A Level

Algebra, Modulus Functions

and Polynomials

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Pure Ch1

1
Modulus Function
The modulus of 𝑥𝑥, denoted by |𝑥𝑥|, is defined by
• 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0,
• 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 0.
(On calculators either [mod] or [abs] “absolute value of 𝑥𝑥”)
Eg. 5 =5

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−5 = 5
We could think modulus as “magnitude” or distance.

Eg. Solve for 𝑥𝑥 when |𝑥𝑥 − 1| = 3

Ans.: 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 3 or 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = −3
i.e. 𝑥𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥𝑥 = −2
2
Eg. Solve the equation 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = |2𝑥𝑥 − 1|
Method I: They could both be positive or negative (i.e. same sign)
Or they could be opposite signs.
𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 or 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = −(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
−2 + 1 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = −2𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑥𝑥 = −1 3𝑥𝑥 = 3 i.e. 𝑥𝑥 = 1

Method II: square both sides

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𝑥𝑥 − 2 2 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 2
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 1
3𝑥𝑥 2 = 3
𝑥𝑥 2 = 1 i.e. 𝑥𝑥 = ±1

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑎2
3
Pure Ex 1A
Pg. 6
Graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 |
• Where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a linear function eg. 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥| (see the board work)
• V shaped graph, where the vertex is when 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0
• Use DESMOS to get some idea, but no graphic software/ calculator
is allowed in the exams.

Eg. Sketch 𝑦𝑦 = |2𝑥𝑥 − 5|

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Ans.: We may write the above equation as a piecewise function
1
2𝑥𝑥 − 5, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 2
2
2𝑥𝑥 − 5 = � 1
− 2𝑥𝑥 − 5 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 < 2
2

4
Sometimes we need to sketch the graph before solving equations.

Eg. Use you graph to solve 𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1

Ans: Use the skill learnt in MCert, sketch two separate functions
then find the intersection(s) .
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1

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Pure Ex 1B
pg. 8 5

We can see there is only one intersection when 𝑥𝑥 = 1 .

If 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 0, then 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 is equivalent to −𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎
If 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 0, then 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑘𝑘 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 is equivalent to −𝑎𝑎 + 𝑘𝑘 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑘𝑘

Eg. Solve the inequality 𝑥𝑥 − 2 < 3

Ans.: −3 < 𝑥𝑥 − 2 < 3
−3 + 2 < 𝑥𝑥 <3+2 i.e. −1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 5

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑎2
𝑥𝑥 > |𝑎𝑎| 𝑥𝑥 2 > 𝑎𝑎2

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If 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 , 𝑥𝑥 < |𝑎𝑎| 𝑥𝑥 2 < 𝑎𝑎2

Eg. Solve 𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≥ |2𝑥𝑥 − 3|

Ans.: 𝑥𝑥 − 2 2 ≥ 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 2
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 4 ≥ 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 9
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 5 ≤ 0
2
𝑥𝑥 − 1 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 ≤ 0 , i.e. 1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 6
3
Warning: squaring may not always work.

E.g. Solve the equation |𝑥𝑥 − 2| + |1 − 𝑥𝑥| = 0

Ans.: Pause and think, this equation has no solution.
Because there is no value can satisfy
|𝑥𝑥 − 2| = 0 and also |1 − 𝑥𝑥| = 0
1
If you square both sides and solve the equation you will get 𝑥𝑥 = 1 ,

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2
which is not valid.

So only using squaring with the forms in the red box previously
introduced.

7
Pure Ex 1C
pg. 10-11
Polynomials
A non-zero polynomial, 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘
where 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, and n is non-negative integer.

• 𝑛𝑛 is called the degree of the polynomial. n=0 constant

• descending order: eg. 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 3 − 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 n=1 linear

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• ascending order: eg. 1 − 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 4 n=2 quadratic
n=3 cubic
• 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, … , 𝑗𝑗, 𝑘𝑘 are called coefficients n=4 quartic
• 𝑎𝑎 is the leading coefficient
• 𝑘𝑘 is the constant term.

0 is called the zero polynomial and has no degree.

