Barriers to Effective Communication

 There are many why interpersonal communication may fail. In many

communications, the message (what is being expressed) may not be
received exactly the way the sender intended. It is, therefore
important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their
message is clearly understood.

 There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at

any stage in the communication process.

What is Barriers?
- Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you
therefore risk wasting both time and/or money by causing confusion and
misunderstanding. Effective communication involves overcoming these
barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.

Some Barriers to Communication

1. The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar, and/or technical.
Ex.
 BTW- By the Way
 CYA- See you Around
 LOL- Laughing Out Loud
 BFF- Best Friends Forever
 TTYL- Talk to you later
2. Emotional Barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to
express their emotions and some topics may be completely ‘off-limits’ or
taboo.

Taboo- activity that is forbidden or sacred based on religious beliefs or

morals. Breaking a taboo is extremely objectionable in society as a whole.
Around the world, an act may taboo in one culture and not in another.
Ex.
 Slavery - work for no pay and humans treated as property.
 Suicide
 Wearing shoes inside- not only in the house but also in some
places.
 Stealing
 Talking to yourself in public
 Nudity in public
 Chewing with your mouth closed
3. Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.

Physical disabilities- such as hearing problems or speech disabilities.

4. Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see

the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture, and general body language can
make communication less effective.

5. Stereotyping. Expectations and prejudices may lead to false

assumptions or stereotyping. People often hear what they expect to hear
rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusion.

6. Cultural differences. The normal social interaction vary greatly in

different cultures, as do the way in which emotions are expressed. For
instance, the concept of personal space varies between cultures and
between different social settings.

A categorization of Barriers to Communication

 Language Barriers- Linguistic ability may act as a barrier to

communication. However, even when communicating in the same
language the terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if it
is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For instance, jargons, not
all people can comprehend it.

 Socio-Physchological Barriers- arise due to limitations of the human

body and mind, resulting in discomfort and/or ill-health.

 Physical Barriers- geographic distance between the sender and

receiver(s).

 Systematic Barriers- may exist in structures and organizations where

there are inefficient or inappropriate information systems and
communication channels, or where there is lack of understanding of
the roles and responsibilities for communication.

 Attitudinal Barriers- behaviors or perceptions that prevent people

from communicating effectively. This may result from personal
conflicts, poor management, resistance, to change or a lack of
motivation. Effective receivers of messages should attempt to
overcome their own attitudinal barriers.
Barriers to communication also includes:
 Talking too much, not giving mentee time t o express himself or
herself.
 Being critical and/or judgemental
 Laughing at or humiliating
 Contracting or arguing with mentee’s
 Being disrespectful of mentee’s beliefs, way of life, method of
providing patient care
 Lack of trust and support

Overcoming Barriers to Effective Communication

 American Management Association has formulated the ff.
Commandments for effective communication.
1. Clarifying ideas before communication
2. Knowing purpose of communication
3. Understanding physical and human environments of communication
4. Consulting others in planning communication
5. Understanding contents and environments of communication
6. Understanding value of communication to the receiver
7. Taking follow up action
8. Understanding importance of communication
9. Taking actions congruent with communication
10. Good listening
Literary Devices
- everything you need to know to analyze figurative language in poetry,
drama, literature, speeches, etc.

TEK
- Students understand, make inferences and draw conclusions about how
an author's sensory language creates imagery in literary text and provide
evidence from text to support their understanding

Figurative Language
-language that is not meant to be taken literally, or word for word.

 Imagery/ sensory language

- the use of language to create mental images and sensory
impressions for emotional effect and intensity.
Ex.
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the Milky Way

from Daffodils by William Wordsworth

 Simile
- a comparison of two things that are essentially different, using the
words like or as.
Ex.
O my love is like a red, red rose
from Robert Burn’s “A Red, Red Rose”

 Metaphor
- a subtle comparison in which an author describes a person or thing
using words that are not meant to be taken literally.
Ex.
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances

From As You Like It by William Shakespeare

  Extended Metaphor
- a metaphor introduced and then further developed throughout all
or part of a literary work, especially a poem—comparison can be made
to something else not mentioned in the poem.
Ex.
Nothing Gold Can Stay by Robert Frost

Nature's first green is gold

Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf's a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day.
Nothing gold can stay.

Comparison= life to a sunrise

 Personification
- figurative language in which nonhuman things or abstractions are
represented as having human qualities.
Ex.
Necessity is the mother of all invention.

 Hyperbole
- an intentional and extreme exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
Ex.
This books weighs a ton.

 Idiom
- Phrases people use in everyday language which do not make sense
literally, but the meaning is understood.
Ex.
Just hold your horses if you think idioms are hard! I’m here to
let the cat out of the bag. Idioms are a dime a dozen, and
learning them is a piece of cake.

