Abdel-Hamid, Amal S Soliman & Ahmed E Okasha

To cite this article: Nahed T Zeini, Atef M Abdel-Hamid, Amal S Soliman & Ahmed E Okasha
(2018) An exploratory study of place-names in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt: a spatial approach,
Annals of GIS, 24:3, 177-194, DOI: 10.1080/19475683.2018.1501759

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2018.1501759

Published online: 01 Aug 2018.

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ANNALS OF GIS
2018, VOL. 24, NO. 3, 177–194
https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2018.1501759

An exploratory study of place-names in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt: a spatial

approach
a
Nahed T Zeini , Atef M Abdel-Hamidb, Amal S Solimana and Ahmed E Okashaa
a
Socio-Computing Department, Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt; bGeography Department, Faculty of
Arts, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The Sinai Peninsula is a vital part of the Arab Republic of Egypt, geographically and historically. Its Received 4 October 2017
uniqueness and diversity of nature are reflected in its place-names, including both physical and Accepted 14 July 2018
human (cultural) features. The objectives of this study are to: (1) construct a digital geo-database KEYWORDS
of place-names; (2) classify the collected names based on their meanings to understand the Place-names (toponyms);
motives behind naming them; and (3) utilize GIS-based spatial analysis techniques to map, geo- geographic information
visualize and analyse the spatial distribution pattern of specific categories of such names. In this systems (GISs); spatial
paper, the results show that most place-names are descriptive of the place they belong, either in analysis; Sinai Peninsula;
whole or in part. They usually depict their geographical character and that in turn demonstrates Egypt
how place-names and the naming process itself represent responses to the physical environment
and cultural landscape and how place-names studies reveal patterns of settlement in the region
under study.

Introduction this research can be stated as follows: (1) collect and

construct a digital geo-database for place-names in the
The study of place-names (toponyms) represents a vast
Sinai region, (2) classify the collected names according
interdisciplinary field of research. It is not only a source
to their linguistic-geographical-historical meanings into
of linguistic information but also of geographical, his-
categories, and (3) analyse the spatial distribution and
torical and socio-cultural information. Place-names gen-
concentration of specific types of such names and their
erally offer a critical arena for understanding how
association with socio-cultural and environmental fac-
members of a community, place or region conceptua-
tors. This will help provide answers to the following
lize their geographical and spatial environments as well
questions: Are place-names of a specific type, randomly
as their socio-cultural environment (Brown 2008).
distributed or do they form a particular pattern in the
Place-names use a single word or series of words to
study region? Do they aggregate in certain areas or are
indicate, denote and identify geographic features and
they scattered across the region? Is the spatial distribu-
their location in relation to other features. They are used
tion of specific place-names associated with environ-
to distinguish one place from another, both in terms of
mental factors? Does their distribution reflect the
physical features (e.g. mountains, rivers, valleys, springs)
region’s settlement pattern?
and human-made or cultural features (e.g. cities, villages,
Using GIS-based techniques, this paper shows that
archaeological sites, remains, streets) (Alderman 2010).
most types of place-names form a particular spatial
Thus, they reflect and identify both the physical and
pattern in the region and aggregate in certain areas.
human peculiarities of a place and often change over
In addition, the spatial distribution of specific types of
time due to changes in physical and human peculiarities.
place-names is associated with human and physical
Landforms, climate, soils and hydrology are examples of
factors. This study also reveals how the settlement pat-
physical peculiarities. Culture, language, religions, political
tern of the region is associated with the distribution of
and economic system and population distributions are
human activity-based place-names. The majority of
examples of human peculiarities (Tent and Blair 2011).
such names concentrates in the north, especially in
The examination of place-names in the Sinai region
the northeastern most portion of the study region.
is the subject of this research. The main objectives of
That in turn reflects how the spatial perspective in

