What is a network topology?

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and

connections in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches,
routers and software with switch and router features. Network topologies are
often represented as a graph.

Network topologies describe the arrangement of networks and the relative

location of traffic flows. Administrators can use network topology diagrams to
determine the best placements for each node and the optimal path for traffic
flow. With a well-defined and planned-out network topology, an organization
can more easily locate faults and fix issues, improving its data transfer
efficiency.

Network geometry can be defined as the physical topology and the logical

topology. Network topology diagrams are shown with devices depicted as
network nodes and the connections between them as lines. The type of
network topology differs depending on how the network needs to be arranged.

What are the types of network topologies?

Network topologies are categorized as either a physical network topology or
logical network topology. The physical topology of a network is the physical
layout of nodes and connections. Connections include the lines in diagrams
that connect nodes, such as Ethernet or Digital Subscriber Line wires, fiber
optics and microwaves. Logical network topologies define how a network is
set up, including which nodes connect and how, as well as the pattern of data
transfers.
 This image
shows different layouts of network topologies.

There are several types of topologies. For example, physical topologies

include the following:

 Bus network. In the bus network topology, every node is connected in

series along a single cable. This arrangement is found today primarily in
cable broadband distribution networks.

 Star network. In the star network topology, a central device connects to all

other nodes through a central hub. Switched local area networks based on
Ethernet switches and most wired home and office networks have a
physical star topology.

 Ring network. In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a

closed-loop configuration. Some rings pass data in one direction only,
while others are capable of transmission in both directions. These
bidirectional ring networks are more resilient than bus networks since
 traffic can reach a node by moving in either direction. Metro networks
based on Synchronous Optical Network technology are the primary
example of ring networks.

 Mesh network. The mesh network topology links nodes with connections

so that multiple paths between at least some points of the network are
available. A network is considered to be fully meshed if all nodes are
directly connected to all other nodes and partially meshed if only some
nodes have multiple connections to others. Meshing multiple paths
increases resiliency but also increases cost. However, more space is
needed for dedicated links.

 Tree network. The tree network topology consists of one root node, and
all other nodes are connected in a hierarchy. The topology itself is
connected in a star configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks,
including data center networks, are configured as trees.

 Hybrid network. The hybrid network topology is any combination of two or

more topologies. Hybrid topologies typically provide exceptional flexibility,
as they can accommodate a number of setups. For example, different
departments in the same organization may opt for personalized network
topologies that are more adaptable to their network needs.

A logical topology for a network refers to the relationship between nodes and
logical connections -- defining how data should transfer.

A logical connection differs from a physical path when information can take
an invisible hop at intermediate points. In optical networks, optical add-drop
multiplexers create logical optical paths because the ADM hop is not visible to
the endpoint nodes. Networks based on virtual circuits or tunnels have a
physical topology based on the real connection medium -- fiber, for example --
and a logical topology based on the circuits and tunnels.
Sometimes, the logical topology refers to the topology as the user sees it.
Internet Protocol (IP) and Ethernet networks are two common examples. They
are fully meshed at the connection level since any user can connect with any
other user. This is true unless some means of blocking unwanted
connections, like a firewall, is introduced. Full connectivity is a property of the
network protocols used -- IP and Ethernet -- not of the network topology itself.

As an example, logical bus and logical ring topologies can be used to define
data transmission flows. A logical bus topology features nodes that broadcast
data to the entire network. Other nodes on the network check to see if the
data is meant for them. Logical ring topology only allows one node to transfer
data at a time.

What is an IP Address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned to the devices
connected to a computer network that uses the IP for communication.

