Critical Reading as

Reasoning
Semi-Final Lesson
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain why critical reading is reasoning;

• Compare assertions and counterclaims;
• Identify the ways in writing assertions and counterclaims;
• Determine types of evidence;
• Discuss the various kinds of logical fallacies; and
• Formulate counterclaims through an essay.
 ACTIVITY
Directions: The class is divided into two groups. In each
group, one person is asked to be its representative.
• Each team will discuss two topics. One team has the affirmative
role (defends “pros” of the topic) and the other negative role
(defends “cons” of the topic).
• Before the opening of the debate both teams will have 5
minutes to get ready for the debate. They can write some notes
and questions on a piece of paper and use them during the
debate. Using a dictionary during the debate is not permitted.
• The “affirmative” team will start discussion with their speaker. The
speaker´s speech should be about 5 minutes long.
• The speaker of the “negative” team will present his/her ideas
and opinions. Their speech should be about 5 minutes long.
 Notion

"Social media has ruined society.”

 Notion

"Should schools provide cash

incentives for good test
scores?”
Notion
 Critical Reading as Reasoning
• Critical reading is engaging in analytic activity which involves the reader
by asking questions about the text and the author’s claim. Critical readers
are doing the process of evaluating, analyzing, and interpreting the
assertion of the hidden meaning of the whole text.
• While reasoning as defined by Merriam Webster dictionary is an act of
giving statements for justification and explanation. It is the ability of
someone to defend something by giving out reasons.
• Therefore, when reading critically, it is necessary to question the different
arguments used by the author, as any problem can weaken the
authenticity of the conclusion.
• Remember that Critical reading is not meant to criticize but to assess the
validity of textual evidence.
 Steps Used in Critical Reading As Reasoning
by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese A. Tiongson

1. Identifying assertions
• Identify by a common type of assertion such as fact, convention,
opinion and preference
2. Formulating counterclaim
• Counterclaims are made to rebut a previous claim
3. Determining evidence
• Evidence is the details given by the authors to support his/her
claims
Formulating Assertions
 Assertions
• To assert is to state with force; thus, if someone makes an assertion,
s/he is not just trying out an idea, but s/he really means it.

➢ She asserted her independence from her parents by getting her own apartment.
“I am getting my own apartment to be independent.”

➢ He asserted that the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte has turned the
Philippines into an increasingly authoritarian political system which still maintains a
formal democratic shell.
“The administration of President Rodrigo Duterte has turned the Philippines into an
increasingly authoritarian political system which still maintains a formal democratic
shell.”
 Assertions
• a statement used to make a declaration or to express
strong belief on a particular topic, often without evidence
• a declaration that’s made emphatically (a forceful way),
especially as part of an argument or as if it is to be
understood as a statement of fact
• are declarative sentences that claim something is true
about something else
• can be formulated after reading a story or a poem, and
even after watching a play
The Purpose of Writing an Assertion

• It is for the writer to convey directly an

idea or feeling and to convince the
reader to accept the writer’s
interpretation of a particular literary
work.
 Take note!

• Before writing an assertion in literature, the author

must comprehensively read or watch the literary
work. S/he must take down the part s/he is for, or
s/he is opposed to, followed by his/her explanation
of it. It is also best to collect evidence from the
same or other literary authors that have the same
assertion as with the writer.
Sample assertion on a literary work:

In his poem “The Raven,” Edgar Allan Poe uses

figurative language to create an eerie mood. For example,
in the second stanza, the narrator describes the lighting
from the fireplace by saying “each separate dying ember
wrought its ghost upon the floor.” In this passage, Poe
personifies the embers in the fireplace by saying they were
“dying” and referring to their “ghosts.” The reference to
death and ghosts conjures spooky connotations and
evokes an eerie feeling
Sample assertion on a non-literary text:

People can support pollinator populations in several

ways. For example, people can plant pollinator-friendly
plants in their yards. These plants provide both food and
habitat for birds, bees, and butterflies. Another way people
can assist pollinators is to avoid the use of pesticides since
many of those products harm beneficial insects as well as
harmful ones. While individual people can provide
significant help to pollinators, these creatures would also
benefit from more systemic protection.