CONTACT Nahed T Zeini nahed.taha@cu.edu.eg Socio-Computing Department, Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Orman,
12613 Giza, Egypt.
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
178 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.
place-names studies can give us clues to the settlement
pattern of a particular region and how it changes over
time.
Spatial perspective of place-names studies
Despite the advancement of the applications of GIS
technology and its great impact in various fields, espe-
cially in health-related studies and epidemiology,
demography, and criminology applications, over the
past two decades, GIS-based spatial analysis applica-
tions in historical-linguistic-cultural and in place-names
studies are limited.
Traditional place-names studies are basically diction-
ary type studies. They are qualitative and descriptive in
nature: giving the location, linguistic origin and mean-
ing of the toponyms of a particular region (Yoon 1980;
Champoux 2012). They aim to identify the motive
behind naming places and distinguish one specific
place from another (Zelinsky 1955; Tent and Blair 2011).
Only a few studies in the recent literature have used
quantitative methods, statistical, and GIS techniques to
cover the sequence of toponyms over time in a place
and their historical, geographical, and socio-cultural
meanings as well as their spatial distribution. Most of
these studies used GIS applications and spatial analysis
techniques to address China place-names. For example,
Luo et al. (2000) demonstrated how GIS-mapping and
analysis tools can integrate linguistic and geographic
information to help explain migration and settlement
patterns of the ethnic groups in southern China. Wang
et al. (2006) used GIS-based spatial analysis techniques
to examine the historical past settlements of ethnic
minorities in southern China from their place-names.
Wang et al. (2012) analysed the spatial distribution of
Zhuang, the largest minority language in China, as
opposed to non-Zhuang place-names and its associa-
tion with cultural and environmental factors, and how
the pattern changes over time.
Area of study and data collection
Historically, the importance of the Sinai region has been
a result of its geographical uniqueness: as a land bridge,
linking northeast Africa with southwest Asia.
Geographically, it lies between the Gulf of Suez and
the Suez Canal on the west and the Gulf of Aqaba on
the east, and it is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea
on the north and the Red Sea to the south (Figure 1).
Its total area is about 62,000 square kilometres. It
represents six percent of Egypt’s total area and its
coastline represents about thirty percent of Egypt’s
total coastline. Sinai’s population represents less than
one percent of Egypt’s population. The majority of
inhabitants (the total was estimated at 597,000 in
2013) are found along the Mediterranean coast in the
north and live more or less along the main road from
Al-Qantarah (on the Suez Canal in the west) to Rafah
(on the border with the Gaza Strip in the east).
Topographically, the region is divided into three
different and diverse areas. Its northern part is com-
posed of flat expanses of sand, and agricultural and
grazing areas especially in the northeastern part of the
region. The central part consists of a large limestone
plateau, the region of El-Tih. The southern part is a
complex of high mountains made up of igneous and
metamorphic rocks. These are, in turn, reflected in its
place-names.
A GIS is adopted in this study to build a digital geo-
database of place-names in the study region using
ArcGIS 10.3 software.
Data concerning place-names, place-type, and rela-
tionship names (i.e. names transferred from nearby places
or features) was compiled and their geographical loca-
tions (latitude and longitude) were identified from the 11
topographic maps (scale 1: 250,000) that cover the region
as a primary source. Secondary data sources, including
geological maps (scale 1: 250,000), topographic maps
(scale 1: 100,000, 1: 50,000, and 1: 25,000), 2006 census
data, and existing online gazetteers (e.g. GeoNames.org)
were also examined to validate the study’s primary
source.
Subsequently, linguistic, geographic, and topo-
graphic dictionaries especially of the nearby, Western
Asian Arab countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Syria, Palestine,
Jordan) (Groom 1983; Ramzi 1994; Dhib 2006), as well
as historical books (Shoucair 1916; Mubasher and
Tawfiq 1998), and travel literature (Bailey 1984; Fabri
2007) were used to identify the meanings and the
motivation behind the place naming process.
Finally, the dataset was recorded in a GIS database for
visualization and subsequent analysis. Figure 2 shows
sample entries from the constructed geo-database.
Research methodology
A place-name usually consists of a generic element and a
specific element, termed composite names, or of a specific
element consisting of one or more words, called simplex
names (Zelinsky 1955; Scott 2003). Abu ath-Thamayil, al-
Burgah, Wasit, and al-`Imarah as-Safrah are examples of
simplex names. Jabal (Mount) Saint Catherine, Madinate
Nuweiba` (Nuweiba` City), Wadi Firan (Firan Valley), and
Qaryat al-Gharandal (al-Gharandal Village) are examples
of composite names in the Sinai region. We note that in
Arabic place-names, the specific term generally follows

Figure 1. The study area location map: Sinai Peninsula, Egypt.
the generic one, while in English names the specific term
usually come first (Groom 1983).
The generic term is usually the component of place-
names which indicates the type of the named place. It
is either habitative (relates to a habitation) or topogra-
phical (relates to a natural feature). The habitative
names contain some element which denotes a locality
that is populated or inhabited such as city, town, vil-
lage, and fortress. While, the topographic names
describe some features of the landscape such as moun-
tain, watercourse, wetland, sand dune, and spring. In
some countries or cultures, place-names without the
generic term are predominantly those for non-natural
features, such as settlement centres (Tent and Blair
2011).
The specific term is usually used to distinguish a place
from others like it and to restrict the meaning of the place-
ANNALS OF GIS 179
name. It usually qualifies the generic term of the compo-
site names by providing additional information (Scott
2003). For example, Jabal Haytan is a steep mountain,
which looks like walls. While, Jabal Muqasab is a curly
mountain. Wadi al-Bahah is a place with a large number
of palm trees. Whilst, Wadi al-Barah is a wide and barren
tract of land without vegetation. The specific element of
the simplex place-names also sometimes reflects their
topographic and geographic character. For example, al-
Barth (a sandy area), el-Daiqa (a narrow place), al-
Mahrudah (an uneven, and crooked land), and al-
Matallah (a high point used for observations).
From the discussion above, it is proposed that two
different but complementary approaches, the geogra-
phical-based approach and the name-giving approach,
are used to classify and analyse the collected names in
this study. The first approach is used to identify the
180 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.

Figure 2. Sample entries of Sinai toponomic database.

