TWO TYPES OF CHANNELS FM is not good if may object between you and the

transmitter (used for audios)

1. Guided/Bounded Medium (flow through the center
unless there’s a small leakage current) AM is good at travelling distances and penetrating objects
- Transmission Lines (used for news) (kHz range so higher wavelength)
- Coaxial Cable
Sa visible light, ang lowest wavelength ay violet (Highest
- Waveguides (nasa loob lang ng waveguide yung
frequency) kaya yung mas tataas pa sa visible light (violet)
signal) Optical waveguide ang fiber optic
na Frequency ay ultraviolet, vice versa naman para sa red
2. Unguided Medium (no physical connection)
- Antennas v
λ=
- TV/Radio Broadcasting f
- WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) uses air as medium
v → propagation velocity depends on themedium
- Satellites
where passes
Audible Range: 20−20,000 Hz
m
Voice Frequency: 300−3400 Hz 3 ×108 → propagation∈ free space
s
In TVs, AM is used in videos, FM is used in audio
In Radios, AM and FM are not used simultaneously

Every very very loving mother has very ugly son except I
Life starts at 30
International Telecommunications Union – national body Sample:
that sets aside how these frequency bands should be
1. Calculate the modulation index for a standard AM
grouped
transmission, if the maximum peak amplitude
Data (Intelligence, Information, Low Frequency Signal, AF voltage of the modulated wave is 150V and the
Signal) – modulating signal modulating signal voltage is 50V peak.
Carrier (RF signal, High frequency signal) – unmodulated
V max =150
signal
V m =50
V m =V max −V min =50=150−V min
∴ V min =100
MODULATIONS
150−100
μ= =0.2
1. Continuous 150+100
- Amplitude, Frequency, Phase
2. Pulses (Discrete Modulation)
AM Bandwidth
- Pulse amplitude, Pulse position, Pulse code, Pulse
width - Center at f c (which is yung mga frequency ng
Amplitude Modulation specific radio stations)
- Some AM stations don’t use f c because of efficiency
- Very very noisy, kunwari may noise na may 3V (kaya may DSB, SSB)
amplitude, maapektuhan nang malala yung AM e
di ba sa amplitude nakaapekto
v AM ( t )=[ V c +v m ( t ) ] sin ( 2 π f c t )

V m V max −V min
μ= = , modulationindex
V c V max +V min
 Sample:
Calculate the percentage power saving for J3E system at
90% modulation (J3E is SSB-SC)

( )
2
μ
PJ 3 E=PC
4

μ2
PJ 3E PC
4
= =0.1441∨14.41 %

Typically, tinatanggal na yung carrier para makatipid ng

P AM
( )
PC 1+
μ2
2
power ∴ the savings is85.59 % of the PC

( )
PT =PC 1+
μ2
2
J3E – SSB-SC
A3E – DSB-FC
1 represents the carrier
2
μ represents the both sidebands

SINGLE SIDEBAND SYSTEMS

1. Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSB-FC)
2. Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC)
3. Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSB-RC)

After Modulator, pag high-level modulator naman, pwede

na irekta sa antenna
Pag low-level modulator, di pa sapat yung power to be Image Frequency
transmitted kaya need pa ng power amplifier
- Any frequency other than the selected radio
frequency carrier that, if allowed to enter a
receiver and mix with the local oscillator will
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF A RECEIVER
produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to
1. Sensitivity the intermediate frequency
- The minimum input signal required to produce a
f img =f sig ±2 f ∫ ¿¿
specified output signal or sometimes to just
provide a discernable output (minimum amount of f img →image freqeuncy
power for a receiver to react) – sensitive nagreact
agad f Sig → signal frequency
2. Selectivity f ∫ ¿→ intermediate freqeuncy ¿
- Defined as the extent to which a receiver is
capable of differentiating between the desired
signal and unwanted radio signals (how selective
of a bunch of signals) which signal would you Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR)
react to
α =√ 1+Q 2 ρ2
LOCAL OSCILLATOR f img f sig
ρ= −
- To demodulate a signal, you have to mix f sig f img
something to your RF signal for you to decode it
- Replicate the carrier signal to demodulate nga
High-Side Injection
- Slightly above the RF signal by an amount equal to
the intermediate frequency (=455 kHz for AM)
Low-Side Injection
- Below the RF signal
Angle Modulation Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – PM being sent but not
as PM signals (Combination of PM and AM) pero digital na
Modulation technique which varies the phase angle of a
ito. FM and PM cannot be combined
high-frequency carrier in proportion with the
instantaneous amplitude of a low-frequency modulating In FM, the frequency changes depending on how the
signal. amplitude of the message changes, therefore the frequency
changes infinitely.
Any changes in phase also leads to a change in frequency
PM Waveform
It is the father of FM and PM
x PM ( t ) =A c cos ( 2 π f c t + K p A m cos ( 2 π f m t ) )
Forms of Angle Modulation
1. Frequency Modulation - Angle variation is sinusoidal
2. Phase Modulation - Phase deviation (∆ ϕ=β=K p V m) occurs at 0 and
180 degree points of the information signal
FM produces PM indirectly - Maximum frequency deviation ∆ f =k p V m f m
FM is sometimes called indirect PM and vice versa. FM Waveform
They are very similar siguro delayed lang yung isa