*A pollinator is anything that helps carry pollen from the male part of the flower (stamen) to the
female part of the same or another flower (stigma).
Types of Assertion
 FACT

• It is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct

experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified observations,
or the results of research.
Examples:
➢The sampaguita’s roots are used for medical purposes, such as
an aesthetic and a sedative.
➢Roses grow best in soil made of ¾ clay and ¼ sand and loam.
(can be directly verified by experience/reliable reports)

➢According to the Minister of Defense, NPA armed insurgents now

total some 16,000 men and women.
(can be directly verified by asking the Minister of Defense if he
indeed said that there are already 16,000 armed insurgents)
 CONVENTION
• It is a way in which something is done, similar to traditions
and norms.
• Conventions depend on historical precedent, laws, rules,
usage, and customs. Thus, their truthfulness is verified by
how commonly held definitions and beliefs are
interpreted.
Examples:
➢The sampaguita belongs to the genus Jasminum of the family
Oleaceace.
➢The rose belongs to the genus Rosa of the family Rosaceae.
(a classification devised by scientists and accepted by the
scientific community)

➢An insurgency is a condition of revolt against a government but it

is less than an organized revolution and is not recognized as
belligerent.
(a dictionary definition adapted)
 OPINION
• It is based on facts, but is difficult to objectively verify
because of the uncertainty of producing satisfactory
proofs of soundness.
• Opinions result from ambiguities; the more ambiguous a
statement, the more difficult it is to verify.
Examples:
➢The popularity of sampaguita flowers is most evident in places of
worship.
➢The export of cut rose blooms can easily become one of the most
lucrative businesses in the Philippines.
(to be verified, must need production studies, market research, technical
experimentation, etc.; too many imponderables (a factor that is difficult
or impossible to estimate or assess) for judgement to be made explicitly)

➢As a result of economic hardships and human rights violations, there

was a dramatic increase in the strength of Philippine insurgency during
the Marcos years.
(detailed verification needed to prove the cause-effect relationship
proffered; ambiguous term “strength” needs to be clarified first – number
of men? Quality of weapons? Territory controlled?
 PREFERENCE
• It is based on personal choice; therefore, they are subjective
and cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked.

Examples:
➢Sampaguita’s are the most beautiful and most fragrant of all flowers.
➢Roses are more beautiful, smell sweeter and are easier to grow than
any other flower.
(really about the preference of the stater than a statement about the
qualities of the rose vis-à-vis other blooms)

➢The Aquino government should have toughened its stand against the
burgeoning insurgency.
(statement of obligation)
Examples:
➢Sampaguita’s are the most beautiful and most fragrant of all
flowers.
➢Roses are more beautiful, smell sweeter and are easier to grow
than any other flower.
(really about the preference of the stater than a statement about
the qualities of the rose vis-à-vis other blooms)

➢The Aquino government should have toughened its stand

against the burgeoning insurgency.
(statement of obligation)
Let’s identify the following statements:
1. Import liberalization means allowing foreign goods to
enter Philippine markets and directly compete with
domestic products.

CONVENTION
(a dictionary definition)
2. Anyone who espouses import liberalization is a traitor to
his country.

*espouse - adopt or support (a cause, belief, or way of life).

PREFERENCE
(already an interpretation)
3. It is a fact that only through liberalization of import
policies can a developing country like the Philippines attain
economic growth.

OPINION
(despite the word “fact”, many things need to be verified, such as the experiences of other
countries, their applicability to the Philippines, technical details of the program; the term
“liberalization” needs to be clarified)
4. In the opinion of the IMF, the Philippines needs to liberate
its import policies to attain economic growth.

FACT
(despite the word ‘opinion”, this is a statement of fact, since we can directly verify whether
what is said is indeed the IMF’s view)
5. When the arms negotiators say that the discussions were
“frank and free-wheeling”, that is generally taken to mean
that the disagreements had been sharper and more
divisive than usual.

CONVENTION
(generally accepted translation of diplomatese)
*diplomatese – informal, the type of language or jargon used by diplomats, though to be
excessively complicated, cautious, or vague
6. The U.S. was largely to blame for the failure of the 1983
Geneva arms negotiations.