geographical character of the region while the second
approach is used to investigate the factors that moti-
vate people to name and differentiate places and geo-
graphical features (based on the meaning of the
specific element of each place-name).
The inclusion of the geographic-based analysis is the
novel aspect of this study. This aspect has been ignored
by most previous studies. Toponymical studies only
using the name-giving approach might indicate incor-
rect meanings for place-names. In other words, without
knowing the geographical character of the named
place, we cannot identify the motive behind naming
it. For example, Jabal al-Maghara, in northern Sinai, is so
named because of the large cave in its midst, Jabal az-
Zarafah is seen as a Giraffe’s neck, and Jabal Sarbut al-
Jamal and Jabal Tallat al-Jamal (al-Jamal Hill) look like a
camel’s hump. Therefore, these two approaches are not
mutually exclusive and complement each other.
Finally, the quantitative and GIS-based spatial analysis
techniques are used to map, visualize, and analyse the
spatial pattern of specific types of place-names in the
region, under the two proposed approaches. Both the
density tool and spatial cluster analysis technique are
used to detect their spatial distribution patterns and to
investigate whether the spatial pattern of certain names is
consistent with the distribution of Sinai’s inhabitants.
Figure 3 depicts the methodology of this research.
Sinai place-names classification analysis
This paper takes a different approach in classifying and
analysing place-names as stated before. It goes through
different stages to construct an effective classification for
such names. Furthermore, it aims to show how the classi-
fication of places according to their geographical charac-
ter (i.e. geographical-based approach) and the motive
behind naming them (i.e. name-giving approach) are
interrelated and complementary to each other. Results
of classifying place-names according to these approaches
are presented in the following two subsections.
Classification analysis of sinai place-names:
geographical-based approach
In this study, three main stages were implemented to
construct a toponymic classification for the region: (1)
defining place-type based on generic terms, (2) defining
place-type based on geographical location, and (3)
defining place-type based on linguistic analysis.
Sinai composite names make up the majority of place-
names in the region. Nearly ninety-one percent of the 2424
collected names as shown in Table 1 are composite names,
while the simplex names represent only nine percent.
In the first stage, the place-type of each composite
name was identified from the meaning of its generic
 ANNALS OF GIS 181

Figure 3. Research methodology.

Table 1. Percentage of Sinai composite and simplex place- tion of three place-names was changed by comparing this
names. stage with the previous one (see Table 4).
Place-Names Category Number of Place-Names Percentage Finally, a linguistic analysis was used to identify the
Composite Place-Names 2198 90.7% type of unknown names from their meanings and to
Simplex Place-Names 226 9.3%
Total 2424 100%
check the identified place-names (stage 3). This stage
defined ninety-nine percent of the composite names
and eighty-one percent of the simplex names. In total,
term. As shown in Table 2, ninety-three percent of the ninety-seven percent of the total collected names were
composite names have a definite generic term, which identified (see Table 5).
specifies the nature of the geographical feature In summary, this study shows that for the majority of
concerned. place-names in the region, their generic terms reflect
In the second stage, the constructed database was their geographical character. In addition, the simplex
merged with topographic and geological maps using names usually describe the type of the named place
ArcGIS to relate those names with indefinite generic or feature. Figure 4 compares the results of the three
terms as well as the simplex names with their geographic stages of identifying the place-type of the collected
locations in order to specify their type. This process was simplex and composite names. As shown, the majority
also carried out to check the accuracy of previously deter- of the composite names are identified from their gen-
mined names. This stage defined ninety-eight percent of eric terms (stage one). Only seven percent of the com-
the composite names and sixty-six percent of the simplex posite names have indefinite meaning. The second
names. In total, it defined ninety-five percent of the total stage decreased the percentage of indefinite names to
collected names (see Table 3). In addition, the classifica- nearly two percent. Finally, the linguistic analysis stage
decreased the percentage of all composite names to
one percent. For simplex names, the geographical loca-
tion of those places (stage two) defined the majority of
Table 2. Percentage of composite place-names with definite
generic terms (stage one) according to the geographical-based
them. In the third stage, the linguistic analysis stage,
approach. the percentage of unknown place-names decreased to
Place-Names Category Number of Place-Names Percentage nearly nineteen percent of all simplex names.
Definite Generic-Terms 2041 92.9% After identifying the place-types, the place-names
Indefinite Generic-Terms 157 7.1% were then classified under one of the following nine
Total 2198 100%
categories according to the geographic-based approach:

Table 3. Percentage of place-names with definite type (stage two) according to the geographical-based approach.
Composite Names Simplex Names
Place-Names Category Number Percentage Number Percentage Total Percentage
Definite Place-Type 2157 98.13% 149 65.9% 2306 95.13%
Indefinite Place-Type 38 1.73% 77 34.1% 115 4.74%
Reclassified Places 3 0.14% - - 3 0.13%
Total 2198 100% 226 100% 2424 100%
182 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.

Table 4. List of reclassified place-names (stage two) according
to the geographical-based approach.
First Classification Second Classification
Name of Place (Stage One) (Stage Two)
Birkat al-Jamal Pond Wetland
Bi’r al-`Abd Well City
`Ilwet al-Markha Hill Plain
landform, water sources and channels, settlement centres,
archaeological and historical places, transport and com-
munication networks, cultivation and grazing, natural
vegetation, and economic activities as well as unknown
features. The classification of a sample of the collected
names is presented in Table 6, and the classification for all
the collected names according to this approach is pre-
sented in Figure 5.
The majority (nearly seventy percent) of the col-
lected names refer to the landforms of the region,
which depict the topographic and geographic character
of the different named places and features (see
Table 7). This in turn reflects the significant impact of
Sinai’s environment on the naming process. Water-
based names represent nearly seventeen percent of
the names and that in turn reflects the scarcity of
water sources in the region. The percentage of Sinai’s
population compared to the whole Egyptian popula-
tion, as stated before, is also reflected in the percentage
of settlement-based names. As shown, five percent of
the collected names are classified under the settlement
centres. Finally, the other five categories have a low
percent of total place-names. However, we should
note here that the number of the collected names
under economic activities does not reflect the actual
distribution of such activities in the region (as depicted,
for instance, by the mineralogical map of Egypt issued
by the Geological Survey).
Classification analysis of sinai place-names: name-
giving approach
Most names in the region seem to be evidently Arabic.
However, some of them are ambiguous even to the
Bedouin themselves, mainly because they were named
by non-Arabs. Unintelligible names might have origi-
nated in pre-Arabic culture and there are no sufficient
ancient maps and documents to help us coordinate
such names with contemporary names. It also seems
that most of them were corrupted into completely
meaningless forms. Examples include Lussan from
Roman Lyssa, Firan from Pharan, and Gharandal from
Greek Surandela (Bailey 1984).
The region has only a few sites populated or visited by
successive generations that might retain the history, ori-
gins, and meanings of names. This is because Bedouins
have always been wary of each other’s territorial ambi-
tions and guard the secret of their tribal lands. Most of
the Bedouin tribes of the Sinai are descended from peo-
ples who migrated from the Arabian Peninsula. They
have a rich culture and their own Arabic ‘Bedawi’ lan-
guage, which has different dialects depending on the
area where they live. These dialects in turn have a sig-
nificant impact on names specifics. Many questions about
the linguistic characteristics of these dialects remain
unanswered. Therefore, we dealt with a very complex
socio-cultural system (De Jong 2011).
The number of Arabic geographical and topographical
words is further increased by the nature of the language