8
 Division of polynomials
Recall divide 3257 by 4
(See the board work of long division)
We can write 3257 = 4 × 814 + 1
dividend = divisor x quotient + remainder

Eg. Find the remainder when divide 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 52 by 𝑥𝑥 + 3

Ans.: Method 1: Using long division (See the board work)

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Method 2: Equating coefficients
2𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 52 = 𝑥𝑥 + 3 × 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅 expand and simplify
= 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 + (3𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅)
So 𝐴𝐴 = 2
3𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0 , i.e. 6 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0, 𝐵𝐵 = −6
3𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = −1, i.e. −18 + 𝐶𝐶 = −1, 𝐶𝐶 = 17
3𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅 = 52, i.e. 51 + 𝑅𝑅 = 52, 𝑅𝑅 = 1 The remainder is 1 9
2𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 52 = 𝑥𝑥 + 3 × 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 17 + 1 Pure Ex 1D
pg. 13-14
Factor Theorem
𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥 × 𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥)
Note:
• the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the
divisor.
• The degree of the quotient = degree of 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) - degree of 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥)

Recall: 2 is a factor of 12 i.e. 12 = 2 x 6 (no remainder)

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Factor theorem: if 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 = 0, then 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡 is a factor of 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 .

Proof: we can write the identity as 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡)𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑅𝑅

By substituting 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 into 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥), we will get the remainder
constant 𝑅𝑅.
10
i.e. 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 = 0 × 𝑄𝑄 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑅𝑅 = 0.
Since 𝑅𝑅 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡 is a factor of 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)
E.g. Find the factors of 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 3, hence solve the
equation 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 0
Ans.: The constant term is −3, and −3 = 1 × −3 = −1 × 3.
So 𝑥𝑥 − 1 or 𝑥𝑥 + 1 could be a factor.
𝑥𝑥 − 1 : Let 𝑥𝑥 = 1 then 1 3 − 1 2 − 5 1 − 3 = −8 ≠ 0
so 𝑥𝑥 − 1 is not a factor.
𝑥𝑥 + 1 : Let 𝑥𝑥 = −1 then −1 3 − −1 2 − 5 −1 − 3 = 0
so 𝑥𝑥 + 1 is a factor.

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𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1 2 (𝑥𝑥 − 3)
So the solution of 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 3

𝑡𝑡
Similarly if 𝑝𝑝 = 0, then s𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡 is a factor of 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑠𝑠

11
Pure Ex 1E
pg. 17-18
Remainder Theorem
Sometimes we just need to find out the remainder then we will
use the remainder theorem instead of equating coefficients or
algebraic long division.

Remainder theorem : When 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is divided by 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡, the

remainder is the constant 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 .

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Proof: we can write the identity as 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡)𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑟𝑟
By substituting 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 into 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥), we will get the remainder constant
𝑟𝑟.
i.e. 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 0 × 𝑞𝑞 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟

Similarly when 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is divided by s𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡, the remainder is the

𝑡𝑡
12
constant 𝑝𝑝 .
𝑠𝑠
E.g. Find the remainder when 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 is divided by 2𝑥𝑥 + 3.
Ans.: Let 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4
3
If 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0, then 𝑥𝑥 = − .
2 Pure Ex 1F pg. 20-21
Subs into 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) And End of Chapter
3 3 3 3 1 exercise 1 pg. 22-24
𝑝𝑝 − = − −3 − +4=5 .
2 2 2 8
1
So the remainder is 5 .
8

E.g. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 4

When 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is divided by 𝑥𝑥 − 1 , the remainder is 3.

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When 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is divided by 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 , the remainder is −2.
Find the value of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
Ans.:
Let 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0, i.e. 𝑥𝑥 = 1
𝑓𝑓 1 = 6 + 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 4 = 3, i.e. 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 1 eq(1)
2 2 3 2 2 2
Similarly 𝑓𝑓 − =6 − + 𝑎𝑎 − + 𝑏𝑏 − − 4 = −2
3 3 3 3
i.e. 2𝑎𝑎 − 3𝑏𝑏 = 17 eq(2)
2 × 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(1) − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(2) gives 5𝑏𝑏 = −15, i.e. 𝑏𝑏 = −3 13
Subs into eq(1) gives 𝑎𝑎 = 4