OPINION
(the terms “blame” and “failure” need to be clarified; a close study of the facts needed to
apportion *divide and allocate* the “blame”)
7. A treaty between the U.S. and the Soviet Union would be
more than a binding document; it would be a symbol of
the possibility of peace and reconciliation in the modern
world.

PREFRENCE
(already an interpretation of an event)
8. When the U.S. began installing missiles in Western Europe
in 1983, the Soviets withdrew from the Geneva arms
negotiations for 16 months.

FACT
(can be directly verified)
Counterclaim
 Why include a counterclaim?
• To be an effective critical thinker it is not enough just to be
able to identify claims and assertions. The ability to
analyze an argument is essential to understanding the text
more deeply, but understanding the claim is not the only
facet of the argument. You must also learn how to
analyze the counterclaims and evidence provided by the
text. Being able to recognize and formulate counterclaims
in reaction to an argument is a characteristic of a good
critical reader.
 Why include a counterclaim?
• Including a counterargument paragraph when writing
an argumentative paper shows your reader you know and
understand that other positions exist, you have considered
these, and you can respond to them. Doing this gives you
credibility and can strengthen your own argument.
• Rather than weakening your paper, a good counterclaim
paragraph will actually strengthen your essay by showing
that you have thoughtfully considered both sides of the
issue before arriving at your own claim.
 Counterclaims
• are claims made to rebut a previous claim
• provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument
• By being able to locate and provide counterclaims to an
argument, you show a deep competence and familiarity
with the writer’s topic.
• It shows that you are examining different perspectives and
not just passively accepting the writer’s claim. It shows that
you have thoroughly considered the topic, and are willing
to engage different viewpoints from your own, thus
remaining objective. It also helps you clarify what your
personal position is on the topic.
 Counterclaims
• When you write your counterclaim, you are expressing unfavorable statements.
Therefore it is needed to use hedges words or phrases to be able to give a courteous
tone.

• Different forms of hedges

• Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must, etc.
• Frequency adverbs: usually, generally, commonly
• Probability adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably
• Example:
• The common colds caused by a virus.
• With hedges:
• The common colds must be caused by a virus.
• The common virus is certain to be caused by a virus.
 The following questions will help you
formulate a counterclaim:
• What are the major points on which you and the author can
disagree?
• What is their strongest argument? What did they say to
defend their position?
• What are the merits of their view?
• What are the weaknesses or shortcomings in their argument?
• Are there any hidden assumptions?
• Which lines from the text best support the counterclaim you
have formulated?
 Example

• CLAIM:
• Schools should have programs that helps students stay physically
fit.
• COUNTERCLAIM:
• Schools should focus exclusively on academic goals.
 What is included in a
counterargument paragraph?
• Identify the opposing argument.
• Respond to it by discussing the reasons the argument is
incomplete, weak, unsound, or illogical.
• Provide examples or evidence to show why the opposing
argument is unsound, or provide explanations of how the
opposing argument is incomplete or illogical.
• Close by stating your own argument and why your
argument is stronger than the identified counterargument.
Counterclaim Paragraph
 Steps how to write a counterclaim

1. Acknowledge what the opposing side says. This should

be your topic sentence.
2. Provide evidence from the opposing side. What would
they cite to support their claim?
3. Refute (argue against) their point of view and evidence
by claiming it is illogical, incomplete, uninformed,
misinformed, less important than your point. Explain why.
 Example
• Some would argue that the rising cost of college is a result of less
funding for public education. For example, Sandy Baum of the
Urban Institute explains, “So it’s not that colleges are spending more
money to educate students, it’s that they have to get that money
from someplace to replace their lost state funding — and that’s
from tuition and fees from students and families” (Campos). While
this statement is somewhat true, it is also misleading. Total
appropriation per student is down at the state level from it’s peak in
1990, but enrollment is up over 50%, causing funding to be spread
over a much larger base of students paying tuition (Campos). Also,
government appropriations for public education are ten times more
than they were in the 60’s, so it depends which date you are
measuring from (Campos). The claim that colleges are
compensating for less funding unfortunately flies in the face of the
facts and is merely a nice talking point used by administrators with
seven figure salaries
 Placement of Counterclaim
• A counterargument can appear anywhere in your essay, but it
most commonly appears:
• As part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where
the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason
it needs writing.
• As a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay
out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to
develop your own
• As a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a
counterargument not to your main idea, but to the sub-idea that the
paragraph is arguing or is about to argue.
• As a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in
which you imagine what someone might object to what you have
argued.
 Logical Fallacies