IP address act as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network. It

also helps you to develop a virtual connection between a destination and a
source. The IP address is also called IP number or internet address. It helps
you to specify the technical format of the addressing and packets scheme.
Most networks combine TCP with IP.
IP Header Classes:
Max
Address Subnet Example Leading
Class number of Application
Range masking IP bits
networks
IP Used for
Class 1 to 126 255.0.0.0 1.1.1.1 8 128 large number
A of hosts.
IP Used for
128 to
Class 255.255.0.0 128.1.1.1 16 16384 medium size
191
B network.
IP
192 to Used for local
Class 255.255.255.0 192.1.11. 24 2097157
223 area n
C

Class A Network
This IP address class is used when there are a large number of hosts. In a
Class A type of network, the first 8 bits (also called the first octet) identify the
network, and the remaining have 24 bits for the host into that network.

An example of a Class A address is 102.168.212.226. Here, “102” helps you

identify the network and 168.212.226 identify the host.

Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is

reserved for loopback and diagnostic functions.
Class B Network
In a B class IP address, the binary addresses start with 10. In this IP address,
the class decimal number that can be between 128 to 191. The number 127 is
reserved for loopback, which is used for internal testing on the local machine.
The first 16 bits (known as two octets) help you identify the network. The other
remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.

An example of Class B IP address is 168.212.226.204, where *168 212*

identifies the network and *226.204* helps you identify the Hut network host.

Class C Network
Class C is a type of IP address that is used for the small network. In this class,
three octets are used to indent the network. This IP ranges between 192 to
223.

In this type of network addressing method, the first two bits are set to be 1,
and the third bit is set to 0, which makes the first 24 bits of the address them
and the remaining bit as the host address. Mostly local area network used
Class C IP address to connect with the network.

Example for a Class C IP address:

192.168.178.1
ROUTER
A router is a device that communicates between the internet and the devices in your home that
connect to the internet. As its name implies, it “routes” traffic between the devices and the
internet.
A router is a key part of your home’s internet network. Thanks to it, your laptop, smartphone,
smart TV, and other devices can connect to your home Wi-Fi. 
With the right kind of router, you can enjoy faster internet speeds, help protect your family
from cyberthreats and hackers, and avoid those maddening Wi-Fi dead spots.
You don’t have to be a computer genius to know what kind of router you need. Simply
understanding the basics — such as a router definition and knowing what does a router do —
will help you choose the right equipment for your home network.

How do routers work?

A typical home has a range of internet-connected devices — personal computers,
tablets, smartphones, printers, thermostats, smart TVs, and more. Thanks to your
router, these devices form a network. Your home’s router directs incoming and
outgoing internet traffic on that network in the fastest and most efficient way.
The information traveling on your home network could be an email, a movie, or a live
feed from your baby cam, each of which takes up varying amounts of bandwidth.
Making sure that information is delivered quickly and correctly is a big task — and
getting bigger. As you add more and more devices — think Internet of Things — you
are constantly asking your router to do more.

How modems differ from routers

What is a router vs. a modem? It’s easy to get a router confused with a modem. But
these two devices have very different jobs. In fact, without a modem, all you’d have is
your local network with no way to connect to the internet.
The modem’s job is to bring the internet service from your provider — often a cable or
phone company — into your home. This service then connects to your router, which
delivers internet connectivity to your home network.
When most internet service was delivered over telephone lines — better known as dial-
up internet — modems enabled communication between the digital devices in your
home and the analog signals used on telephone lines. With higher-speed internet
connections, including cable and satellite, modems play a similar but different role. 

What are the different types of routers?

When it comes to routers, there are only two types you’ll need to consider:

1. Wireless routers. A wireless router connects directly to a modem by a cable. This

allows it to receive information from — and transmit information to — the internet. The
router then creates and communicates with your home Wi-Fi network using built- in
antennas. This provides all the devices on your home network with internet access.
2. Wired routers. A wired router connects directly to computers through wired
connections. They usually have a port that connects to the modem to  communicate with
the internet. Another port — or ports — allows the wired  router to connect to computers
and other devices to distribute information.

What to look for in a router

Most internet service providers (ISPs) give you a router and a modem — or a
combination of the two — for a subscription fee that you typically pay each month.
These routers may not be the best fit for your usage, so you might consider purchasing
one that works better for your needs. Before buying a router, here are a few things to
look for.