Table 5. Percentage of place-names with definite type (stage three) according to the geographical-based approach.
Composite Names Simplex Names
Place-Names Category Number Percentage Number Percentage Total Percentage
Definite Place-Type 2178 99.1% 184 81.4% 2362 97.4%
Indefinite Place-Type 20 0.9% 42 18.6% 62 2.6%
Total 2198 100% 226 100% 2424 100%

Figure 4. Comparison between the three stages of toponyms classification (geographical-based classification).
 ANNALS OF GIS 183

Table 6. Classification of some places based on their feature- Table 7. Classification of Sinai place-names based on place-
type (geographical-based approach). type (geographical-based approach).
Name of Place Place-Type Place-Name Category Number of Place-
Qal`at al-Jindi Castle Archaeological & Place-Names Category Names Percentage
Mosque an-Nabi Salih Mosque Historical Places Landform 1694 69.9%
Der Saint Catherine Monastery Water Sources and Channels 409 16.9%
Khirbat al-`Ashush Ruins Settlement Centers 117 4.8%
al-Jahamat Cultivated Area Cultivation/Grazing Unknown Features 62 2.6%
Area Archaeological and Historical Places 47 1.9%
Manjam al-Magharah Mine Economic Activity Transport and Communication 44 1.8%
Umm Bujmah Networks
al-Turkmaniyah Hill(s) Landform Cultivation and Grazing Places 26 1.1%
al-Madhunah Wetland(s) Natural Vegetation 21 0.9%
Ra’s Abu Jadal Peak Economic Activities 4 0.2%
Sahl al-Rahah Plain(s) Total 2424 100%
Hidab al-Khayl Plateau(s)
ar-Ruwaq Lake
Jabal Madsus Mountain
Sha`b `Ali Reef(s) Bayraq, Burqah, Mutabrqah are derived from brq (Table 8).
Sayl Abu Rawthah Stream(s)
al-Mudawwarah Natural vegetation Natural Vegetation Many nouns have several different plural forms, and
Rawd al-Ghadir Arabic is an evolved language, so many Arabic words
al-Amal Settlement Centre Settlement Centres
al-Masyadah Village have changed over a period of time and/or through
Madinate Nuweiba` City geographical separation (Groom 1983).
Darb ash-Sharif Pass/Road Transport/
Mina’ at-Tulul Harbour/Port Communication Consequently, the collected names are firstly classi-
Networks fied based on the meanings of their specific terms
Yakhmum al-Dayah Area Unknown
al-Wgag
under the following three main categories: mono-
Bi’r Hamid Well(s) Water Sources meaning, multi-meaning, and unknown meaning (see
`Ayn al-Qatar Spring(s) Figure 6). The majority (nearly sixty-four percent) of
Misik al-`Abd Pool(s)
Haraba `Udah Pond names specifics as shown in Table 9 have a specific
Thumaylah Suwayr Well(s) meaning, and nearly fourteen percent have multiple
meanings, while twenty-two percent of them have
unknown meanings. Future field studies and interviews
itself. It usually provides many variations of the same with settlers may help in this matter.
word. Some variations represent nuances of difference Secondly, the mono-meaning ones are classified
from the basic meaning, but most of them are simply under the following categories: landform, natural vege-
alternatives. Arabic words take many different forms tation, water sources, land use, wildlife, location, trans-
derived from the basic root of three consonants, known port and communication networks, and climate and
as radicals. For instance, Abraq, Abeiriq, Abriqayn, Barq, hosting places, as well as personal names, historical,

Figure 5. Sinai place-names classification (geographical-based approach).

184 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.

Table 8. Different forms from the basic root (brq).

Data Source
(Topographic Maps-Scale 1:250,000)
Name of Place Relationship Names Place-Type Governorate Sheet-Title Sheet-No.
al-Burqah Bi’r al-Burqah Mountain North Sinai El-Quseima NH 36 K
Jabal al-Burqah Mountain North Sinai El-Quseima NH 36 K
Jabal al-Burqah Wadi al-Burqah Mountain South Sinai El Aqaba NH 36.H
Jabal al-Burqah Ra’s al-Burqah Mountain South Sinai El Aqaba NH 36.H
Jabal al-Burqah - Mountain South Sinai Tur Sinai NH 36 C
Jabal Umm Burqah - Mountain South Sinai Tur Sinai NH 36 C
Jabal Burqah Wadi Barqah Mountain South Sinai Tur Sinai NH 36 C
Ra’s al-Abraq - Peak North Sinai El-Quseima NH 36 K
Wadi Sayl al-Abraq - Watercourse South Sinai Qal`et El-Nakhl NH 366
Jabal al-Abeiriq - Mountain North Sinai El-Quseima NH 36 K
Wadi Barq Bi’r Barq Watercourse South Sinai Tur Sinai NH 36 C
Wadi al-Bayraq - Watercourse North Sinai El-Quseima NH 36 K
Jabal al-Mutabrqah - Mountain South Sinai Tur Sinai NH 36 C
Meaning An area of rugged ground with stones, sand and earth, mainly white or dust-colored; a mountain with sand on it; a rocky hill
partly covered by sand; land with black stones and white sand; Badlands.