• are errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument

• As a critical reader. You have to identify and examine
fallacies and manipulative language found in the text.
• Faulty reasoning occurs when the conclusion is not
supported by the data.
Logial Fallacies
Textual Evidence
 Textual Evidence

• Textual evidence is evidence, gathered from the original source or

other texts, that supports an argument or thesis. Such evidence can
be found in the form of a quotation, paraphrased material, and
descriptions of the text.
• Textual evidence uses information from an originating source or
other texts to support an argument. Think of textual evidence as the
driving force behind debates. Debates take a position and then use
facts as supporting evidence. You can take any debate position
you want, but without facts to back up your argument, you can’t
prove your point.
• Determining Textual Evidence is defined as the details
given by the author to support his/her claim.
• The evidence provided by the writer substantiates the text.
It reveals and builds on the position of the writer and
makes the reading more interesting.
• Evidence is crucial in swaying the reader to your side. A
jury or judge, for example, relies on evidence presented
by a lawyer before it makes a decision regarding a case.
Evidence can include the following:

• Facts and statistics (objectively validated

information on your subject);
• Opinion from experts (leading authorities on a
topic, such as researchers or academics); and
• Personal anecdotes (generalizable, relevant,
and objectively considered).
 The following are some questions to help
you determine evidence from the text:
• What questions can you ask about the claims?
• Which details in the text answer your questions?
• What are the most important details in the paragraph?
• What is each one’s relationship to the claim?
• How does the given detail reinforce the claim?
• What details do you find interesting? Why?
• What are some claims that do not seem to have support? What kinds of support could they
be provided with?
• What are some details that you find questionable? Why do you think so?
• Are some details outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated, or taken out of context?
• Are the sources reliable?
The following are the characteristics
of good evidence:

• Unified
• Relevant to the central point
• Specific and concrete
• Accurate
• Representative or typical.
 Why textual evidence is important?

• Citing textual evidence is important because it

requires the reader to support their ideas,
questions, and claims with factual evidence rather
than irrational notions.
 Textual Evidence
• Statistics
• a number derived from a large set of data that is used as justification for an argument
• Testimonial Evidence
• An experienced and trained car mechanic can provide testimony on the workings of an engine.
• A doctor, with years of specialized training, can testify about treatment options for patients.
• A pilot, with thousands of hours of flight time, can testify about the control panel on a jumbo jet.
• Anecdotal Evidence
• are personal observations that may or may not be factual. You can embellish anecdotes for literary effect.
• Analogical Evidence
• An analogy compares two different things. “My house is as hot as the sun” is an example of an analogy. But in
textual evidence, analogies prove useful when there’s little available research on a specific topic.
• the author tries to show a parallel, but you can see the problems, especially in the movie analogy
• e.g. Based on how the audience uses mobile phones, we believe this is the right screen size for tablet
computers.
• I saw a boring film that has a similar plot to this movie, so therefore the movie must be boring.
 Propaganda Technique
• A kind of persuasive technique that creates an emotional
appeal to accept a specific belief or opinion, to adopt a
particular behavior, or to perform a certain action, which
may perhaps be political, commercial. Religious, or civil in
nature
• A method or approach of invalid, misleading reasoning
that skillfully influences and changes readers’ or viewers’
reason and emotions to make them believe in something
or someone, buy an item, or vote a certain way
 Propaganda Technique

• Name-Calling
• Synonymous with mudslinging or character assassination
• Attaching negative labels or bad words to identify opponent or
“targeted” persons and things
• Examples: “philanderers” “embezzler/plunderer”
“tax evader” “voracious like a pig”
“drama queen” “brainless hunk/beauty”
 Propaganda Technique

• Glittering Generalities
• Opposite of name-calling
• Using favourable words to the “target” individual

• Examples: “good” “fair” “honest” “best”