Wi-Fi coverage
“wireless fidelity," Wi-Fi signals within a home largely depend on the size of the
home and the barriers that prevent signals from reaching their destinations. Fireplaces,
mirrors, and thick walls are just a few common obstacles that block Wi-Fi signals. Look
for a router that has the capability to reach the far corners of your home. Also, look for
one that has a mesh network — a system that uses a main router and a series of
additional routers — to boost and extend the Wi-Fi capabilities across a home.

Wi-Fi performance
Router technology has changed over time. Make sure you have a router that uses the
latest technology and has updated firmware. MU-MIMO is one such new technology. It
stands for multi-user, multiple-input, multiple-output technology. It allows Wi-Fi routers
to communicate with multiple devices simultaneously. This decreases the wait time and
improves network speed.

Wi-Fi security
Cybercriminals can access your home network and install malware and viruses in your
devices. They can also spy on the information you are sending through email and the
files you download. Clever hackers can even crack your home Wi-Fi network to snatch
your password and log-in information to your online bank accounts and credit card
portals.
Hackers work with an arsenal of tools to do this. Having a router that provides network-
level protection could help block cyberattacks at the port of entry. Look for a router that
has built-in security features like automatic updates, device quarantine, and signed
firmware updates. The more protection, the better.

Wi-Fi controls
Routers have become a very important part of the connected home. Make sure you buy
a router that you can control easily. The latest routers are easy to install and use. Some
come with user-friendly apps that help you with guest networks, parental controls, user
time limits, and network management.
Whether you are setting up a new router in your home or upgrading an existing one,
make sure you get to know all the workings of your new router and if it is designed to
meet your needs.

Router FAQs
What does a router do?
A router connects devices such as your laptop, tablets, smartphones, and smart TV to
your home internet network. Without it, your devices would not be able to connect to the
internet.
Is a router the same as a modem?
No. Your Internet Service Provider – often a cable or phone company – will provide you
with both a modem and a router. The modem is the device that brings internet service
from your provider to your home. The router then allows your devices to connect to this
internet service.
Where do you get a router?
Your Internet Service Provider, which is often a cable or phone company, will send you
a router after you order your internet service. You can also shop around for a router on
your own if you prefer an alternative type.
What barriers might hamper your Wi-Fi signal?
The placement of your router can play an important role in how strong your internet
connection is and whether you encounter around connectivity dead spots. That’s
because fireplaces, mirrors, and thick walls are just a few common obstacles that can
block Wi-Fi signals. Make sure, then, to place your router so that these barriers don’t
impede your connectivity.
What is a mesh network?
 With a mesh network, you’ll have one main router and additional satellite routers that 
you can place throughout your home. This type of set-up will boost the strength of your
Wi-Fi signal and help avoid connectivity dead spots.

20 Major Motherboard Components

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit) chip

2. RAM (Random Access Memory) slots

3. Southbridge/northbridge

4. BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)

5. I/O port

6. USB (Universal Serial Bus)

7. CPU slot

8. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot

9. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slot

10. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot

11. Parallel port

12. FDC (Floppy-Disk Controller)

13. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) controller

14. CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide-semiconductor) battery

15. Power supply connector

16. Mouse and keyboard ports

17. DIP (Dual In-line Package) switch

18. Jumper

19. Heat sink/heatsink (cooling system)

20. Clock generator

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit) chip

CPU is the electronic circuitry in a computer that executes instructions that

make up a program. It is also known as a central processor or the main
processor. The CPU executes the basic logic, arithmetic, controlling as well as
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the desktop
programs.

2. RAM (Random Access Memory) slots

RAM is a kind of computer memory that can be read and written. It is mainly
used to save data and machine code. A RAM device permits data to be read
or written in nearly the same amount of time no matter where the data’s
physical location is in the memory. Compared to the direct-access storage
devices like hard drives, CD/DVD and magnetic tapes, RAM media is much
faster for data reading and writing.
3. Southbridge/northbridge

They are the two chips in the core logic chipset on the motherboard. Typically,
the southbridge implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a
northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture.