Figure 6. Place-names specifics classification (name-giving approach).

Table 9. Classification of Sinai place-names meanings accord- Table 10. Classification of mono-meaning Sinai place-names
ing to the name-giving approach. according to the name-giving approach.
Place-Names Category Number of Place-Names Percentage Place-Names Category Number of Place-Names Percentage
Mono-Meaning 1553 64.1% Landform 495 31.87%
Multi-Meaning 328 13.5% Natural Vegetation 338 21.76%
Unknown Meanings 543 22.4% Personal Names 318 20.48%
Total 2424 100% Water Source(s) 123 7.92%
Historical, Myth and Religious 92 5.92%
Places
myth, or religious place-names, and development- Land Use 59 3.80%
Wildlife 43 2.77%
oriented names (Table 10). The classification of a sam- Development-Oriented Names 29 1.87%
ple of the collected names is presented in Table 11. Location 25 1.61%
In brief, the following are the main six categories of Transport and Communication 17 1.09%
Networks
our classification for place-names specifics and the per- Climate and Hosting Places 14 0.90%
centage of each category is presented in Table 12: Total 1553 100%
 ANNALS OF GIS 185

Table 11. Classification of some places based on the meaning of the specific terms (name-giving approach).
Name of Place Place-Type Meaning of the Specific Term Place-Name Category
al-`Afarah Sand Area Dust-coloured, inclining to whiteness. Landform
al-Qur Hill(s) Small hills.
al-Madfunah Cultivated Area Buried in the ground.
Ra’s Abu Qurun Peak Horn-shaped Peak.
Jabal al-Manarish Mountain Area of dense palm trees and grapes. Natural Vegetation
al-Erta Sand-dune(s) Plant/tree(s).
Kathib as-Sarb Gum of Talh trees.
Bi’r al-Birat Well(s) Well; or rock cistern. Water Sources
Bi’r Qatar Drip-well or spring.
al-Kharbah Village Ruin(s). Historical/Incident Names
Darb al-Hajj Pass/Road Pilgrim route.
Wadi Zuwayre` Watercourse(s) Cultivated area. Land Use
az-Zuhriyat Cultivated Area
Wadi Ghazala Watercourse(s) Gazelle. Wildlife
Wadi Hadahid Hoopoe.
Kathib Wasit Sand-dune(s) Middle Location
Wadi al-Fawqiyah Watercourse(s) Above
Nuqtat ad-Darb Pass/Road Place of entrance, narrow pass, road, mountain path. Transport and Communication Networks
Taba City Pleasant, and good place. Climate and Hosting Places
Wadi Umm al-Bard Watercourse(s) Cold.

Table 12. Classification of Sinai place-names specifics accord- nearby places or features, and names imported
ing to the name-giving approach. from earlier residents of first settlers (i.e. transferred
Place-Names Category Number of Place-Names Percentage place-names). For example, Wadi al-Ahmer in south
Descriptive Names 1114 45.96%
Historical/Incident Names 92 3.80%
Sinai carries the name of the nearby mountain (Ra’s
Personal Names 318 13.12% al-Ahmer), and Qaryat Qabilah at-Tarabin in north
Development-Oriented Names 29 1.20% Sinai, Tallat at-Tarabin and Qaryat at-Tarabin in
Multi-Meaning Names 328 13.53%
Unknown Meaning Names 543 22.40% south Sinai carry the name of the Tarabin tribe
Total 2424 100% which derives its name from the Tarban valley in
Saudi Arabia. This category includes the following
(1) Descriptive names allude to a characteristic of the subcategories: landform, natural vegetation, water
place or feature or surrounding area, names derived source(s), land use, wildlife, location, transport and
from other feature, or characteristics of the natural communication networks, and climate and hosting
environment including landscape, topography, soil, places. Table 13 shows examples of such names and
water bodies, animals or plant life. In addition to their meanings.
names taken from other places or features, descrip- (2) Historical and incident names record historical,
tive names can refer to names transferred from mythological events, and incident associated with

Table 13. Examples of descriptive Sinai place-names (name-giving approach).

Name of Place Place-Type Generic-Term Meanings of Specific-Term
al-Hamzah Area - Plant/tree(s).
Qaryat at-Tulul Village Settlement Centre Small hills; or heap of sands.
al-Ghubayy Cultivated Area - Area with much trees.
Qatar al-Malhah Drip Spring(s) Water source Salty, briny.
Rishat al-Bahah Hill Landform A place with a large number of palm trees.
Jabal Muqassab Mountain Landform Curly mountain.
Jabal Manzur Mountain Landform A place commanding a wide view, look-out, watch-tower.
Ra’s al-Ahmar Peak Landform Tar, redness, red soil.
ash-Shulayl Plain - The part of a valley in which the water flows; the middle of a valley.
Damath al-Fayhah Plain Landform A wide, extensive place,
Sahl al-Munbatah Plain(s) Landform Level land, plain.
Kathib as-Sarb Sand-dune Landform Gum of Talh trees.
`Ayn Mulayhis Spring Water source A tiny drip-spring in its midst visited only by birds, who ‘lick’ (lihis in Arabic) its
splattered drops.
al-Maqdabah Village - A place where clover grows; a place where Qadb trees grows.
al-Khatamiyah Watercourse - The furthest parts of a valley.
Wadi Umm Hasah Watercourse Landform Small stone and pebbles.
Wadi Umm `Izzah Watercourse Landform Over-powering of a torrent.
Wadi `Arabah Watercourse Landform A swift valley; containing abundant water.
Wadi Yaman Watercourse Landform The location on the right; the south.
Bi’r al-Mushash Well Water source Well, water-hole; a shallow, hand-dug well, water traces in sandy, soft ground.
186 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.