Sound Devices
- Focus on the sound of words, rather than their meaning.
 Repetition
- when an author repeats a word,phrase, sentence, or stanza for
effect or emphasis.
Ex.
The chorus or refrain of almost any song

 Rhyme
- the repetition of end sounds in two or more words or phrases that
appear close to each other in a poem.
Ex.
Oh lovely orange
You golden treat,
Oh tell me why aren’t
You easy to eat?

 Alliteration
- the repetition of a sound at the beginning of words.
Ex.
Coca-cola, Tiny Tim, Mickey Mouse

 Assonance
- repetition of vowel sounds. Often creates near-rhyme.

 Consonance
- repetition of consonant sounds at the end or middle of words (not
rhyme).

 Onomatopoeia
- a word that sounds like the sound it makes.
Ex.
pop, crackle, screech, zip, fizz

Other Literary Devices

 Symbol
-an object, person, place, or action that has a meaning in itself, and
that also stands for something larger than itself.
Ex.
A dove symbolizes peace.
A black crow or raven symbolizes death.
A wedding ring symbolizes marriage
 Allusion
- reference to a person, place, event, or literary work that a writer
expects the reader to recognize and understand. It may come from
history, geography, literature, art, music, or religion.
Ex.
You were Romeo, you were throwing pebbles
And my daddy said, "Stay away from Juliet”

“Love Story”, by Taylor Swift

 Oxymoron
- a figure of speech in which opposites are paired for effect.
Ex.
Deafening silence
The living dead

 Aphorism
- concise statement of a general truth or principle; like a truism.
Ex.
A penny saved is a penny earned. - Ben Franklin
The man who does not read good books has no
advantage over the man who cannot read them. -Mark Twain.

 Epigraph
- quotation at the beginning of a literary work to introduce its theme.
Ex.
But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil,
thou shalt not eat of it:
for in the day that thou eatest there of
thou shalt surely die.
(Genesis 2:17)
--from Twilight by Stephanie Meyer

 Irony
- literary technique used to create meaning that seems to contradict
the literal meaning or events.

 Verbal Irony
-use of words in which the intended meaning is contrary to the
literal meaning.
Ex.
 “Are we gonna do anything today?” or “Is class gonna be fun
today?”

 Situational Irony
- implying through plot or character that a situation is quite different
from the way it is presented.
Ex.
'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz', Scarecrow always had a
brain; Tin Man always had a heart; Dorothy could have
always gone home; the Cowardly Lion wasn’t a coward
after all.
 Dramatic Irony
-dramatic device in which a character says or does something that
he or she does not fully grasp but which is understood by the
audience.
Ex.
Lois Lane is constantly trying to get an interview
with Superman, but she actually sees him every
day and doesn’t know it (Clark Kent).

 Sarcasm
- a bitter form of irony, can be intended to tease or hurt; often
insinuated by the tone; late Greek sarkasmós, f. sarkázein tear flesh,
gnash the teeth, speak bitterly, f. sárx, sark- flesh.
Ex.
“I’m proud of you, Mom. You’re like Christopher Columbus.
You discovered something millions of people knew about
before you.” –Lisa Simpson

 Paradox
- a seemingly contradictory statement that on closer analysis reveals
a deeper truth.
Ex.
“I can resist anything but temptation.” --Oscar Wilde
Communicative Competence and Language
Functions

“Communication must be HOT. That’s Honest, Open, and Two-

way. “

Communicative Competence
 Means knowing what to say, how to say it, and when to say it. It
also means understanding what others are saying in the language
they are speaking in.
 Involves many different skills that enable a person to relate well to
other people.
 Can be achieved in three aspects- STRUCTURAL ASPECT,
LEXICAL ASPECT, AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECT

I. STRUCTURAL ASPECT
- involves knowing the form of utterance to be used such as pronunciation
and grammar. Speakers should pronounce words in such a way that they
are not misunderstood by listeners.
Example: beat – bit neat-knit feel-filll

II. LEXICAL ASPECT

-also involves properly understanding and using words, phrases, and
idioms. In particular, several words can have similar meanings. Yet, each
word has its own nuance, a subtle difference it has from other words with
similar meaning.

Example: She saw a tall building. Correct

She saw a tall girl. Correct
She saw a high girl. Incorrect

Collocation- the proper combination of words with other particular

words.
A. Understanding the connotation of words
-As a part of communicative competence, a speaker must use the word
with an appropriate connotation. Connotation can vary between cultures,
groups of people, generations, or even between individuals. A speaker
must be familiar with its use through constant exposure to the language.

B. Using Proper Idioms

- The Communicative competence also requires the use of the
appropriate idiom for a given situation. Knowing which idiom
to use is best acquired by being exposed to situations where such idioms
are used.