The northbridge, also known as host bridge or Memory Controller Hub, is

connected directly to the CPU via the front-side bus (FSB). It is responsible for
tasks requiring the highest performance. Together with the southbridge, they
manage communications between the CPU and other motherboard
components.

Southbridge
Updated: 10/07/2019 by Computer Hope

The southbridge is an IC on the motherboard responsible for the hard

drive controller, I/O controller and integrated hardware. Integrated
hardware can include the sound card and video card if on the
motherboard, USB, PCI, ISA, IDE, BIOS, and Ethernet.

The southbridge gets its name for commonly being South of

the PCI bus. Below is a graphic illustration of the ASUS P5AD2-E
motherboard with explanations of each of the major components
including the southbridge. It is common for the northbridge and
southbridge to have a heat sink. Also, the northbridge is usually
slightly larger than the southbridge.
North Bridge

North Bridge is bridge that manages communication between Central

Processing Unit (CPU) and parts of motherboard. After CPU, North Bridge chip
is essentially main component of motherboard and is only motherboard circuit
besides CPU that normally runs at full processor bus speed (Front side bus).
System controller and memory controller functions are mostly implemented by
North Bridge. North Bridge chip is usually located near upper edge of board and
hence it has got unique name. It is core of chipset and incorporates interface
between processor and rest of motherboard. 
Functions of the North Bridge : 
The major functions of the North Bridge are described below. 
 
1. Processor Support – 
One of most important decisions made by anyone choosing or building a
new PC in which processor is desired. Motherboard, in particular chipset,
decides what type, speed and even what number of processors to use on
motherboard. Processor support functions of the. 
 
2. L2 Cache Support – 
North Bridge of chipset contains cache controller circuitry to control
functioning of Level 2 (L2) cache. Cache buffers recent memory accesses by
processor, which improves performance drastically since it operates much
faster than system memory. 
 
3. Main Memory Support – 
As a memory controller, North Bridge links processor to memory system
logically and electronically, establishes main memory and cache
architectures, and assures ne reliability of data stored in RAM chips. As
there are different kinds of memory and different speeds of RAM chips, a
North Bridge chip supports a specific type of RAM at specific speeds. 
 
4. Maximum Memory Support – 
The chipset dictates maximum amount of RAM possible on the
motherboard. 
 
5. DRAM Support – 
North Bridge decides type of memory motherboard can use. Changing
memory type impacts way that memory is read and written to, which is
controlled by chipset. Moreover, some chipsets are better than others with
certain types of memory, i.e. a chipset can be optimized to provide faster
access to a certain kind of memory, while being less efficient in using a
 different type of memory. 
 
6. AGP functionality – 
North Bridge also determines AGP functionality on motherboard. Some
chipsets have integrated video, while others support AGP slot on
motherboard. AGP slot is used to house video card. AGP is essential for
high performance graphics cards. 

4. BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)

BIOS, also called system BIOS, PC BIOS or ROM BIOS, is firmware that is
used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process; and to
provide runtime services for operating system and programs. The BIOS
firmware is the first software to run when powered on; it is re-installed on a
PC’s system board.

5. I/O port

Input/output ports are the connections between the CPU and peripheral
devices on a motherboard. There are two complementary methods to perform
input and output processes: memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port-mapped
I/O (PMIO). Alternatively, you can use dedicated I/O processors, called
channels on mainframe computers, which execute their own instructions. 

6. USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB is an industry standard that creates specifications for connectors, cables

and protocols for connection; power supply (interfacing) and communication
among computers, computer peripherals as well as other desktops. There are
a great many USB hardware including several different connectors, of which
USB-C is the latest kind.  

7. CPU slot

A CPU slot, also called a CPU socket or Processor socket, contains one or
more mechanical components that provide mechanical and electrical
connections between the PCB and a microprocessor (CPU). Therefore, you
can install a CPU on a motherboard without soldering.

8. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot

Peripheral Component Interconnect is a local computer bus for connecting

hardware to a computer. It supports all the functions of a processor bus. PCI
is usually been called Conventional PCI to distinguish it from its successor
PCI Express (PCIe, PCI-e or PCI-E).

PCI Express is a high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard

designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X and AGP bus standard. It is a
general-use motherboard interface for the graphics card, SSDs, hard drives,
Wi-Fi as well as Ethernet hardware connections.

9. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slot

AGP was designed as a high-speed point-to-point channel for connecting a

video card (graphics card) to a computer system. Primarily, it was used to
assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. AGP is originally designed
to be a descendant of the PCI series of connections for video cards. Yet, it
was replaced by the PCIe slots.

10. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot

ISA is the 16-bit internal bus of IMB PC/AT and similar computers that are
based on Intel 80286 and its immediate successors during the 1980s. It was
backward compatible with the 8-bit bus of the 8088-based IBM PC largely.

There once was an attempt to extend ISA into a 32-bit bus, called Extended
Industry Standard Architecture (EISA). The attempt wasn’t very successful
and the EISA was largely replaced by the later VESA Local Bus and the PCI
bus.

11. Parallel port

A parallel port is a kind of interface for attaching peripherals on desktops. The

name of this kind of port is derived from the way the data is sent. That is, the
parallel ports send multiple bits of data at the same time. Serial interfaces, on
the contrary, send bits one data at once. To achieve parallel data transfer,
there are multiple data lines in the parallel port cables. The parallel port cable
is larger than the cable of a contemporary serial port, which only has one data
line within. 

12. FDC (Floppy-Disk Controller)

FDC is a special-purpose chip and associated disk controller circuitry. It

controls and directs reading from and writing to a computer’s floppy disk
drive (FDD).

13. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) controller

The devices used for connecting IDE, Ethernet, FireWire, USB and other
systems can be called host adapter. So, the IDE controller refers to the host
adapter. A host adapter, also called a host controller or a host bus adapter
(HBA), connects a computer (acting as the host system) to other network and
storage devices.
14. CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide-semiconductor) battery

CMOS battery, also called memory battery, clock battery or real-time clock
(RTC), is generally a CR2032 lithium coin cell. The lifespan of the CMOS
battery is estimated to be three years when the power supply unit (PSU) is
unplugged or switch off.  

15. Power supply connector

A power supply provides the necessary electrical power to let the computer to
work. It takes standard 110-Volt AC (Alternative Current) power to DC (Direct
Current) power of 12 Volt, 5 Volt, 3.3 Volt, etc.

16. Mouse and keyboard ports

All computers have a keyboard port connected directly to the motherboard.

There are two types of connectors. The oldest one is a special DIN
(Deutsches Institut für Normung) connector while the newest one is the mini
DIN PS/2-style connector. Many PCs use the PS/2-style connectors for both
keyboard and mouse; and the connectors are marked clearly for different
usage.  

17. DIP (Dual In-line Package) switch

A DIP switch is a manual electric switch packaged with others in a standard

dual in-line package. The term may refer to an individual switch or the whole
unit. The DIP switch is designed to be used on a printed circuit board
(motherboard) together with other electronic motherboard components. It is
usually used to customize the behavior of an electronic device for specific
situations.

18. Jumper

A jumper is a short length of conductor that is used to close, open or bypass

part of an electronic circuit. Typically, jumpers are used to set up or configure
printed circuit boards like the motherboard.
19. Heat sink/heatsink (cooling system)

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated
by parts of motherboard into a fluid medium like liquid or air. The fluid
medium will dissipate away from the device. Thus, the temperature of the
device is kept within a tolerable range. On the motherboard, the heatsink is
usually used to cool CPU, GPU (graphics processing unit), chipsets and RAM
modules.

20. Clock generator

A clock generator is an electronic oscillator (circuit) that produces a clock

signal for usage in synchronizing a circuit’s operation. The clock signal ranges
between high and low frequencies, thus creating a metronome for the
coordination of actions.