the feature or place. Examples of such names and
their meanings are presented in Table 14.
(3) Personal names use the proper name of a per-
son, group, family or tribe to name a feature or a
place.
(4) Development-oriented names include new set-
tlement centres, and tourist villages. Examples
of personal and development-oriented names
are presented in Table 15.
(5) Multi-meaning names include all place-names that
have been classified under multi-meaning cate-
gory. These kinds of places have multiple meanings
according to the different sources of information.
For example, Jabal al-Halal (sheep in Sinai tribal
dialects or corrupted from al-Helal (Crescent-
shaped mountain)) (Shoucair 1916; Fabri 2007),
and Jabal al-`Ajmah (rock protruding in a valley; a
sand-hill raising above its surroundings; solid rocks;
kind of palm trees; or a tribe’s language).
(6) Unknown-meaning names include those names of
unknown etymology, where the meaning, refer-
ence, referent, or origin of the toponym is unknown.
Under the two proposed classification approaches, this
study indicates that the majority of place-names are
descriptive of the place they refer to, either in whole or
in part. Most of the collected names are composite, con-
sisting of two elements, a generic and a specific element,
with a linguistic relation between them. These elements
are the words that people used to describe a place and to
distinguish one place from other places and geographical
features. Some of the collected names are simplex names,
consisting of a specific element only, with one or more
words. Most of such simplex names also describe the
topographic and geographical character of the named
place or feature in the region. That in turn reflects how
Bedouins usually used place-name elements to describe
and define their surroundings. Furthermore, without
knowing the geographical character of the named place
or feature, we cannot investigate the motive behind nam-
ing it.
Geo-visualization and modelling spatial pattern
of sinai place-names
The importance of the spatial perspective in interdisci-
plinary research and studies in the humanities and social
sciences has received considerable attention over the
past few decades (Badurek 2007). For instance, anthro-
pologists, researchers in the humanities, and other social
scientists use spatial analysis techniques to analyse and
display the spatial distribution of material culture (arte-
facts), to map linguistic, social, cultural and ethnic traits,
and to place historical analysis in a spatial-geographical
context (Luo et al. 2000; Majeed 2010).

Table 14. Examples of historical and incident Sinai place-names (name-giving approach).
Name of Place Place-Type Generic-Term Meanings of Specific-Term
Jabal Mousa Mountain Landform Moses’ Mountain.
Jabal al-Munajah Mountain Landform Conversation with God.
Mamsha al-Hujjaj Sand-dune(s) Landform Pilgrim route.
Jabal Sarabit al-Khadim Mountain Landform The black stelae stones, resembling rows of standing black slave girls.
May be corrupted from Sarabit al Qadim.
al-Fulusiyat Ruin(s) Historical Places People found in this place much of the copper coins.
Jabal Mukattab Mountain Landform Inscriptions.
Jabal Abu Khirbat Mountain Landform A ruin, a waste; place, county or abode in the state of ruin and uninhabitable; a
ruins site.
Jabal Abu Rujum Mountain Landform Stones places on a grave; a grave; a tombstone.
Wadi al-Mulayz Valley Landform Shelter, refuge.
Wadi Firan Valley Landform May be corrupted from Pharan or Mice (houses of mice, a metaphor of the plenty of
monks’ hermitages in mountains.

Table 15. Examples of personal names and development-oriented names (name-giving approach).
Name of Place Place-Type Generic-Term Meanings Specific-Term
al-Jararat Sand-dune(s) - The name of al-Jararat section of Suwarka tribe which inhabited the sand
dune of that name.
Bi’r Salim Suwilam Well Water Source(s) Salim Suwilam’s well.
Tallat at-Tarabin Hill Landform at-Tarabin Tribe.
Jabal al-Huwaytat Mountain Landform al-Huwaytat Tribe.
Qaryat az-Zuhur Tourist Village Settlement Centre(s) Development-Oriented Names.
Qaryat al-Salam Village Settlement Centre(s) Development-Oriented Names.
Qaryat Bint al-Sultan Tourist Village Settlement Centre(s) Development-Oriented Names.
Qaryat Marina Tourist Village Settlement Centre(s) Development-Oriented Names.