C. Understanding Non-Literal Use of Words or Expressions

- Part of being competent at the social aspect of communication involves
understanding the different ways people use language. Also a part of
being competent is understanding figures of speech:
 Understatement- when a person describe something less than
what is actually is.
 Hyperbole- exaggerated expression in order to produce
emphasis.
 Irony- saying the opposite of what you mean.

III. SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECT

- The most important aspect of being competent at communication.
Relating well with people through words and even actions. As the world
grows closer, there is an ever-growing need to become more sensitive to
becoming competent in communicating with people from a different
cultural background.

Competence in Specific Functions of Language

A person who is competent in communication knows and uses the proper
forms used in specific language. He or she must know how to use polite
expressions and be aware of impolite expressions related to language functions.
Below are several functions of communication. Each of them has different
forms:
 Expressing one’s opinion
 Asking for, offering, accepting and rejecting help
 Interrupting a speaker
 Asking for and giving directions
 Making and accepting apologies
 Giving and responding to compliments
 Asking for, giving and rejecting advice
 Making requests

REMEMBER TO:
 Avoid topics or unproductive comments
 Understanding Non-verbal cues

Hymes
- the ability to interpret messages and negotiate meaning within specific
context.

Savignon
- An interpersonal construct examined by means of overt performance of
two or more people in the process of communication.

James Cummins (1980)

CALP (Cognitive /Academic Language Proficiency)
 Context Reduced
 Surface featured of language
 Focus on form
 Used for classroom exercises

BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills)

 Context Embedded
 Communicative capacity of language
 Focus on meaning
 Used for daily interpersonal exchanges

Canale & Swain

Grammatical Competence
 Lexical items
 Morphology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Phonology

Sociolinguistic Competence
 Sociocultural rules
 Understanding social context
Discourse Competence
 Ability of connecting sentences
 Intersentential Relationships

Strategic Competence
 Verbal/nonverbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns due to
performance variables or insufficient competence.

Bachman (1990)
Locutionary act: Performance of an utterance
Illocutionary act: Intended meaning
Perlocutionary Act: Consequence of the utterance )whether intended or
not)

Strategic Competence

Language Functions
Purposes we accomplish with language:
 Stating
 Requesting
 Greeting
 Responding
Halliday’s 7 Functions
1. Instrumental- Certain event happen. Particular conditions change(Ex.
Go Out!)
2. Regulatory- Control of events. Setting rules. (Ex. If it’s not cold, stay
outside)
3. Representational- Conveying facts and knowledge. Representing
reality as it is. (Ex. Yogurt is white!)
4. Interactional- To establish and maintain contact. Knowledge of slang,
jargon, jokes, etc. (Ex. What’s up dude?!)
5. Personal- To express feelings and emotions. (Ex. Oh dear! I feel so
blue today!)
6. Heuristic- Seeking answers(usually in the form of questions)(Ex.
Where do babies come from?!)
7. Imaginative- To create ideas and imaginations. Going beyond the
real world.(Ex. Love is metaphysical gravity)

Functional Approach
 Notional-Functional syllabuses
Notion- referred both to abstract concepts such as existence, space, time,
quantity, and quality.
Function- correspond to what we already talked about Language
Functions I,e. instrumental, representational, etc.

Discourse Analysis
 The examination of the relationship between forms and functions of
language.
 It’s language beyond the sentence.
 Without the pragmatic contexts of discourse our communications
would be ambiguous.

Conversation Analysis
-

Grice Maxims
Quantity- Say only as much as necessary.
Quality- Say only what is true
Relevance- Say only what is relevant
Manner- Be Clear

Contrastive Rhetoric
Naturally occuring discourses, usually written, across different
language and cultures.

Pragmatics
Sociopragmatics- The interface between pragmatics and social
organization.
Pragmalinguistics- The intersection of pragmatics and linguistic forms.

Language and Gender

-Girls produce more “standard” language than boys
-Men interrupt more than women.
-Men and women use different syntactic and phonological variants.

Discourses Styles
- Sets of conventions for selecting words, phrases, discourse,
and nonverbal language in specified contexts.

 ORATORICAL style- The language of speaking for a large

audience. There may be some interactions sometimes.
 DELIBERATIVE style- The language of speaking for a larger
audience in which the magnitude of the crowed doesn’t let interaction.
 CONSULTATIVE style- A formal dialog with careful choice of
words, such as a doctor-patient conversation.
 CASUAL style- Language of friends, colleagues, and family
members.
 INTIMATE style- Complete absence of social inhibitions usually
between very close friends.

Nonverbal Communication
Kinesics- Body Language
Artifacts- Clothes
Kinesthetics- Touching
Proxemics- Physical Distance
Olfactory- Smelling
Oculesics- Eye Behaviors