ATX

ATX Motherboard

A full-size ATX board has a height of 305mm and a width of 244mm, or 12 x 9.6
inches. When you’re planning a build, if you’re picking up an ATX motherboard,
you’re going to want to pair it with an ATX-compatible PC case. These can either
be super-towers, full-towers, middle-towers, or mini-towers. As long as they’re
built to support the ATX format, then the board will fit 10/10 times.
The ATX board is built for running all sorts of systems. With at least four RAM
DIMMs, it can support dual or quad-channel memory, giving the user better
performance in specific applications over a board that doesn’t support this type of
configuration.

ATX boards typically have seven expansion slots, allowing you to run up to
four GPUs with Nvidia SLI or AMD Crossfire if your case and power supply are fit
to power and house such a system. Moreover, the large number of expansion
slots allows users to install quality-of-life upgrades, like a better network card that
can even support WiFi, Bluetooth adapters, sound cards, USB hubs, and more. 

This type of motherboard usually provides manufacturers with enough space to

install big heatsinks, an intricate VRM (voltage regulator module, we’ll explain
later), a bigger rear IO, and more SATA and USB header connectors, giving you
a better experience.

Extended ATX (EATX)

EATX Motherboard example

Extended ATX boards are slightly bigger ATX boards – I know, kind of
anticlimactic. These boards are slightly bigger, measuring 305x330mm (12 x 13
inches rather than 12 x 9.6), giving you more connectors. They sometimes have
dual-socket support, allowing you to run two CPUs using the same board, but
that’s not always the case.
 ATX Power Supply Pinout

The general size of an ATX PSU is 6” in width, 3.25” in height, and 5.5” in
depth. On the other hand, the general size of a micro ATX PSU is 5” in width,
2.5” in height, and 4” in depth. However, it may vary to different models.
The ATX  power supply generates three main voltage outputs that are: +3.3 V ; +5 V ; and +12 V.
Low-power −12 V and +5 VSB (standby) supplies are also generated by this power supply.  The  −5
V output was originally needed since it was supplied on the ISA bus, however it became obsolete
with the removal of the ISA bus in modern day PCs and has been removed in later versions of the
standard ATX power supply.

Originally the motherboard was powered by one 20-pin connector. An ATX power supply has several
peripheral power connectors. In modern desktop computer system, there are two connectors for the
motherboard: a 4-pin auxiliary connector providing additional power to the CPU, and a main 24-pin
power supply connector, an extension of the original 20-pin version.

Here the ATX Power Supply Pinout:

There are 4 wires which have special functions:

 PS_ON# or “Power On” is a signal from the motherboard to the power supply. When the
line is connected to GND (by the motherboard), the power supply will turned on. It is
internally pulled up to +5 V inside the power supply. To check your stand alone ATX power
supply, simply connect the PS_ON# wire (green wire) to the grounding wire (black).
 PWR_OK or “Power Good” is an output from the power supply that indicates that its output
has stabilized and is ready for use. It remains low for a brief time (100–500 ms) after the
PS_ON# signal is pulled low.
 +3.3 V sense should be connected to the +3.3 V on the motherboard or its power connector.
This connection allows for remote sensing of the voltage drop in the power supply wiring.
 +5 VSB or “+5 V standby” supplies power even when the rest of the supply lines are off.
This can be used to power the circuitry that controls the Power On signal.

Standard ATX power supplies typically have the main power connector P1, additional 12V
connectors, as well as peripheral, floppy drive, serial ATA, and PCI Express® receptacles,
which we will describe below.
For the operation basics of SMPS PSU see our power supply tutorial. The original ATX
systems had 20-pin main connector P1. When PCI Express® bus was introduced, PCIe cards
needed up to 75W extra. To provide the additional wattage, the old part has been replaced by a
new 24-pin P1. Accordingly, different ATX-style PSU may use different number of power wires:
see the pinout diagram to the right. The colors in this chart represent recommended wire colors
in the PSU cables. These diagrams reflect the front view. The colors are shown here just for
reference (you won't see them from the front). The P1 uses Molex Housing Mini-Fit Jr. P/N# 39-
01-2240 style (old part number was 5557-24R), contacts: 44476-1112. Mating motherboard
header is Molex 44206-0007. The old socket was 39-01-2200 and the mating header was 39-
29-9202. People often want to know what to do if there is a mismatch. Well, under certain
conditions a new PSU can still be used with an old PC and vise versa- see our guide on
connecting 20-pin PSU to 24-pin motherboard.