Using GIS tools and spatial analysis techniques not only
makes information easier to grasp but provides more
dimensions to display, analyse and interpret data. They
represent a major advancement in place-names studies
because GIS tools enable the systematic examination of
spatial patterns of place-names and their association with
environmental factors (Zhang 2012; Chen et al. 2014).
In this study, based on our previous classification, GIS-
based spatial analysis tools and clustering methods are
applied to geo-visualize, analyse, and interpret the spatial
pattern of specific types of place-names and to identify
their spatial distribution and concentration in the region.
In this section, we present the spatial distribution of
human activity-based names that in turn help us to reveal
the settlement pattern of the region including the follow-
ing categories: settlement-based names, cultivated and
grazing areas, personal-based names, land-use-based
names and development-oriented names.
The locations of the collected place-names were dis-
played as point features using ArcGIS. The kernel density
estimation (KDE) tool embedded in ArcGIS was used in
this study to identify, display and analyse the spatial
distribution and concentrations (hotspots) of place-
names under the previous categories. KDE is one of the
spatial analysis techniques that deals with point and poly-
line features and provides a more useful representation of
features distribution. KDE has been widely used for geo-
spatial analysis, hotspot analysis and detection. It calcu-
lates the density of features in a neighbourhood around
those features and distributes a measured quantity of an
input data layer throughout a landscape to produce a
continuous surface (Okabe, Satoh, and Sugihara 2009). In
this study, the default search radius (bandwidth) is used. It
is calculated based on the spatial configuration and num-
ber of input points to correct for spatial outliers, so they
will not make the search radius unreasonably large. The
place-names density is represented by colours. Dark
regions represent areas of high density, while the regions
of low density are represented by white colour.
Spatial scan statistics (SaTScan) was also performed to
detect whether the occurrence of a specific type of place-
names in some areas are significantly more frequent than
other areas. SaTScan uses computer simulations to gen-
erate a number of random replications of the data set
under the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis of SaTScan
states that the event is randomly distributed in geo-
graphic space. The alternative hypothesis states that
there is an increased number of events within an area
compared with those in the outside areas (Kulldorff 2014).
A Bernoulli model (with a pure spatial scan) was used
for the analysis in this study. In our case, human activity-
based names serve as cases (coded as 1) and non-human
activity-based names serve as controls (coded as 0). The
ANNALS OF GIS 187
aim is to test whether or not the point events (locations
of human activity-based names) are clustered in a subset
Z within the study region R. For the Bernoulli model,
each individual (place-name) within the zone Z ⊂ R has a
probability p of being a case inside the zone, while the
probability of being a case outside the zone is q. The
probability for any one individual is independent of all
the others. The null hypothesis of no clustering is H0:
p = q and the alternative hypothesis H1: p > q for high
clusters (or p < q for low clusters). The likelihood function
for a specific window Z under the Bernoulli model is:
(
L^z ¼ pn ð1  pÞmn qNn ð1  qÞðMmÞðNnÞ ; ifp > q
LZ ¼
N
MN
L0 ¼ MN 1  MN ; otherwise
where N is the total number of cases (human activ-
ity-based names) in the study area, n is the number of
cases in the window, M is the total number of controls
(non-human activity-based names), m is the number of
controls in the window, p = n/m (probability of being a
case within the window) and q = (N-n)/(M-m) (probabil-
ity of being a case outside the window).
The rejection of the null hypothesis for each circle is
based on a likelihood ratio statistic λ ¼ L=L0 . The circle
with the maximum likelihood is defined as the most
likely cluster (the primary cluster), the one least likely to
have occurred by chance. The likelihood ratio for this
window constitutes the maximum likelihood ratio test
statistic. Its distribution under the null hypothesis and
its corresponding p-value are determined by a Monte
Carlo simulation approach, where the null hypothesis of
no cluster is rejected at level of alpha equal 0.05 exactly
if the simulated p-value is less than or equal 0.05 for the
most likely cluster (Kulldorff 1997; Meng 2010).
The results of both techniques, KDE and SaTScan,
show that the highest geographical concentration of
settlement-based names is in the north area, especially
in the northeastern most portion of the region with a
minor concentration in the south-west Sinai, near to the
Gulf of Suez (Figure 7).
For twenty percent of names, as shown in Table 10,
their specific terms carry the name of a person, family,
or tribe. For example, the majority of artificial water
sources in north Sinai are named by the name of their
owner(s) due to the scarcity of water sources, which
represent one of the obstacles for the development of
the region. Figure 8 shows that the major concentration
of personal-based names is in the north with a minor
concentration in the south, near to the Gulf of Suez.
The remaining categories include a small number of
place-names and SaTScan is not a suitable method in such
cases. Therefore, the KDE is only used to investigate the
spatial distribution of such names. Figure 9 shows that the
188 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.
Figure 7. Distribution of settlement-based place-names (geographical-based approach).
highest concentration of the cultivated and grazing areas
according to the geographical character of place-names is
in the northeastern most portion of the region. It also
displays the annual average rainfall over the region. The
annual average rainfall is 66 mm3 while the highest aver-
age rainfall (304 mm3) is in Rafah (in the northeastern
corner of the region) and, as shown, the distribution of
such names is closely related to the distribution of rainfall
and underground water in the region. That in turn, reflects
how the spatial pattern of specific types of place-names is
associated with environmental and human factors and
confirms the previous conclusion concerning the spatial
settlement pattern of the region.
Figure 10 shows that the major concentration of land
use areas is in the north and that conforms to the popula-
tion settlement pattern. In addition, there is a minor con-
centration in the middle region of Sinai that is related to a
group of historical-religious locations. These locations
represent the major stops on the ancient Islamic pilgrimage
of the Hajj across central Sinai to Mecca, especially Nikhel
fortress. Nikhel was constructed on the pilgrimage route,
named Darb al-Hajj (al-Hajj route), that crossed the Tih