(
x FM ( t ) =A c cos 2 π f c t +
( )
k f Am
fm
sin ( 2 π f m t )
)
- Angle variation is sinusoidal
- Maximum frequency deviation occurs at 90 and
270 degree points of the information signal
- Maximum frequency deviation equal to ∆ f =k f Am
∆f
- Modulation index β=∆ ϕ=
fm

In FM, the more deviation, the easier it is to determine the

differences in frequencies

FM is more commonly used

Deviation Ratio Frequency Spectrum
∆ f max x PM ( t ) =A c cos ( 2 π f c t + K p A m cos ( 2 π f m t ) )
DR=
f m (max )

In the Philippines, the allowed frequency deviation if 15

MHz.
{ [
¿ V c J 0 ( β ) cos 2 π f c t + J 1 ( β ) cos 2 π ( f c + f m ) t+
π
2 ] [ ]π
− J 1 ( β ) cos 2 π ( f c −f m ) t− +
2

Bessel Coefficients
Percentage of Modulation
∆ f act
%m=
∆ f max

Example:
An FM signal is given as
x FM ( t ) =12cos ¿¿

Determine:
a. Frequency of the carrier
Find the one with the higher frequency
6 π 10
6
Bessel table → BW =2 ( n× f m )
f c= =3 MHz
2π
Carson’s Rule → BW =2 ( ∆ f + f m )
b. Frequency of the modulating
f m=1250 Hz Low-index Modulation → BW =2 f m
c. Modulation index
β=5 High-index Modulation → BW =2 ∆ f
d. Frequency deviation
∆f ∆f
β= =5=
fm 1250 Example:
∆ f =6250
A system uses a deviation of 100 kHz and a modulating 1. Analog Signal
frequency of 10 kHz. What is the approximate bandwidth? - Continuous both in time and amplitude
- Electrical properties used are voltage, followed
Applying Carson’s Rule
closely by frequency, current and charge
2 ( 100+10 ) kHz 2. Digital Signal
- Discrete in both time and amplitude
220 kHz
- Sampling: Selecting values of an analog signal at
discrete time instants

Higher bit rate – higher accuracy because it means more

sample
- Quantization: process of approximating the
precise value within a fixed number of digits or
bits (kunwari 1.51 icoconvert niya sa 2)