If you want to do some testing of a stand alone unit, to start it up outside of a PC case you need
to short PS_ON# line to the common. Otherwise, only 5V standby voltage will be present.

Under normal operation, PS_ON# is activated when you press and release the
computer power button while it is in standby mode. Some Apple models have this signal
reversed.
Also note that many brands such as Apple's Power Mac, Dell (during certain years),
Compaq and HP used proprietary boards with entirely different pin designations- see
this for info on some brand name power supplies.

All voltages are referenced to the same common (if you need to measure any voltage,
connect the return lead of your voltmeter to any of the COM contacts).

The rated current of the main Molex connector is 6A per contact. This means with the
old 20-pin style you can't get more than 18A from 3.3V and 24A from 5V. That's why in
early 2000's, some motherboards with 3.3V >18A and 5V >24A (mainly dual CPU AMD
systems) used an auxiliary 6-pin power cable. It was removed from ATX12V spec v2.0
in 2003 because extra wires were added to P1. For more information on form factors
see our computer PSU tutorial.

When the industry began using voltage regulation modules (VRM) running off 12V2 to
energize CPU and other motherboard components, the bulk of the wattage shifted to 12
volt buss. Most of today's motherboards supply their CPU with a separate 12 volt cable,
which has 4 pins for ATX style (sometimes called P4) or 8 or more pins for EPS and
non-standard high-power systems. Some PSUs may have three or four 12 volt 4-pin
connectors. The p/n for a standard P4 is 39-01-2040 or equivalent.

Peripheral power connector goes to disk drives, colling fans, and other smaller devices.
There may also be a floppy drive cable.

Note that the wire numbers in Serial Power ATA (SATA) connector are not 1:1. There
are three pins for each voltage. One pin from each voltage is used for pre-charge in the
backplane. The mating serial plug of ATA devices contains both signal and power
segments.

Some units may also have an optional 2x3 socket that can be used for auxiliary
functions, such as fan monitoring and control, IEEE-1394 power source, and a remote

sense of 3.3 V.

PSU over 450W designed for high-end discrete graphics cards normally have additional

2x3 or 2x4 connectors. They supply extra current to graphics that require more than 75
watts total.
The 6-pin PCI Express® receptacle is Molex p/n 0455590002.

If you want all essential information on power supply design (topologies, equations,
magnetics, etc.) get my SMPS reference.

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 USB Cables Information
Show all USB Cables Manufacturers

USB cables are designed specifically to

connect devices that use the universal serial bus (USB) protocol. They are used to connect personal
computers (PCs) and peripherals such as mice, keyboards, printers, digital cameras, and mass storage
devices. USB cables are also used in factory environments, sometimes with a locking mechanism, for
connecting USB industrial I/O devices to computers.
The USB specification was designed for desktop environments and limits the length of cables to 5
meters (m) between full-speed devices and 3 m between low-speed devices. To connect a PC to a
USB device over longer distances, USB hubs can be connected serially with 5 m cables. USB bridges
are often used for direction connections between the USB ports of two PCs.

Types of USB Cables

USB cables are generally organized according to the USB version that they support. Most suppliers
offer three types of cables.

 USB 1.1 cables support data transfer rates up to 12 megabits per second (Mbps).
 USB 2.0 cables support data transfer rates up to 480 Mbps.
 USB 3.0 cables support data transfer rates of up to 5.0 Gbit/s.

USB Cable 5 Meters