Figure 8. Distribution of personal-based place-names (name-giving approach).
Plateau. It was the supply post for pilgrims on the Hajj
pilgrimage route to Mecca.
Finally, Figure 11 shows that the highest concentra-
tions of development-oriented names are in the north
and the south-west, near to the Gulf of Suez.
From the above, we can conclude that the spatial dis-
tribution and concentrations of the previous place-names
categories reflect how the spatial perspective in place-
names, employing the applications of GIS technology, can
give us clues to the settlement pattern of the region under
study. The majority of such names are concentrated in the
north, especially the northeastern most portion of the Sinai
ANNALS OF GIS 189
Peninsula. They form a particular spatial pattern in the
region and aggregated in certain areas in the region. In
addition, the spatial patterns of such names are associated
with human and physical factors.
Discussion and conclusion
The unique nature of the Sinai region, its diversity of
geographical and natural features, and its environmen-
tal, historical, cultural and religious importance are
reflected in its place-names, either in whole or in part
of the name. This study shows that the majority of the
190 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.
Figure 9. Distribution of cultivated and grazing areas (geographical-based approach).
collected place-names are composite names, consisting
of two elements, a generic element and a specific ele-
ment, with a linguistic relation between them. It also
shows that the majority of Sinai place-names’ elements,
especially the generic terms, describe the landform and
its variations. These terms are usually used to describe
features found in the Sinai landscape.
In this study, each place-name was classified under
two categories according to the two proposed
approaches: the geographical-based approach and the
name-giving approach. The first approach, the geogra-
phical-based approach, is used to classify each place-
name according to its geographical character, while the
second one, the name giving approach, is used to iden-
tify the motivations behind naming Sinai places and
geographical features and distinguish one place from
other places using a specific term. These two approaches
are not mutually exclusive and complement each other.
There are some common categories under the two pro-
posed approaches. This is because the majority of spe-
cific elements of the collected composite place-names
usually qualifies the generic element of the place-names
by providing additional information. For example, Ra’s
Abu Qurun is a peak (more specifically a horn-shaped

Figure 10. Distribution of land-use-based place-names (name-giving approach).
peak). In addition, the majority of the simplex names
describes the geographical character of the named
place or feature. For example, al-Qur is a place of hills
(more specifically small hills).
The results of the GIS-spatial analysis techniques show
that the settlement toponyms, cultivation and grazing
toponyms and land use toponyms concentrate in the
north area, especially in the northeastern most portion
of the Sinai Peninsula. The development-oriented place-
names concentrate in the north and the south-west near
to the Gulf of Suez. The personal toponyms concentrate in
the north with a minor concentration in the south-west,
near the Gulf of Suez. The spatial pattern of such types of
ANNALS OF GIS 191
toponyms reflect the settlement pattern of the Sinai
region, where the majority of Sinai’s inhabitants are
found along the Mediterranean coast to the north, who
live more or less along the main road Al-Qantarah (on the
Suez Canal in the west) to Rafah (on the border with the
Gaza Strip in the east).
This study also shows how the distribution of specific
type of place-names is associated with environmental
and human factors. For instance, the spatial distribution
of the cultivation and grazing toponyms is closely
related to the distribution of rainfall in the Sinai region.
It also reveals how the settlement pattern of the Sinai
region is associated with the distribution of human
192 N. T. ZEINI ET AL.
Figure 11. Distribution of development-oriented names (name-giving approach).
toponyms in the region. The majority of such toponyms
concentrates in the north, especially in the northeastern
most portion of the Sinai Peninsula. That in turn reflects
how the spatial perspective in toponymic studies can
give us clues to the settlement pattern of a particular
region and how it changes over time.
The applications of geographic information system
(GIS) technology represent therefore a major progress
in recent toponymic studies. This study employs GIS
techniques to construct and analyse a geo-database of
Sinai place-names, and their spatial distributions and
concentrations in the study region. This study is
exploratory in nature for the distribution of specific
types of place-names in the Sinai region. It aims to
demonstrate the importance of the spatial perspective
and the great potentials of GIS-based techniques in
toponymic studies.
To better visualize the spatial pattern of place-names
concentration, a spatial analysis technique, the kernel
density estimation (KDE) is used to provide a useful repre-
sentation of place-names distribution under each cate-
gory. While, the KDE is useful for mapping the place-
names, it is merely descriptive, even randomly distributed
place-names may appear to exhibit some local pockets of

concentration. The spatial cluster analysis (SaTScan) is
then used to detect whether the occurrences of specific
types of place-names in some areas are significantly more
frequent than other areas. The results show that most
types of place-names form a particular spatial pattern in
the region and aggregate in certain areas. In addition, the
spatial patterns of specific types of names are associated
with environmental and human factors.
In summary, this article investigates how the spatial
distribution of specific types of place-names is signifi-
cant in indicating certain geographical, historical and
socio-cultural characteristics of the Sinai region.
the discussion above, a number of recommendations
for further research can be deduced. First of all, field-
work and interviews with Sinai Bedouins can make a
valuable contribution to this study. They can give clues
to the geographic and economic characteristics that
motivate Bedouins to settle in particular places, and
how the settlement started.
In addition, it is believed that it would be of great
value if the scope of the study is extended to include a
comparative analysis of identical place-name clusters.
Named places or features have identical names if the
full form of the place-names, together with the generic
term, are identical. It can provide us with dynamic clues
to the movement and immigration of Sinai Bedouins
from one region or place to another.
Finally, more in-depth analysis can be conducted to
examine and analyse the association of place-names
with geographic and socio-economic factors, and to
test whether the distribution of population is consistent
with human activity-based names and other names.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in
Egypt aiming to investigate the spatial perspective of
the place-names studies and how the linguistic-geogra-
phical-historical meanings of such names can give us
clues to the settlement pattern of the region under
study; thus, this study is just a beginning.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Nahed T Zeini http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2484-6700
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