 Name-Calling & Glittering
Generalities
• Ask yourself the ff questions as you encounter these
propaganda techniques:
• What exactly is the meaning of the “name” (or “glittering
generality”)?
• Is there any legitimate connection between the “target” and
the “name” (or “glittering generality”)?
• Is using the “name” (or “glittering generality”) an attempt to
change my opinion about the “target”?
• In the absence of the “name” (or “glittering generality”), what
are the merits of the “target”?
 Propaganda Technique

• Transfer
• In most simple and concrete terms, what is the idea of the
speaker?
• What is the meaning of the symbol or object being transferred?
• Is there any legitimate connection between the idea expressed
and the symbol object used?
• Without considering the prestige of the symbol or object, what
are the true merits of the speaker’s idea?
 Propaganda Technique

• Testimonial
• Relies on a famous person’s endorsement to give a
product or cause a stamp of approval, hoping that the
intended audience will follow the admired personality’s
example
• Example:
• An actor speaking at a political party
• An athlete’s picture on a health product
• A picture of celebrity using a particular brand of products
 Propaganda Technique

• Testimonial
• What or who is being cited in the testimonial?
• Based on the object’s event’s or personality’s
characteristics, is the information given in the
testimonial trustworthy?
• Without the endorsement, what are the true merits of
the product, cause, or person?
 Propaganda Technique
• Plain Folks
• To convince the audience that the speaker is from humble
origins whom they can trust and who has their interests at heart
• The speaker or person tries to make them believe that he or she is
similar to them and can understand them by using ordinary
language and mannerisms
• Examples:
• a prominent politician eating at the food court of a mall
• The wife of a senator shopping for groceries

• To avoid being swayed by this kind of propaganda, ask yourself the ff questions:
• What is the speaker trying to cover up with the plain-folks approach?
• What are the facts?
 Propaganda Technique
• Bandwagon
• Makes you think that since everyone else is doing something, you are
expected to do it, too
• Creates the impression that you will be left out unless you “jump on the
bandwagon”

• Example:
• A picture of a big crowd at the opening of a supermarket
• An advertisement saying that “everyone is rushing down to their car
dealer to get themselves the limited edition of ABC sedan”
 Propaganda Technique
• Card Stacking
• Using facts or collecting cards that support his or her argument, leaving out
those that weaken it, and leading the audience into accepting the presented
facts as a conclusion
• Most difficult technique to detect because only statements favourable to the
argument are provided
• The readers/audience need to discover what facts are missing to make an
informed, correct decision

• To prevent yourself from making wrong conclusion, answer the ff questions:

• Are the facts being distorted or omitted?
• Are there other arguments to support the case?
• What are the missing facts about the case?
END
QUIZ
 Directions: Read the text below. After
then, answer the following questions.
• Taking a photo of oneself and posting it on social media is called selfie. With the advent of portable picture-capturing devices, such as
smart phones, selfie has become popular to both young and old. In fact, more than a million selfies are taken each day. Of late, however,
some have questioned the safeness of this practice.

Doubts on the safeness of taking selfies have surfaced amidst reports of selfie-related deaths. For instance, a teen in India was killed while
trying to take a picture of oneself in front of an approaching train. Another, a tourist died when he fell down the stairs taking a selfie at the
Taj Mahal. In fact, according to nymag.com, since 2014, 49 people had been reported dead as a result of some sort of accident involving
selfie. Though these deaths cannot totally be blamed on the act of taking a selfie, the selfie location and the occasion are contributory to
these accidents. Hence, taking selfies in dangerous places and occasions should be totally banned. Hazardous areas, public or private,
such as railways, race tracks, railings or roofs of buildings, steep stairs, bridges, and cliffs are not safe venues for taking selfies. Likewise,
taking a photo of oneself on moving vehicles, in the middle of busy streets, and near fierce animals, riots, burning buildings or live electric
wires is risky.

The popularity of taking selfies may continue since this is a personal thing which can be done anytime and anywhere. Until total ban on
taking selfies in unsafe areas and circumstances is imposed, one has to take selfies at his/her own risk.

1. What is the main claim of the paragraph? (3 pts)

2. What is the type of claim? (2 pts)
3. What is your counterclaim? (5pts)
4. What is/are the bases of your counterclaim? (5pts)