Information Capacity
Categories of Signals
 - It is a measure of how much information can be I =2 BW log 2 M
propagated through a communications system and
M → possible output states per symbol
is a function of bandwidth and transmission time
(given that it is noiseless)
- It represents the number of independent symbols
Example:
that can be carried through a system in a given
unit of time What is the maximum capacity of a perfectly noiseless
channel whose width is 120 Hz, in which the value of the
Bit – symbol that represents information
data transmitted may be indicated by any one of the ten
Bit Rate – number of bits transmitted in a specific time values?
(bits/second)
I =2 ( 120 Hz ) log 2 ( 10 )
Baud – number of symbols per second
I =797.26 bps
Hartley’s Law
Pulse Modulation
- Information transmitted ∝ BW ( t )
- To transmit more info with low time, increase the Analog information is sampled and converted into discrete
bandwidth pulses and then sent over the medium
- Ralph Hartley 4 Predominant Methods of pulse modulation:
Shannon Limit - Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
- Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
(
I =BW log 2 1+
S
N ) -
-
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Shannon-Hartley Law
Among the methods, PCM is most heavily favored. PCM will
- Since Hartley uses time and Shannon uses signal to give an output in binary.
noise ratio
- This relates the information capacity to the
bandwidth and the number of possible states per Pulse Width Modulation
symbol
The width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied
proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal
Also called Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse
Length Modulation (PLM)
The wider it is, the higher the amplitude the message
signal.
Pulse Position Modulation
The position of a constant-width pulse is varied according
to the amplitude of the sample of the signal
Highest amplitude at far right, lower amplitude at far left
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of a constant-width, constant-position pulse
is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the
analog signal
Resembles the original signal more than PWM and PPM
Used in music because PCM is binary.
Pulse Code Modulation
Analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-
bit binary code for transmission.
Pulses have fixed length and amplitude
Pulse or lack of pulse represents either logic 1 or logic 0
condition
Noise
Any unwanted form of electrical energy, usually random or
aperiodic in character. Tends to interfere with proper and
easy reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
Intermodulation Distortion occurs when you transmitted
messages in a single channel. Interfering with other signals
while it is modulating
External Noise is merely a random noise.
Semicon noise is most common in semiconductor wires.
Transit-Time Noise – different times of arrival
Flicker/Popcorn/(1/F) Noise – frequency passing by (as
the frequency increases, the perception decreases)
Discriminator is the circuit used to detect frequency
modulated signal.
The limiter stage of an FM receiver prevents any amplitude
modulation of the IF signal
Who invented AM? Fessenden
Walter Brattain – one of the three to find the first transistor
Marconi – first to send radio waves transatlantically
Armstrong – Armstrong Oscillator
In an FM receiver, which circuit removes amplitude
variations? Limiter
Who developed FM? Edwin Armstrong
Lee de Forest – gas-filled triode
Standard Intermediate Freqeuncy of FM receiver (typical
FM bands start at 87.7 MHz) – 10.7
Original range of frequencies for FM? (88-108 MHz is what
we have today) (535 – 1605 kHz is AM) – 42 – 50 MHz
Electronic Communications Types of Electronic Communications
The sending, processing, and receiving of information by 1. Simplex
electronic means. - The simplest type of communication where the
information travels in one direction only
The exchange of information using the concept of
2. Half-Duplex
electronics.
- Two-way communication but one at a time
Transmitter 3. Full-Duplex
- Two-way communications where both parties can
A collection of electronic components and circuits designed
transmit and receive simultaneously
to convert the information into a signal suitable for
4. Full/Full-Duplex
transmission.
- Transmission is possible in both directions at the
Receiver same time but not between the same two parties
(Receiver and Transmitter at the same time but two
Another collection of electronic components and circuits different parties)
that accepts the transmitted message and convert it back - Possible only for multipoint systems
into a form understandable by humans
The spectrum space occupied by the signal is called
Transmission Channel bandwidth.
The medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one Many communications electronics techniques are designed
place to another in order to conserve spectrum space.
Noise Bandwidth
Random, undesirable electric energy that enters the The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by
communications system via the medium and interfere with the signal. The frequency range of the signal.
the transmitted signal
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) High Frequency
30 – 300 Hz 3 – 30 MHz
Example: AC power distribution signals, low-frequency Often referred to as “Short Waves” (sa sobrang taas ng
telemetry signals (tele means far, radar kasi ipapadala mo frequency, mababa na yung wavelength)
frequency tas kung gano katagal babalik)
Used in amateur radio and citizen band (CB) radio (walkie-
Voice Frequency (VF) talkie)
300 Hz – 3 kHz Very High Frequency
Example: Normal range of human speech 30 – 300 MHz range
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical
communications, commercial FM broadcasting (88 – 108
3 kHz – 30 kHz
MHz) and commercial TV broadcasting Ch. 2-13 (54 – 216
Example: Specialize government and military systems such MHz)
as submarine communications (may frequency ang
Ultra High Frequency
submarine na pinapadala, para kapag may babanggaan ka
alam niya na agad) 300 – 3000 MHz range
Low Frequency (LF) Used by commercial TV broadcasting Ch. 14-83, land
mobile communications services, cellular telephones,
30 – 300 kHz
certain radar and navigation systems, and microwave &
Example: Used primarily for marine and aeronautical satellite radio systems
navigation (gagamit ng frequency ang eroplano para
Super High Frequency (SHF)
masense yung lupa, o kung malaman kung nasaang height
na siya) 3 – 30 GHz range
Medium Frequency (MF) Include the majority of frequencies used for microwave and
satellite radio communications systems
300 – 3000 kHz
Example: AM radio broadcasting (535 – 1605 kHz)
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) S/N Power Ratio
30 – 300 GHz range - The ratio of the signal power to the noise power
S Ps
Seldom used in radio communications except in very =
N Pn
sophiscated, expensive, and specialized applications (limit
( )
S Ps
ng radio communications) =10 log
N dB Pn
Habang tumataas ang frequency mas humihirap
Noise factor (F) and Noise Figure (NF)
Light Frequency
- are figures of merit used to indicate how much the
- Infrared (sobrang baba ng frequency, sobrang haba S/N ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a
ng wavelength na di na kasya sa mata) circuit
300 GHz – 300 THz - Noise Factor is simply a ratio of input S/N power
Not generally referred to as radio waves (fiber ratio to the output S/N power ratio
optics) - Noise Figure is simple noise factor expressed in dB
- may noise na kasi agad di ba sa input mo pa lang, the
- Visible Light amplifier creates noise that is why the S/N on the
- Ultraviolet (sa sobrang liit ng wavelength, di na output is different
natin siya Makita)
Noise Factor of Cascaded Amplifier
Friiss’ Formula
The human hearing range is approximately 20 Hz – 20 kHz
F 2−1 F 3−1 F n−1
Uncorrelated Noise F T =F 1+ + + …+
G1 G1 G 2 G1 G2 …G n−1
- Present regardless of whether there is a signal
Equivalent Noise Temperature
present or not
Indicates the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio a signal
Correlated Noise
undergoes as it passes through a circuit
- Noise that is correlated with the signal and cannot
N ( Noise Bandwidth)
be present in a circuit unless there is an input signal T e= ,T =T ambient ( F−1 )
KB ( Boltzman Constant) e
Example: AM Wave = Carrier + USB + LSB
For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figures P=PC + PUSB + P LSB
of 6dB and power gains of 10dB, solve for the total noise
figure
6 6 For an AM DSBFC wave with a peak unmodulated carrier
6
10
10
10 −1 10
10 −1 voltage V c =10 V p , a load resistance of 10 ohms , and a
F T =10 + 10
+ 10 10
modulation coefficient of 1. Determine the carrier power.
10 10
10 10 10 10
2
10
FG=10 log FT =6.33 dB 2
AC 2
PC = = =5 W
Amplitude Modulation 2 10
μ Ac μ Ac … Determine the upper sideband power
x AM ( t )= AC sin ω c t + cos ( ωc −ωm ) t− cos ( ω c + ωm ) t
2 2
The amplitude of sidebands cannot exceed the half of the
A2C 2
2
( μ Pm)
=
102 2 1
2 ()
( 1)
2
=1.25 W
carrier 2R 2 ( 10 )
During modulation, baseband signal varies the amplitude of … Total sideband power
a high frequency signal.
2 ( PUSB )=2.5 W
Modulation Index
… Total power of the AM signal
- also called “coefficient of modulation”
- term used to describe the amount of amplitude PC + PUSB + PLSB =7.5 W
change (modulation) present in an AM waveform
- “percent modulation” is simply modulation index in
percentage

Powers in AM
Voltage and current in AM Frequency Modulation

I 2T R=I 2C R ( 1+ μ 2 Pm ) Frequency Deviation

- The amount of change in carrier produced by the
I T =I R √ 1+ μ2 P m
modulating signal
Modulation by Several Signals ∆ f =k f V m

μT =√ μ 21+ μ 22+ … μ 2n Modulation Index

- The ratio of deviation and the modulating signal
V T =√ V 21+ V 22+ …+V 2n
- Modulation index is directly proportional to the
PT =PC + PLSB+USB 1+ …+ PUSB+ LSB n modulating signal amplitude and inversely
proportional to the modulating signal frequency
Example:
∆ f kf V m
For an AM-DSBFC transmitter with unmodulated carrier β= =
fm fm
power of 100 W that is modulated simultaneously by three
modulating signals with coefficient of modulation μ1=0.2, Deviation Ratio
μ2=0.4, and μ3=0.5, determine the total coefficient of
- The ratio of the maximum deviation to the
modulation
maximum modulating frequency
μT =√ 0.22+ 0.42 +0.52 ∆ f max
D=
f m (max )
μT =0.671
Percentage Modulation
- The percentage value of the actual and maximum
frequency deviation
∆f
M= × 100
∆ f max
Bandwidth
Approximate Method (Carson’s Rule)
BW =2 ( ∆ f +f m )=2 ( β+ 1 ) f m

Exact Method (number of significant sidebands is given)

BW =2 n f m

NBFM ( β <1 )
BW =2 f m

WBFM ( β >10 )
BW =2 ∆ f

The maximum deviation ratio of an FM carrier is 2 kHz by a

maximum modulating signal of 400 Hz. The deviation ratio
is
∆ f max 2,000
D= = =5
f m max 400

A 70 kHz carrier has a frequency deviation of 4 kHz with a

1000 Hz signal. What is the bandwidth of the FM signal?
BW =2 ( 4000+1000 ) =10 kHz

An FM transmitter has a maximum deviation of 12 kHz and

a maximum modulating frequency of 12 kHz. The
bandwidth by Carson’s rule is
BW =2 ¿